No natural inland water bodies exist in Eritrea. There are 90 artificial reservoirs out of which 53 have a known area, amounting collectively to 733 ha (Table A15). The average depth of these 53 reservoirs is 6.0 meters. According to this average figure, the area of the 32 reservoirs for which there are data on capacity but area can be estimated. This gives another 123 ha (Table A16), bringing the total available freshwater area to 856 ha for 85 reservoirs.
Most of the reservoirs are used for irrigation purposes, but those used for water supply, though only four in number, represent more than 35 % of the total area. For those whose main purpose is unknown, it is most likely that their basic use would be irrigation. The major constraint induced by these primary uses is that aquaculture/fisheries would always be a second purpose with all the potential problems such as a drying of irrigation reservoirs in years of drought, or the impossibility to use organic fertilization in reservoirs aimed at human water consumption.
Most of the reservoirs are situated in the highlands, where more than 70% of the area is situated beyond 1800 m, and more than 55% is beyond 2200 m. This has implications for the temperature of the water and consequently on the yields that could be expected if they are stocked with warm water species such as Tilapia and Clarias.
Eleven reservoirs were visited in the course of the TCP Project fieldwork (Vandeputte, 1993) -- viz.: Beleza, Adi Sheka, Elabered 1 to 7, May Nefhi and Himbirti. These waters represent 345 ha out of the national total reservoir area of 856 ha, and can thus provide a fair indication for Eritrean reservoirs generally. Most of the reservoirs have compacted earth dams, but the largest ones have either masonry or concrete dams.
The water supply to all the reservoirs is by means of temporary rivers and streams during the rainy season (mainly in July). A number of them dry up before the next rainy season, though precise information is not available except for those that were visited.
While there was no chance to carry out technical analysis of water quality during the recent field visits, the general aspect of the reservoirs presence of aquatic life provided clues to their suitability for aquaculture and/or fisheries. On this basis rough estimates were made of the fish productivity that could be expected. The main results are summasized in Table 11.
Table 11. Evaluation of water quality for fish culture/fisheries, 11 Eritrean reservoirsa
| Reservoir | Area (ha) | approx. Water temp. | Mineral turbidity | Phytoplankton | Aquatic Weeds | Shallow areas | Risk of drying | Risk of oxygen drop | General quality | Expectable yield (kg/ha/yr) |
| Beleza | 12 | 22 | - | ++ | ++ | ++ | ++ | - | + | 200 |
| Adi Sheka | 80 | 22 | - | -/++ | - | + | - | + | - | 100 |
| Elabered 1 | 15 | 25 | ++ | - | - | - | - | - | - | 150 |
| Elabered 2 | 0.5 | 27 | ++ | - | - | - | ? | ? | - | 150 |
| Elabered 3 | 5 | 27 | - | +++ | + | +++ | - | - | +++ | 500 |
| Elabered 4 | 1.5 | 27 | - | ++ | - | + | - | - | ++ | 350 |
| Elabered 5 | 2 | 27 | - | +++ | + | + | - | - | ++ | 400 |
| Elabered 6 | 1 | 27 | - | +++ | ++ | + | - | - | +++ | 500 |
| Elabered 7 | 0.5 | 27 | - | ++ | ++ | + | ++ | - | ++ | 350 |
| May Nefhi | 220 | ? | +++ | -/+++ | - | - | - | +++ | - | <100 |
| Himbirti | 5 | 20 | - | ++ | +++ | +++ | - | - | ++ | 300 |
a (-: low, +: moderate, ++: high, +++: very high)
The best apparent conditions occur in Elabered 3 to 7 reservoirs, where the phytoplantonic activity is quite good and water temperature relatively high. Shallow areas, which are suitable for fish breeding and feeding, occur mainly in relatively small reservoirs. Also, temperatures in highland reservoirs are moderate, which lowers their potential productivity, even when the conditions of phytoplankton, weeds and depth are suitable (Beleza and Himbirti reservoirs).
Another aspect that needs to be taken into account is that because reservoirs are filled with runoff water, they are likely to be very silty at the end of the rainy season. This tends to delay the start of biological activity. A slight lack of food would then occur for a certain period which could affect the overall productivity of these water bodies. The water quality of course needs to be evaluated and monitored in a more scientific way, but the general appreciation from the field trips is that the potential is quite limited, unfortunately mostly in the largest reservoirs.
There are no indigenous fish in the Eritrean reservoirs, so all the present fish have been stocked at one time or another. Still, for many reservoirs it is not clear whether there are any fish or not.
The reservoirs built during the Italian colonial period were generally stocked with common carp (Cyprinus carpio), catfish (Clarias spp.) and sometimes eel (Anguilla anguilla). It is likely that the latter disappeared long ago, as they cannot breed in fresh water. Catfish and common carp have in some cases persisted, for example in Elabered reservoirs where they seem to breed and grow normally.
The second possible origins for fish in the reservoirs are the introductions made by the Ethiopian Fisheries Department in 1989. As far as is known two reservoirs were stocked at that time with Crucian carp (Carassius spp.) and Tilapia zilli:
Beleza reservoir with some 1000 fish for 12 ha;
Adi Sheka reservoir with some 50 fish for 80 ha.
Table 12. Estimation of fish productivity in selected reservoirs
| Reservoirs | Species | Area (ha) | Est. yield (kg/ha/yr) | Est. potential production (kg/yr) |
| Adi Sheka | Tilapia, Crucian carp (?), Catfish (?) | 80 | 100 | 8,000 |
| Elabered 1 | Common carp, Catfish | 15 | 150 | 2,250 |
| Elabered 2 | Common carp, Catfish | 0.5 | 150 | 75 |
| Elabered 3 | Common carp, Catfish | 5 | 500 | 2,500 |
| Elabered 4 | Common carp, Catfish | 1.5 | 350 | 525 |
| Elabered 5 | Common carp, Catfish | 2 | 400 | 800 |
| Elabered 6 | Common carp, Catfish | 1 | 500 | 500 |
| Elabered 7 | Common carp, Catfish | 0.5 | 350 | 175 |
| TOTAL | 14,825 | |||
The introduction was successful in Beleza, although now there are apparently no more fish owing to drying of the reservoir since 1989. In Adi Sheka, despite the very low number of fish introduced, Tilapia zilli are still present and are known to breed. The presence of Crucian carp is possible but unknown. The reservoirs where presence of fish is documented are summarised in Table 12.
The estimated potential production for Eritrean reservoirs where fish are now present is around 15 tonnes.
As far as is known, there is currently only one professional inland fisher in Eritrea. Now around 72 years old, this individual has been operating at the Elabered reservoirs for over three decades. He catches catfish with a hook and line on a bamboo pole, using carp fillets as a bait. (The carps are also caught on hook and line but with bread as bait.) His total annual catch can be estimated at around 780 kg, most of which is sold off as fillets to neighbouring households.
Subsistence fisheries have also been noticed in Elabered 1 and Adi Sheka, and reported for portions of the Gash River. The method used in Elabered 1 is unknown. At Adi Sheka people know how to fish with hooks and used to do so to catch catfish before the destruction of the dam. They report that hooks are no longer available these days, and instead resort to the rudimentary technique of enclosing tilapia in shallow bays and then catching them by hand. Along the Gash River guddling (groping by hand) for catfish is reported to occur.
Whatever the means used, the overall catch of these subsistence fisheries must be very low, and the total inland catch in Eritrea is probably 1 tonne or less per year.
The only freshwater products sold in Eritrea are fried catfish fillets in Elabered. The price is fairly high (7 Br/kg), but the village where the fish is sold is close to Elabered State Farm and it is likely that the customers, as farm employees, have a purchasing power that is above average.
It must be noted that in this area, though common carp are present and the fisher is able to catch them, no carp is being consumed, except by the fisher himself. Other people reportedly find it too bony.
Though the market for freshwater fish can hardly be said to exist, it seems that the most acceptable species are catfish and tilapia. As common carp is at least 30% of the existing production potential, the real exploitable production potential would then be around 10 tonnes per year of catfish and tilapia.
In order to make a gross estimation of the production potential of Eritrea's 856 ha of inland water bodies, the following assumptions were made:
water bodies whose average depth is below 4 m were considered as having a high risk of drying, and consequently were not taken into account;
extrapolating from estimates for the reservoirs that have been visited, annual productivity was estimated at 200 kg/ha/yr for reservoirs over 2200 m, 300 kg between 1800 and 2200 m, and 400 kg below 1800 m.
Based on these assumptions (vide Tables A15 and A16), the total production that could be expected from Eritrean inland fisheries is more or less of 150 tonnes per year. Yet this figure must be immediately qualified as perhaps too optimistic, since:
the reservoirs which dry may be more numerous than estimated;
even for those which don't dry completely, the area and the subsequent production might be slightly reduced at the end of the dry season; moreover, a risk of altered water quality (oxygen) would exist during the warm months as the water content might be reduced, with more concentrated nutrients and a warmer temperature; and
for the largest reservoirs visited (May Nefhi, Adi Sheka, Elabered 1), the on-the-spot productivity estimates are far below those in the estimation pattern (the total production for these three reservoirs could be around 32 t instead of 66 t).
In light of all these reasons, it seems fair to say that 150 t should be considered as a maximum and that a more realistic figure would be an inland fisheries potential of 100 t per year.
The potential freshwater fish market would probably be limited to remote rural areas or small towns where sea fish is not available, because it is very unlikely (as a general rule) that people used to the high quality, tasty fish from the coast would accept to eat freshwater fish. A further point is that most people in rural areas are likely to find it difficult to afford the expense of buying fish.
For these reasons, it can reasonably be assumed that the main “market” for freshwater fish in Eritrea would be a subsistence one in the short term, and would only tend to become monetised in the long term.
To get the maximum economic and social profitability from the exploitation of fish stocks, it is generally recommended that the production should be about 70% of the potential. Working on this basis, the production figures for Eritrea would be 7 t/yr for the currently stocked lakes, and 70 t/yr on the hypothesis that stocking and exploitation of all available water bodies would take place.
Relying on what is known of existing freshwater fishing operations at Elabered, it can be assumed that 1 kg fish caught with hook and line would cost 0.2 Br to the fisher, and that it could be sold around 3 ETB (direct sale), leaving a 2.8 Br/kg profit (from which labour should be remunerated). If an individual is catching for personal/household consumption, it can be assumed that a non-monetary profit of 2.8 Br is derived (saving on the potential expenses).
According to these figures, exploitation of the existing resources would generate a profit of 19,600 Br at the national level, and the exploitation of the potential resources would generate 196,000 Br. In the latter case, however, some expenses would have to be incurred for the stocking of reservoirs. Assuming that the transfer of a fingerling caught in the existing stocked reservoirs to an empty one would cost 0.2 Br., the stocking of 500 ha would require 500,000 fingerlings and cost 100,000 Br. This would be a medium-long term action, as the collection of fingerlings could only start very slowly due to the lack of important breeding stocks. For subsequent years, a recurrent cost of 20,000 Br/year could be expected (restocking of reservoirs where accidents have occurred, such as drying or oxygen failure). The recurrent profit at the national level would then be around 176,000 Br/yr.
It must be remembered that these figures do not take into account the costs of administrative staff, research equipment, etc., which may be involved in an inland fisheries monitoring activity. It is also to be noted that both the need of fingerlings and the expected profit do not take into account the establishment of a breeding station (high investment costs, but mostly high recurrent costs).
Also, it would also be necessary for the development to occur by itself, without any need of training, subsidised inputs, marketing facilities, and so on, with administrative action being limited to the stocking and monitoring of reservoirs. Fulfillment of these conditions is questionable, as most of the rural people in Eritrea have exceedingly limited to nil experience with the consumption or catching of fish.
It is furthermore necessary that all the potential would be caught, otherwise the costs of stocking and monitoring activities would be too high compared to the income generated.
Ultimately it is important to bear in mind that inland fisheries development in Eritrea would have very limited benefits even in case of total success, and that many unfavorable market and other socio-economic conditions could well affect the outcome of such a development.
This is why the most reasonable solution for the moment might be to deal with the existing fish stocks, to see if an improvement of their exploitation would be possible by low cost actions such as making fishing gear available on a commercial basis. If these experiences fail, it would mean that in the actual socio-economic context of Eritrea there is no real interest and/or market for freshwater fishes. In that case, the cost of an extension/information campaign will have to be evaluated in view of the expected returns.
There are fundamentally two types of marine aquaculture which can be envisaged for Eritrea:
an extensive type where large areas are used and where the feeding of the fish is ensured by the natural productivity of water, which may be enhanced by fertilization, and which could be suitable for species such as mullet, milkfish or shrimp;
a semi-intensive type where part of the food is provided in an artificial form (pellets), which could be suitable for shrimp.
Given the natural presence of mullet, milkfish, and shrimp along the Eritrean coast, it could be supposed that the environment is suitable for their development as cultured species. Yet it is universally recognised that aquaculture, basically, is economically efficient only when the capture fishery for the same species cannot fulfill a solvable demand, inducing an increase of the prices. Thus the utmost caution is necessary when contemplating the development of marine aquaculture for these species. The wild stocks of the Eritrean Red Sea are notably underutilised, and aquaculture cannot compete in any way with a well-exploited capture fishery.
Strong consideration was being given in late 1992 to undertaking large-scale mullet and milkfish aquaculture with the aim of producing 225,000 tonnes of fish on 6400 ha of fertilized tidal ponds, at the yield of 35 t fish/ha/yr. Although proposed with the best of intentions, such an idea appears rather too ambitious and optimistic on various technical, managerial, and economic grounds.
Even at a far smaller scale, it is very doubtful that this type of aquaculture could be justified. Based on experience in Africa and over the world, it is fair to assume that for extensive production schemes using planktonovorous fish such as mullet and milkfish (or tilapia), self-sustainable development is well-nigh impossible if the ex-farm price is below 1 US$/kg, and starts to be realistic only between 1.5 and 2 US$/kg. The actual ex-fisher price of mullet in Eritrea is 1.75 Br/kg (0.35 US$/kg), which makes sustainable mullet aquaculture development a very unlikely prospect. It is hard to justify even as a subsistence activity since people living along the seashore would always find it much easier and cheaper to get fish by direct capture. It has to be recognised also that for the time being, mullet and milkfish are often discarded when caught, which raises the issue of their acceptability to local populations.
Shrimp culture has been developing worldwide at very high rates during the last ten years, to the point that it now represents some 50% of a world market amounting to more than 1 million tonnes. The main areas of development have been Asia and Latin America. Rapid and uncontrolled growth in this sector has led to the development of diseases which in recent months have almost sterilised thousands of hectares of shrimp ponds. It is thus very likely that the big shrimp investors will try to diversify their implantations.
Eritrea has large areas of virgin flat shorelines, where warm sea water is available, and which could be suitable for this type of aquaculture.7 Some important limitations must be kept in mind, however:
Access to most of the shoreline is quite difficult, which could be an important constraint for a basically export-oriented activity; the best areas would thus be in the vicinity of Massawa and/or Assab.
If semi-intensive culture is considered, there is an important need for high quality pellet supply. Pellets for the time being cannot be produced in Eritrea. This forces any project to rely on imports -- a very unfavourable circumstance when there is competition with countries where the feed is locally produced.
The waters of the Red Sea are very salty (38 g/l). This lowers their potential natural productivity and is also a constraint to the use of many shrimp species such as Penaeus monodon, which grow far better in low salinity waters. Furthermore, there is a general lack of freshwater sources along the shoreline, which would allow for control of the salinity level.
Also, due care must be taken on the issue of financing commercial shrimp culture operations. Consultancy companies proposing this type of aquaculture often have only a small capital participation, financed through the sale of their technological input. Moreover, they are frequently known to take a commission on every item of imported material (hatchery, pumps, building requirements, etc.), which allows earnings even if a project never reaches the production stage. It is for these reasons that institutional financing of such projects should be avoided, and that the commitment of any foreign partner to a venture be backed up by sufficient hard money input to effectively link the partner's financial income with the venture's profitability.
While ensuring that investments be kept on a private basis, some measure of government control in terms of location and design of farms is advisable in order to avoid repeating the mistake of uncontrolled development that has been witnessed in Asia and Latin America. It is especially important to guard against the appearance of shrimp diseases in aquaculture establishments that could also contaminate natural stocks, which represent a potentially significant source of foreign exchange earnings for Eritrea.
It has already been stressed that, apart from the apparently low producer incentives in effect until late 1992, depressed levels of production are a direct result of the severe dissipation of fishing power associated with the prolonged liberation war and the crippled economy. These events also of course contributed to the degeneration and collapse of fish distribution and marketing networks.
The distribution chain for domestic supplies of fresh fish in Eritrea was revitalised through DMRIF intervention towards the end of 1991. The system as it presently operates is simple and straightforward, as diagrammed in Figure 6.
Figure 6. Fresh fish distribution chain, principal markets (late 1992)
Assab
In Assab both the production and distribution of fish are severely constrained since the end of the war because of the breakdown of ice supplies. Retail shops operated by DMRIF include one in Assab Sekir, close to the main landing beach, and another in Assab Kebir, in the centre of town. The landing beach outlet was developed as part of the former UNDP/UNCDF/FAO Assab fisheries development project (ETH/82/016 and ETH/83/C01) that was suspended in 1991. The chill room still functions but does not maintain a sufficiently cool temperature due to faulty/poorly maintained equipment. The town shop is equipped with several chest freezers, though not all are operational. The working units are used to chill and store fish when -- rarely these days -- enough supplies are available. Standards of cleanliness are in need of marked improvement at both the Assab retail outlets.
It is understood that two new retail market outlets were being constructed in Assab before work was abandoned when the war moved closer to the city in 1991. Their present condition is not known and thus far no definite programme has been established for their completion and commissioning. Demand for fresh fish in Assab is strong but as the city itself is not that large (pop. 125,000 est.) it could be fairly easily catered for once existing facilities are put back into order. The Assab artisanal fishery's traditional major market is not the city itself but Addis Ababa, an overnight road trip away by insulated ice-carrying fish van or truck up to the highlands of Ethiopia. The Addis market has a tremendous capacity to absorb fresh fish, but remains cut off from supplies until such a time as: (a) handling, storage, and delivery infrastructure and services are restored; and (b) the Eritrean Government allows such a trade to resume -- presumably at least in part on the condition that existing and potential domestic demand is satisfied.
Massawa-Asmara
All fresh fish off-loaded from sambuks and houris landing at Massawa receiving station are bought by agents of the two marketing associations operating there, the “Red Sea Co-operative” and “Merat Bahri”. Fish is taken piece by piece out of the ice holds and placed into plastic carrying boxes on the pier. An inspector from the Veterinary Section of the Department of Agriculture is supposed to be present to check on the quality of the off-loaded fish. Fish that show obvious signs of deterioration are not allowed to be weighed in and stored in the refrigerated containers each association maintains at the landing. Some fish are transferred from these storage units to the two retail outlets in Massawa, but most are delivered to Asmara. Previously the associations depended solely on DMRIF for transport of consignments to their retail points in Asmara. Throughout 1992 DMRIF was operating two rented trucks fitted with 20 ft refrigerated containers for this purpose. Late in the year the Department also acquired and pressed into service the two fish transport trucks that were part of the old Assab project and which had been stranded in Addis since the end of hostilities in 1991. From October 1992 the Red Sea Co-operative began operating its own delivery vehicle, a pick-up mounted with an insulated ice chest.
Merat Bahri fish is delivered to eight fish retailers who operate from stalls in the old Asmara fish market, a building of Italian colonial vintage that, despite its attractive architecture and partial recent rehabilitation, is in need of extensive upgrading. The refrigeration plant and chill rooms are old and no longer capable of operating up to standard, the water supply is irregular, and sanitary conditions are in need of improvement.
The Red Sea Co-operative formerly had its retail outlet at the Old Market as well, but moved to new premises in September 1992. The new shop previously served as a butchery, and its storage facilities, sales area, and display counter are comparatively modern, clean, and in good condition. Since the Red Sea Co-op acquired its own means of transport between Massawa landing and Asmara, it is better situated in terms of getting regular supplies from producers. In late 1992 the Red Sea shop was often open for business when the retailers at the Old Market were closed due to lack of fish.
Barring unforeseen breakdowns in transport, the chances of which have now been much reduced with the addition of the two ex-Assab project trucks to the DMRIF distribution system, fish from Massawa now reaches Asmara consumers within one to two days after landing. Major bottlenecks in the system continue to be the unpredictability of fishing craft landings, lack of ice supplies, and adequate chill and cold storage capacity. The Department is now in the process of restoring one of the former meat warehouses in central Asmara to serve as a cold store and bulking point for Massawa fish. Such a facility once in proper operation should make for a more regular flow of supplies onto the retail market and also, eventually, serve as a distribution point for retail outlets in other inland towns such as Keren, where no supplies of fresh/frozen marine fish can now be obtained.
Available data on total fish landings and total sales in principal marketing centres are reproduced in Table 13. Massawa (pop. 100,000 est.), Assab (pop. 125,000 est.), and Asmara (pop. 400,000 est.) are the only urban places in the country with formal fish markets. Clearly Asmara is the most important of these, accounting for a substantial majority (57% as of September 1992) of all domestic fish sales.
Table 13. Fish landings and major market sales (quintals)a
| MONTH | TOT. CATCH | SALES | SPOILAGE | SHRINKAGE | |||
| ASMARA | MASSAWA | GHINDA | ASSAB | ||||
| Jan | 561 | 217 | 233 | 12.5 | 99 | 14 | |
| Feb | 578 | 301 | 156 | 115 | 5 | 0.97 | |
| Mar | 570 | 336 | 87 | 109 | 36 | ||
| Apr | 358 | 229 | 41 | 63 | 26 | ||
| May | 330 | 210 | 60 | 43 | 17 | 0.12 | |
| Jun | 281 | 175 | 27 | 78 | 1 | 0.07 | |
| Jul | 413 | 172 | 169 | 70 | 2 | 0.17 | |
| Aug | 305 | 199 | 37 | 68 | 1 | 0.06 | |
| Sep | 277 | 192 | 57 | ||||
a Source: Domestic Marketing Officer, DMRIF
Except for the habitual consumers dwelling immediately along the Red Sea coast and on the islands, fish plays a very minor role in the Eritrean national diet. Outside of these communities, acquaintance with fish is mostly limited to urban areas. Fresh fish is only available on a regular basis to consumers in Massawa, Assab, and Asmara. By far the largest market exists among residents of Asmara, the capital. Yet even here regular consumers of fish apparently comprise but a tiny proportion of the overall population -- perhaps about 2% of city dwellers. The extremely low rate of fish consumption nationwide may owe primarily to the traditional preference for meat, but lack of availability and accessibility certainly figure in as well.
When Eritreans can afford animal protein foods, their choice is governed by the following factors:
In inland towns, people may eat meat once or twice a week, making sauces from lentils and other legumes the rest of the time. Massawa and Asmara residents presently have a full range of food choices, including fish. At prices prevailing in 1992, fish represents a favourable economic choice, provided taste and cooking ability match it. The advantage is also nutritional, as the table below shows.
Table 14. Asmara market prices for “protein foods” (Br/kg)a
| ITEM | Mid Jan. | Mid Feb. | Mid Mar. | Mid Apr. | Mid May | Mid Jun. | Mid Jul. | Mid Aug. | Approx. Cost 10g Protein (Cents) |
| Legumes | 2.50 | 2.30 | 2.80 | 2.70 | 2.60 | 2.80 | 2.80 | 2.70 | 11–14 |
| Eggs | 6.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 6.00 | 6.00 | 6.00 | 40–50 |
| Chicken | 26.00 | 19.00 | 18.00 | 24.00 | 26.00 | 26.00 | 24.00 | 25.00 | 95–140 |
| Beef | 8.00 | 8.00 | 10.00 | 10.00 | 10.00 | 12.00 | 12.00 | 14.00 | 42–74 |
| Goat | 8.00 | 8.00 | 10.00 | 10.00 | 10.00 | 12.00 | 12.00 | 14.00 | 42–74 |
| Fish I | 4.25 | 4.25 | 4.25 | 4.25 | 4.25 | 3.00 | 3.00 | 3.00 | 17.24 |
| Fish II | 3.75 | 3.75 | 3.75 | 3.75 | 3.75 | 2.50 | 2.50 | 2.50 | 14–21 |
| Fish III | 3.00 | 3.00 | 3.00 | 3.00 | 3.00 | 2.00 | 2.25 | 2.25 | 8–17 |
a Source: WFP Weekly Market Reports, Asmara; Project calculations.
Current government policy is to keep the prices of fish low enough to make it accessible to poorer consumers who cannot afford meat. Prices are subject to review by DMRIF, usually occasioned by requests from producers or wholesale/retail dealers, and are periodically adjusted as indicated in the following table.
Table 15. Changes in regulated price for fish, 1992a
| PRICE SETTING EFFECTIVE: | PRODUCER PRICE FOR GRADE | MASSAWA CONSUMER PRICE FOR GRADE | ASMARA CONSUMER PRICE FOR GRADE | ||||||
| I | II | III | I | II | III | I | II | III | |
| Jan. '92 | 3.00 | 2.00 | 1.75 | 4.25 | 3.75 | 3.00 | 4.25 | 3.75 | 3.00 |
| June '92 | 2.00 | 1.50 | 1.35 | 2.50 | 2.00 | 1.90 | 3.00 | 2.50 | 2.25 |
| Oct. '92 | 2.50 | 1.90 | 3.60 | 2.85 | 3.60 | 2.85 | |||
| Dec. '92 | 3.75 | 3.25 | 4.25 | 3.75 | 5.00 | 4.50 | |||
a The Grade III class was abolished in October 1992 and combined with Grade II.
Results of a fish market consumers survey in Asmara, to be reviewed below, suggest that this policy may only be having a very limited effect. Price intervention in the interests of poorer consumers may well prove ineffective without simultaneous efforts to promote fish consumption on a wider basis. A further question is whether fish prices at whatever level, even if substantially lower than other animal protein commodities, would ever be affordable to the poorest of the poor. At present the very poorest urban consumers can only afford to eat pulses as a protein supplement.
As far as preparation of fish for local family meals is concerned, recipes vary from the well-adapted, involving only light cooking of the fish component, to the much less palatable sort of dishes in which fish is treated like meat and cooked far too long. Any attempt to increase fish consumption in specific areas or nationally ideally would entail not only an overall increase in fish supply but an extension effort that would in addition to promoting fish as a food also educate consumers on ways to make the most of fish as a nutritious, tasty, and attractive meal. This need is apparent just as much in many Asmara and other town restaurants as it is in private homes.
Acquaintance with fish is far less frequent in rural than in urban areas. In the very few inland areas where there is fishing, like Elabered, fish as a meal for most farming families is a rare occasion indeed. Unfamiliarity with modes of preparation means that when fish is available there is the risk that it will be treated like meat and consequently overcooked, leading to possible lack of enthusiasm for eating it again.
Larger scale systematic investigations are required to assess the existing and potential demand for fish both within major urban areas and the countryside. As a start towards this end, a survey of Asmara fish market private and institutional customers was carried out in October 1992 (Appleton, Bellemans, and Reynolds, 1992). Survey results are summarised in Annex 4, but the salient points may be briefly touched upon as follows.
The survey of private customers of Asmara's two fish markets took place over a one month period from late October to late November 1992, and covered over 400 individuals interviewed on an interval basis after a random start. On each day of market operations, records of institutional buyers were also made over the same period, and all of the fish-buying restaurants in the city were surveyed on the basis of the list derived from these records.
Private market customers
Through simple extrapolation from the sample population8 it can be suggested very indicatively that there are some 10,000 private household fish consumers in Asmara, or about 2% of the entire city population. A substantial majority (69%) of the household buy fish from the markets at least once a week, and over three-quarters usually purchase Grade I fish. Only a small fraction of consumer families buy Grade II fish on a routine basis. On the whole these figures suggest that Asmara fish consumers are rather selective, preferring to take first quality products when at all possible. It can be surmised that those who make a habit of purchasing the cheaper second grade fish do so out of necessity rather than choice.
Two measures of consumer families' socio-economic status were used to identify possible patterns of fish purchasing and (by inference) fish eating behaviour amongst the inhabitants of the city. One measure was the reported occupation of family main income earners; the other was reported zone of family residence in Asmara.
It appears that about one quarter of consumer families' main income earners fall into the “Business” category (Fig. 7). Also the “Skilled labour” category (often representing what are in effect small private businesses) and the “Civil service” category respectively account for 12% and 19% of all cases. Families with main income earners who are employed abroad (remitting money back to Eritrea) represent another 12% of cases. On the reasonable supposition that these categories collectively represent the more economically advantaged, it can be said that about 68% of the regular clientele of the city's fish markets belong to the higher strata of Asmara society.
A comparison drawn between the occupation of family major income earner and purchasing behaviour shows that families with major income earners who are “Business” people tend to buy fish more frequently and in greater quantities that those associated with the other occupation categories.
Asmara residential zones are well-known in terms of their respective housing quality and cost factors, and it was thus possible to classify them as either “High-Income”, Middle-Income", or “Low-Income”. Some 49% of the families reside in what were identified as higher income areas of Asmara, while 32% live in medium income and 18% in low income areas. Taken on this measure it would seem that the vast majority of private fish-buyers in the city who were surveyed during October-November 1992 represent families that are relatively well off. A much smaller though non-negligable number represent low income families.
Families belonging to the high income group as measured by residential zone tend to purchase fish on the average at least once (33%) or twice (31%) per week (Fig. 8). Some 13% are reported to purchase fish at least three times per week. For the middle income (residential) group, 13% are said to purchase fish at least three times a week, 27% at least once a week, and 24% at least twice a week. The majority of the low income (residential) group visit the market at least once (33%) or twice (21%) per week.
Information on the reported usual quantity of fish purchased by income residence area indicates that in all categories about half or more of the sample consumer families are purchasing around 2 kgs per occasion (Fig.9). For the higher income group, greater percentages are purchasing more kilos at a time (24% for 3 kgs as compared to 16% and 7% for the medium and lower income groups respectively).
Sample survey customers were also asked an open-ended question about their views of fish or the fish markets. Amongst the roughly three-quarters who chose to volunteer any comments there seemed to a high level of general satisfaction with market operations. At the same time, however, a strong negative sentiment could also be detected, and should not be overlooked. Complaints that fish supplies are low in volume or variety, or that there are too few retail outlets in the city, or that market hours are too short, collectively make for a strong current of dissatisfaction with regard to fish availability. On the whole, it appears that issues of availability and quality figure more strongly in customer concerns than those of price.
Institutional market customers
During the survey period a total 205 instances of fish purchases by 37 separate institutions were recorded. Various types of institutions ranging from hospitals and schools to small local restaurants were involved as fish market customers. Of the ten largest institutional customers, Asmara University had the greatest volume of purchases by a wide margin. Another public institution, one of the city hospitals, also figured high on the list. If the University and the hospital are left out, then the list of the city's then largest fish buyers list includes only restaurants, most of which are ones that serve an international in addition to a local clientele. Three of the latter are in fact restaurants in Asmara's biggest tourist/business hotels, and the remaining four are restaurants that are popular eating places with international visitors and the city's expatriate community.
In terms of total weight of fish purchased at the markets during the survey period, private retail customers accounted for 39% and institutional customers 61%. Recalling the socio-economic characteristics of private fish consuming families reviewed above, and bearing in mind that most of those who patronise restaurants on a regular basis would be the comparatively well-off rather than the poor, the evidence of the institutional data strongly reinforces the impression that buyers and consumers of fish in Asmara are those who belong to the city's most advantaged income strata.
Restaurants
After the private customer survey interviews had been wound up and a full list of institutional customers had been compiled, visits were made to each of the 31 Asmara restaurants known to be routine or occasional buyers of fish in order to interview the owners or food managers. It was found that the inclusion of fish on city restaurant menus is a well-established tradition. In over half of the cases surveyed it has been part of the menu for at least 10 years, and in over a third for at least 20 - - apart from the times when supplies were disrupted during the later stages of the war.
About half of the eating places now serve fish every day, and nearly all at least three times per week. When queried about how often they would like to serve fish, almost all the owners/food managers said “daily,” indicating that there may be some scope for expanded fish purchases from the restaurant trade.
A particular demand for fish reportedly exists on Wednesdays and Fridays, the traditional fast (non-meat) days of the Orthodox Church. Such a pattern was anticipated and stands out with regard to the restaurants far more clearly than in the case of the private fish market customer survey. From the latter it was expected to find marked increases in purchasing activity on Tuesdays and Thurdays, the days before fast days.
When restaurant owners/managers were asked specifically if they had encountered any problems with ordering fish from the markets recently or in the past, it was clear from the answers that ready availability of fish has been a major concern.
A certain amount of tinned fish products, including tuna and sardines, can be noticed on sale at various small food shops in Asmara, Assab, and Massawa. The quantities imported on an annual basis are not known, though in principle such information could be recovered from the customs authorities. A customs duty of 15% is levied on such goods, and a further transaction or sales tax of 24% is also payable. As these products are quite expensive it is only the very well off who can afford to buy them on a regular basis. It is doubtful that at present tariff rates and retail prices the tinned fish represent any serious competition to fresh products available in local markets.
Present situation
Very little can be said about the present state of exports of fisheries products in Eritrea, except to repeat the earlier point that export activity is undoubtedly negligible compared to levels achieved in the 1950s, 1960s, and early 1970s. Principal products comprise dried or salt-dried products, including shark meat and fins, mullet, jackfish, trepang, and snail nails. The statistical record on volumes and values of production and trade is both shallow and unreliable, since recording only began in the course of 1992 (in March for Massawa and June for Assab), and data collection procedures have yet to be fully elaborated and established. Available information is summarised in Tables A17a - A17h (Annex 1). Data for Assab only appear for the month of June 1992, and there is no May 1992 report for Massawa. Not reflected in these tables are the half dozen or so experimental marketing ventures reportedly undertaken from December 1992, involving the shipment of 500 kg consignments of whole frozen fish (snapper, grouper, seabream) to Addis. The fish were frozen in one of DMRIF's refrigerated truck units, and shipped by air from Asmara. The Addis buyer reportedly distributes to the city's international hotels and the expatriate community. It is understood that the client has been pleased with the consignments and requests for further business are anticipated.
At the present time DMRIF is the sole official exporter of all fisheries products in Eritrea, though there is provision to allow private traders to export to Addis (Birr transactions). It is also anticipated that industrial processing firms will be allowed to export their products (e.g. frozen or tinned fish) directly, should any such firms commence operations in the future. Existing procedure is for potential overseas importers of Eritrean fisheries products to apply to DMRIF, specifying their requirements in terms of product type, quantity, and so on. If a transaction proceeds, the price is negotiated and the importer remits forex to the Department's bank account in Eritrea. Products are delivered F.O.B. to the port of embarkation, either the Asmara Airport or Massawa Port. No export tariffs of any sort are levied.
Normally a Certificate of Origin would be obtained from the Massawa or Assab Chamber of Commerce for fisheries products deriving from the Eritrean Red Sea, but the procedure for this routine has not yet been established. DMRIF in the meantime issues such certificates to overseas customers upon request.
All exports of fish products are inspected by the Veterinary Service of the Department of Agriculture, whose officers issue a “Health Certificate for Meat and Meat Products” after verifying that consignments are in satisfactory condition. The Department of Commerce reportedly is planning to establish an independent Board of Standards which will adopt criteria for product quality, including those for fisheries products.
Development potential
Export trade in Eritrean Red Sea products around two and three decades ago was quite active and far-reaching. Fresh fish were shipped to Isreal and dried sardines and anchovies to Sri Lanka. Consignments of fish meal, shark fin, salt dried shark meat, pearls, shells, sea cucumber, corals, and live aquarium fishes went to various destinations in the Middle and Far East and Europe. It would however be unrealistic and ill-advised to seek a total restoration of past trading patterns. For some products, notably fish meal, market conditions and quality standards have drastically altered and it is highly doubtful whether Eritrean plants would ever be able to operate economically. In other cases, as with shells and corals, concerns for the conservation of the marine aquatic environment have to be weighed against the short-term gains that might be realised through renewed exploitation activities. There is nevertheless plenty of scope for the renewal and in certain respects an expansion of the export trade in marine products which, if well managed, might yield returns of equal or even greater value than those of the past.
It is certainly the case that the regional market for salt-dried shark is strong. This is clear from the very large volume of informal trade that continues to flow from the Eritrean coastline to destinations across the Red Sea. This trade, together with that of other processed products and especially around the Assab area of fresh fish also, did much to sustain the remnant Eritrean artisanal fleet during the war years.
The market for salt-dried shark meat is reputedly strong in Kenya and in the Far East, where shark fin is also much in demand. Observers have suggested that shark exports not only could easily be expanded beyond their present levels, but could be transformed into higher value products if processing standards and styles were improved through more careful and cleaner handling, and the production of fillets rather than chunks of fish.
With reference to the possible development of fresh/frozen whole/filleted reef fish exports, both nearby regional (Ethiopia, Saudi Arabia) and more distant regional (Egypt, Isreal) markets offer obvious possibilities for expansion. The European market for fresh/frozen fish and shrimp and fresh lobster may also offer possibilities. When DMRIF officers exhibited Eritrean Red Sea fish at a trade fair held in The Hague in September 1992, the products reportedly met with strong expressions of interest from potential importers. Nevertheless, development of European market links will be more problematical owing to the communications and transportation difficulties that will have to be overcome and also the generally more exacting specifications that have to be met in terms of species types and product presentation (sizes, textures, etc.). At this point care should be taken not to let high expectations mislead would-be exporters into taking too much for granted. A major consideration will also be conformance to the new EEC product quality standards for imported fish products. These very strict codes apply to the whole processing sequence, including conditions of plant hygiene and raw product handling, in addition to circumstances of packaging, storage, and shipment. A good deal of further investigation of prospects and limitations for expanded export trade especially into Europe before a definite development programme is charted out.
Proposals for industrial/export and other development
Various joint venture and other proposals or draft agreements for foreign participation in Eritrean fisheries have been set before DMRIF. So far as is known, all have been conceived with a strong export market orientation in mind. One project already referred would seek to establish a commercial shrimp culture operation on coast close to Massawa, and has been authorised to proceed through a feasibility study stage. At least one proposal has been submitted for the collection and export of marine aquarium fish. Also, several overtures have been made for the development of tourist facilities or services with a fisheries connection or implication (diving cruises, marine and underwater sports resorts, etc.), though usually in the context of or as a sideline to commercial fisheries ventures.
Proposals submitted thus far mostly concern fishing activity with foreign vessels operating independently and/or as support and mother ships in association with local artisanal craft. Although reference is generally to on-shore developments and employment opportunities for local artisanal fishers and other nationals, it is noticed that applications seem to suggest that fishing vessel operations be commenced as soon as possible, with other developments to come in due course. A prudent way to proceed with such proposals would thus be to deal with them as fishing applications and to judge them accordingly. This by no means implies that they should be turned down out of hand. Foreign fishing can be a significant source of revenue -- one of the very few non-tax sources in Eritrea. Foreign participation can be developed in a manner consistent with stated policy objectives, though of course this requires a carefully designed set of legal and institutional mechanisms.
It will be some time before the artisanal fishery will be capable of taking more than a fraction of the biologically and economically desirable catch. Foreign participation could supply extra capacity in short order and then be phased out as the artisanal fishery grows. Foreign fishing enterprises can also serve as a source of investment in shore facilities, the use of which can produce significant value-added in Eritrea. In weighing foreign participation proposals, due judgement will have to be exercised in balancing fishing license concessions with the likelihood of complementary facility investment commitments to Eritrea materialising in the short-term. It should also be borne in mind that foreign participation not only represents a potential source of revenue, but also represents an opportunity gradually to develop national technical capabilities in the fishing industry.
Advantages of foreign participation can only be realised if the financial benefits are insisted upon and received, if the information on which future development depends is reliably supplied, if conscientious efforts are made to impart technical skills, and if the artisanal fishery is not adversely affected by competition from the foreign operations -- either on the fishing grounds or in the marketplace. Making sure of these conditions requires careful evaluation and negotiation before issuing each license, and careful monitoring of performance afterwards.
The PGE's approach to the fisheries sector is set within a wider policy context that favours privatisation of the economy insofar as possible as a long-term development and sustainable use of the Country natural resources. The provisional fisheries policy itself aims at three broad goals (FAO/UNCDF, 1992).
To increase the supply of fish, a valuable source of animal protein, to the Eritrean people;
To improve the incomes and quality of life of the fishing communities; and
To generate foreign exchange through the export of those fish or marine products for which no domestic market exists.
Fisheries policy should also be set in relation to food and agricultural policy in general. In line with the Emergency Recovery and Rehabilitation Programme, a pragmatic approach to restoring agriculture. Although no national food policy has yet been formulated in detail, and the national Land Commission has still to complete its work, certain guidelines have been adopted to help steer development for the time being. These include the following:9
The attainment of food security for national nutritional well-being, with the understanding that such security does not necessarily have to be based on total food self-sufficiency, since export earnings can also be used to ensure adequate supplies of foodstuffs.
Priority emphasis on private farming;
Priority emphasis on supporting infrastructure for subsistence and small private farms.
Eventual privatisation of large state farms as a possible option, and development of large-scale commercial farming according to the Investment Code.
Special considerations for conservation measures particularly as regards soil and water resources, and for research and training.
The theme of environmental restoration and protection runs strongly throughout official discourse on the country's development needs and priorities and thus must be regarded as a further major policy component, although one that is still nascent. A National Environmental Action Plan is in the process of being formulated and more specific indications of policy emphasis are likely to be incorporated when the Plan is drafted and adopted, probably sometime after mid-1993.
9 Information based on TCP team interviews with PGE officials.
In fine, Eritrean food, agriculture, and fisheries policy involves both an inward orientation - - production for domestic supply, and an outward orientation -- production for foreign exchange. The further objective of seeking to improve the national quality of life could in principle be realised through one or the other of these orientations or both in combination. All objectives are to be attained through reliance on private sector initiative insofar as possible, and state involvement in the economy is only envisaged as a facilitating and intermediary measure towards securing this long-term goal.
The Department of Marine Resources and Inland Fisheries has its headquarters in Asmara. It is headed by the Secretary of the Department, who reports to the Secretary General and the Cabinet of the PGE. Draft fisheries legislation was elaborated under the TCP project and provides guidelines on DMRIF areas of competencies, and recommendations for organisational restructuring were also prepared. The primary needs are to adjust the administrative structure and related staff disposition and to establish adequate recurrent and development budget allocation and procedure.
DMRIF, under the supervision of its Secretary, has a mandate to look after the management and development of both marine and inland fisheries in Eritrea. Under the proposed Fisheries Proclamation DMRIF would be entrusted with the following main duties:
to prepare and keep under review plans for the management and development of fisheries in Eritrean waters, which shall serve as a basis for a national fisheries development programme;
to assume responsibility for the tasks that such planning and management entails, including, inter alia: stock assessment and monitoring of resource exploitation; specification of management and development measures to achieve sectoral objectives, and, accordingly, formulation of fishing licensing programmes and issuance of licences and aquaculture project authorisations; and negotiation and implementation of fisheries agreements;
to prepare and implement regulations prescribing measures for the proper management of fisheries, such as closed seasons or areas, prohibition of fishing methods or gears, schemes for the limitation of entry into any specified fishery, etc., and enforce the Fisheries Law and Regulations;
to monitor marketing development and quality control standards;
to collect, analyse, and publish statistical and other information on fisheries; and
to establish and manage marine reserves.
Present situation
The organisation of the Department is still to be elaborated. It currently consists of a central office in Asmara and regional stations located at Massawa and Assab. A smaller out-station exists at Tio (midway between Massawa and Assab), and it is intended to commission three more at Hasmet (north of Tio), Barasole (north of Assab), and Marsa Ibrahim (midway between Massawa and the Sudan border) respectively.
At headquarters level the DMRIF Secretary is assisted in running day-to-day operations by a Deputy Secretary and an Administrator. The Department's provisional hierarchical structure has been diagrammed as shown in Annex 5, but a number of the positions noted are projected rather than actual for the time being. The central office in principal is composed of the following Sections:
Administration, including units to deal with personnel, finance, legal matters, and sercices (library, typists, maintenance, etc.);
Statistics, which includes data collection and processing;
Aquaculture, comprising inland fisheries and aquaculture and mariculture units;
Domestic Market and Foreign Trade, composed of units for marketing, public relations, statistics, and quality Control;
Projects, charged with project preparation, implementation, and evaluation;
Conservation, to deal with marine parks; and
Research and Training.
The Statistics, Projects, Conservation, and Research and Training Sections have still to be developed and fully commissioned, and the Legal Unit of the Administration Section has not yet been activated. If fully commissioned along the lines envisaged, this structure would minimally require 20 – 25 professional posts to be filled. DMRIF's present professional establishment almost matches such numerical requirements, although certain professional specialities are not represented (e.g. law) and there is also the question of variable educational levels and working experience. Based on available but still incomplete information, a breakdown of the present professional and technical staff establishment at Asmara, Massawa, and Assab in terms of posts, duties, and educational background of incumbents is given in Annex 6, along with an inventory of main office facilities and equipment.
Development of the institutional framework
Quite understandably the present structure and composition of DMRIF has been created largely in response to urgent needs, and some adjustment and tuning will be necessary to enable it to cope with requirements in the years ahead. Development and administration of the fisheries will be virtually impossible without an adequate institutional framework. The Department's overall institutional organisation should thus be thoroughly reviewed in light of PGE policies and sectoral development objectives. Such a review would lead to the establishment and consolidation of a permanent structure. Necessary budgetary, staffing, and equipment allocations and ceilings would be defined, and internal procedures and term of reference for various units formalised.
Although DMRIF has not yet established a formal set of guidelines for the management of the national fisheries or the planning of their development, several practical initiatives have already been taken. As is clear from the earlier review of the evolution of the Eritrean marine fisheries, the new initiatives do not take place in an historical vacuum. Fisheries development project work along the Eritrean coast has a history going back many years, and more recently three major donor-sponsored projects were abandoned towards the closing stages of the liberation war.
Recent projects and external assistance
(a) LWF Massawa/Dahlak Fisheries Project
The Lutheran Worldwide Federation in collaboration with the UNHCR, the (Ethiopian) Relief and Rehabilitation Committee, and the Evangelical Church of Eritrea undertook a project in fisheries development in the Massawa-Dahlak area between 1983 and 1990, when the project was abandoned due to intensified fighting in and around Massawa. Activities included development of the fishery through training of artisanal operators, boat and input procurement, support for co-operative organisation development, infrastructure development, and development of prototype ferrocement fishing boats. With the exception of the last component, it can thus be considered as a forerunner to the current Semhar Fisheries Rehabilitation Project now getting underway (see below). Although several ferrocement craft were constructed, they reportedly were not well received by local artisanal fishers because of shortcomings with their engines and hold arrangements -- not because of the construction material per se. The chief legacies of this project are: the Tewale Boat Yard, a complex including a slipway, quayside, sheltered working area, and various stores and buildings that suffered heavy damage due to shelling and bombing during the war and now serves as the main Massawa fish receiving station; a landing jetty at Jemhile on Dahlak Island; and the introduction of the ring net as a new fishing technology around the Massawa area. A further project for Massawa-Dahlak fisheries development under the former Ethiopian regime was being planned for support by the Italian Aid Fund but was eventually called off owing to the events of 1990.
(b) Rehabilitation of Red Sea Fisheries and Marine Fish Marketing Development Projects
In Assab, joint UNDP/UNCDF/FAO project work began mid-1988 after a long period of delays and suspensions to establish a Fishery Development Centre and boatyard (ETH/82/016), and a chill/cold chain for the marketing of fresh/frozen reef fish to Addis Ababa (ETH/83/C01). As originally planned the project was to feature several related components, only some of which were implemented before all activities came to a halt again in May 1991 as warfare activity increased around the Assab area. Three of five planned fisher associations had been organised, the apex serice and marketing co-operative had been established, and the input credit scheme started. A local collection and ice delivery boat had been chartered pending arrival of two special utility vessels from overseas, and construction of facilities (boatbuilding and engine repair workshop, processing and freezing and storage units, administrative offices) at the Fishery Development Centre had been largely completed. A containerised mobile plant was providing ice supplies temporarily while work proceeded on installation of a larger permanent unit. Delivery had also been taken of one insulated truck for local fish collection and sales and one refrigerated truck for long-distance transport (see Section 5.3.2).
(c) The Haleb Island complex
Another development in the Assab area under the former regime was the construction of an extensive complex on Haleb Island, including facilities for the fabrication of steel-hulled light industrial fishing craft (trawlers and seiners) and utility vessels, wooden and fibreglass artisanal boats, machine and mechanical workshops, berthing piers, a generator plant, and administration and living quarters. It is understood that this project was funded by North Korea, partly as a grant (investment) and partly as a loan (materials for boat construction). The fibreglass boat unit reportedly was a late addition to the complex, and involved a Swedish firm. Plans were exceedingly ambitious and rather unrealistic. They called for the production of some ten 50 t steel fishing (trawlers/seiners) and general purpose vessels per year. A further fifty or so 5 – 10 m wooden and fibreglass vessels were to be built each year for sale to the inland fisheries. Work started in the early 1980s, and was finally abandoned in 1991, with the first steel-hulled fishing boat still not quite completed and left sitting on its cradle in the laying-up shed, along with another in an earlier stage of assembly. It is obvious that a great deal of effort and money -- perhaps on the order of USD 25 million -- were poured into the Haleb complex. In addition to the major buildings, which are of considerable size, there are a number of living quarters and service structures, an airstrip, and extensive areas planted to trees and shrubs. A specially built pipeline carries fresh water supplies all the way from the mainland, itself connected to the island by an excellent gravel road some 80 kms in length and running for much of the distance atop a causeway spanning mangrove swamps and salt flats. The Haleb facility is now being looked after by the Eritrean Navy, and its future status is unknown.
Present projects and external assistance
(a) The Semhar Project
The Semhar Project (ERI/92/001) has recently been approved and is due to commence early in 1993, with funding from the UNCDF and UNDP and with FAO serving as a co-operating agency. This project to some extent has its roots in the earlier Assab projects, but takes as its area of focus the Dahlak/Massawa fisheries in view of the drastically altered development context of post-liberation Eritrea. The Dahlak/Massawa fisheries were seriously disrupted during the war years and are now in need of major rehabilitation efforts to restore their status as an important source of employment locally and of domestic food supply for major urban markets in the hinterland. Initially funded at around USD 5 million and timed for a duration of five years, the project is intended to adopt an integrated approach and to serve a broad range of development objectives which include:
improving the incomes and quality of life of the fishing communities, where all economic activities at their disposal are related only to fisheries;
increasing the supply of fish, a valuable source of animal protein, at least to the urban areas, where the nutritional status in general is below established standards;
generate foreign exchange by promoting export of those fish or marine products for which no domestic market exists; and
supporting and strengthening national fisheries institutions in the public and private sectors in order to promote self-sufficiency in national fisheries management.
These broader objectives will be pursued through specific actions to:
rehabilitate the local fishing fleet and fishing capacity through the supply of equipment, gear, and boat building supplies on a loan scheme or cash sale basis;
improve fish landing and distribution services through rehabilitation of facilities and the establishment of fishery service centres, and the provision of small insulated fish transport trucks;
improve the standard of living in local communities through the rehabilitation of water supplies, and construction of clinics and schools in the Dhalak islands and of fish retail shops in Massawa and Asmara.
establish a Project Implementation Unit (PIU) within DMRIF, support in-service and specialised training for DMRIF staff, and provide consultancy inputs to address specific issues in the areas of gear technology, socio-economics, and project monitoring.
(b) The Assab Project (Follow-up)
Work suspended under projects ETH/82/016 and ETH/83/C01 left fishers, traders, and consumers in the Assab area in a real predicament. Eritrean authorities have tried to keep some of the installations operational but only with limited success due to the lack of vital spare parts and technical servicing assistance. In particular the breakdown in ice supplies coupled with problems in the chill room at the main landing beach have severely curtailed fishing operations and fish distribution capabilities. After considerable delay funding and technical support arrangements have been restructured under a new agreement negotiated in October 1992 for the Marine Fish Marketing Development Project, now labelled ERI/83/C01, between the UNCP, UNCDF, FAO, and the PGE. It is now planned to repair the existing container ice plant as an interim measure, and to finish with the installation of a larger ice making facility at the Assab fish receiving station. The chill room and retail fish market facility will also be rehabilitated, and the boatbuilding and marine engine repair and servicing units completed. Two collection boats fabricated in Sweden for delivery to Assab under the former workplan will now be shipped to the DMRIF station in Massawa for commissioning and allocation to service.
(c) Pilot project for mullet and milkfish culture
Work began in October 1992 on an ambitious project to raise mullet and milkfish in artificial tidal impoundments at Hargigo, about 10 km south of Massawa. The idea is one tried earlier under the heading of the “Manzanar Project” organised and supported by a development volunteer for the EPLF and based on the coast at Agig, in the northern liberated zone close to the Sudanese border. The Hargigo project as originally planned was intended to be on a far larger in scale, though basically designed along the same lines: packed earth levies built out from the shore to form rectangular enclosures and impound sea water by means of tidal sluice gates. Fingerlings were to be captured from nearby mangrove shallows, transferred to the ponds, allowed to grow to marketable size, and harvested. During October-November 1992, with labour and some material inputs provided by the DMRIF Massawa office, work on the ponds reached the stage of fabricating the moulds out of which the concrete tide gates are to be cast. It is now understood however that after further consideration the entire project is to be reformulated as a much scaled-down demonstration activity and re-sited close to the present fish receiving station in Massawa.
(d) Divers training project
This activity started in September 1992 at the initiative of an Italian volunteer diving expert. It is intended to train selected fisheries and other Government officers in basic scuba-diving techniques and an appreciation of the diversity and value of tropical marine living resources and of the importance of their conservation. Although shortage of funds and lack of adequate facilities have hampered progress, over twenty beginning and intermediate divers from DMRIF, Tourism, the Police, and the Navy have already received intensive training at the project base on Dahlik Kebir Island.
(e) Urk Interchurch Foundation Red Sea Fisheries Project
Following reconnaissance/identification missions to Eritrea in 1992, the Urk Interchurch Foundation of Holland formulated a Red Sea Fisheries Project. Immediate activities are to organise and carry out a course to teach net-making and repair skills to local women, and to provide a fully equipped fishing boat from Holland to be used for training fishers. The net-making course began in March 1993 and is to last for three months. Eight women are being trained by a Masterfisher from Holland. Upon completion of the course arrangements will be made for them to return to their home communities with a supply of twines and other basic materials advanced on credit so that they can begin to fabricate and repair nets on a commercial basis for local fishing operators. It is hoped that the instruction and the materials employed will result in substantial upgrading of net technology. The use of proper hanging ratios, float-mounted head ropes and lead-filled anchoring ropes will assure far greater catching efficiencies and quicker shooting and retrieving times than is possible with present artisanal gear configuration. It is possible that a second training course will be organised later in 1993, when results of the first experience have been evaluated.
A small second-hand general purpose fishing boat of around 11 m (ca. 14 t) is also being donated by the Urk Interchurch Foundation for use by DMRIF. This vessel is equipped with radar and sonar and can operate either as a small trawler, gillnetter, or collection boat. It is anticipated that DMRIF will use it primarily for training and experimental fishing purposes. A possible extension of the Foundation's Red Sea Project at a later stage would be to provide a certain number of smaller boats to trainee fishers from the Sahel Region in order to given them an opportunity to use their newly acquired skills on a continuing basis.
Ideas for future projects
In addition to the above on-going activities several other fisheries-related projects have been suggested, though funding details have yet to be settled. Proposals include: (a) development of fishing communities in the Sahel Region; (b) a coastal conservation project; (c) aquatic resources assessment; and (d) establishment of a marine technology training centre. Brief descriptions of each of these proposed projects are given in Annex 7.
The Department currently applies several management/regulatory measures on a provisional basis. Basically the emphasis is the conventional one of fishery resource development for the national interest and simultaneously of regulation of effort to ensure sustained use and protection of resources in the long term.
DMRIF now requires all commercial fishers to apply for individual annual licenses and, where relevant, separate licenses for fishing craft. The annual fee for an individual permit is a nominal Br. 3. National artisanal fishing vessels (houris and sambuks) are reportedly subject to an annual fee of Br. 1000. Licenses for sports fishing are also required. Licenses for sports fishing are also required. Fees are Br. 100 per six months for residents. Non-residents (tourists) are charged at higher rates depending on the duration of the license and are expected to pay in convertible currency.
Specific prohibitions exist with regard to the use of explosives, poisons, and electric shock for the capture of fish, and the collection of sea mammals, corals, shells, and other marine invertebrates without permission from the Department. All fishers are furthermore required to furnish information and statistical data on their fishing activities as requested.
Insofar as inland waters are concerned, as far as is understood, DMRIF's policy thus far has been to prohibit all fishing activities pending further information on the state of reservoir stocks and the development of introduced stocks. Exceedingly little inland fishing for either commercial or subsistence purposes takes place in any event.
DMRIF is well aware of the provisional and ad hoc nature of its current management/regulatory approach and has already taken the draft fisheries legislation formulated through the TCP Project in collaboration with Eritrean authorities under advisement.
Draft fisheries legislation
The draft fisheries legislation is built on the same principles of economic development through sustainable exploitation and environmental protection that inspire existing DMRIF approach to management and regulation of the sector. It was obvious from early on that one priority for basic legislation would be to serve as a framework for handling foreign fishing proposals. The draft legislation was therefore designed as a legal framework within which Government can realise the benefits of foreign participation while protecting and fostering the artisanal fishery and conserving fisheries resources. It is also designed as a basis for installing management of the artisanal fishery before serious problems of over exploitation arise. The hope is that simple planning will allow such problems to be anticipated, avoid committing either capital or people to harmful or unremunerative fishing, and give the latent energy and enterprise of the national fishing population room to be expressed.
The draft legislation is set out as a draft Fisheries Proclamation in seven parts, viz.: Preliminary (Part I -- specification of issuing authority, technical definitions); Administration (Part II -- establishes DMRIF terms of reference, authorised officers, and Fisheries Advisory Council); Fisheries Management (Part III -- provisions for management and development plans, management measures, information, scientific research, marine mammals, and marine reserves); Fishing Licenses (Part IV -- matters pertaining to nationality of fishing vessels, access agreements, foreign vessel fishing license, stowage of gear, national fishing license, other fishing licenses, and license applications, conditions, fees and other payments, validity, and suspension and cancellation); Aquaculture (Part V -- aquaculture authorisation, conditions, protection of facilities, and suspension of operations and closure of facility); Enforcement (Part VI -- powers of authorised officers, hot pursuit, custody of seized goods, disposal of perishable goods, release of vessels on bond, offences, liability of master, forfeiture, cancellation of licenses, presumptions, burden of proof, jurisdiction of the Court, and administrative settlement; and General Provisions (Part VII -- appeals and regulations).
Annexed to the draft Proclamation are draft Guidelines for Approval of Fishing Joint Ventures and draft Fisheries Regulations and Schedules (First -- Application for a Foreign Fishing Vessel License; Second -- Foreign Fishing Vessel License; Third -- Foreign Fishing Vessel Fees; Fourth -- Application for National Fishing Vessel License; Fifth -- National Fishing Vessel License; Sixth -- National Fishing Vessel Fees; and Seventh -- Specifications for the Marking of Fishing Vessels).
Additional material prepared with the draft legislation includes notes on marine pollution and multilateral conventions.
The draft legislation (Art.7) calls for fisheries management and development plans to be prepared and kept under review by the Secretary, and to form the basis for the National Fisheries Development Programme. It is provided that each plan shall:
identify the fishery and assess the present state of exploitation;
specify the objectives to be achieved in the management of the fishery;
specify the management and development measures required to achieve the objectives; and, in particular,
specify the licensing programme to be followed for the fishery, the limitations, if any, to be applied to national fishing operations and the amount of fishing, if any, to be allowed to foreign fishing vessels.
Additional provision is made in the draft legislation for the DMRIF Secretary to prepare management and development plans on a consultative basis with relevant persons and departments, with the Fisheries Advisory Council (see below), and, in the interests of plan harmonisation particularly in the case of shared stocks, whenever feasible with the fisheries management authorities of other States in the Red Sea. Further provisions call for making regulations prescribing measures for proper management, including:
closed seasons and closed areas;
prohibited fishing methods and gear and specifications of gear that may be used;
the species, sizes and other characteristics of fish and other aquatic organisms that it is permitted or forbidden to catch; and
schemes for the limitation of entry into all or any specified fisheries.
Monitoring, control, and surveillance
No monitoring, control, and surveillance (MCS) scheme has been implemented by the Eritrean fisheries authorities and there will be no reason to do so until, interrelatedly: management plans for major fisheries have been established at least on a preliminary basis; an adequate statistical collection and reporting system has been designed and implemented; and an appropriate legal foundation has been established through adoption of fisheries and maritime zones legislation. The draft fisheries legislation now being considered makes broad provision for MCS activities. However, although the the more obvious sorts of harmful or destructive practices need to be discouraged, it would seem appropriate for DMRIF to concentrate on developing its data collection and management capabilities as a first priority.
MCS schemes that rely on elaborate patrolling are prohibitively expensive to run, and often purposes can be substantially achieved in any case through more modest approaches, such as verification of licenses, mesh sizes, and/or catch composition and fish size at landing points, and occasional deployment of official on-board observers. If the need for waterborne control and surveillance arises, DMRIF could also consider entering into co-operative agreements with the Navy and/or the Ports and Maritime Transport authorities in an effort to minimise commitments of funds and personnel.
Statistics
Planning and management in fisheries must be based on solid information regarding the present situation, past trends, and projections of likely future developments.
DMRIF has since January 1992 made an effort to record certain information on landings and market distribution of marine fish. (The inland reservoirs do not host any significant fishing activity and no data collection activities are carried out at the present time.) It is noted however that existing statistical collection practices are deficient in several respects.
Recording of landings from artisanal boats at Massawa and Assab fish receiving stations covers information on names and license number of craft, number of fishers, quantity of fuel (benzine or diesel) and ice (25 kg/block -- no ice available at present in Assab) carried per trip, method of fishing, number of trip days, and quantities and grades of fish landed.
Only statistical information on large fishing boats, the sambuks and houris, is being collected and compiled. The activity of small fishing boats (canoes and non-motorised houris) as well as foot-fishers operating at low tides and many occasional fishers is very difficult to monitor because they are not operating to and from central points. There is no statistical monitoring system based on sampling strategies to cover the more remote fishing settlements. Ad-hoc surveys of these areas would help to determine whether regular monitoring by field enumerators is required.
The number of personnel specifically assigned to statistical work is not clear. Several DMRIF staff seem to be involved in one way or the other in collecting, transferring, and compiling statistical information and reports on fresh and dried/salted products. It is thought that about 14 persons are presently involved in various aspects of statistics work at the major landing sites and at DMRIF HQ, though not on a full-time basis. The various locations of statistical staff are: Dahlak Chebir (1), Massawa (5), Tio (1), Edd (1), Barasole (1), Assab (4), and Asmara (1).
As previously described, fish from “refrigerator” units are off-loaded at Massawa receiving station and classified either as Grade I or Grade II. It has been observed that grading of fish is not done by the quality control personnel of the Department of Agriculture assigned to this important function, but by the cooperatives' buyers.
All landed foodfish is gutted soon after being caught. Iced sharks are additionally headed and tailed, which implies that weights landed do not represent actual caught weights. Also no relation has been established between actual catches and landings (numerous species of trash fish are discarded by fishers and many sharks are off-loaded at isolated beaches for salt-drying).
All food fish off-loaded at Massawa fish receiving station is bought by two marketing cooperatives (Red Sea and Merat Bahri). “Trash fish” not bought by the cooperatives remains unrecorded together with rather substantial quantities of prime fish that is kept by the crew, used as payments in kind to porters and handlers, or given out or sold to friends and passers-by. It has been estimated that this unrecorded quantity might represent between 1 and 2% of the total recorded landings.
Data were originally processed on a calendar month basis. Beginning in March 1992, however, for reasons that are unclear, reports covered the period from the 26th of the previous month up to the 25th of the current month. This illogical manner of processing data has been strongly discouraged, with the advice that monthly reports in future be submitted by the first week of the following month. It has also been strongly recommended that standardised data recording sheets be introduced. Raw data are now noted down on any available pieces of paper and are therefore lost or misplaced, meaning that some landings are never properly recorded and/or transcribed.
Simple marketing statistics for Massawa, Assab, and Asmara have also been collected since January 1992. Information is collected directly from fish stall operators at each of these places, and aggregated on a calendar monthly basis to give overall figures on sales by grade and losses due to spoilage and shrinkage. During the October 1992 Asmara fish markets survey exercise an effort was made to collect more detailed information on the respective numbers of private and institutional customers visiting each retail point each day, and the volumes and grades of fish they were purchasing. Information was also collected on the numbers of each type of customer who were unable to buy fish and for what reason. It was suggested that the “Daily Market Record Form” devised for this purpose, or some variation thereof, be used on a systematic basis to continue the collection of such more in-depth information, which provides a closer appreciation of demand factors and possible marketing problems.
Insofar as dried marine products are concerned, statistical data collection started only in March 1992 in Massawa and in June in Assab. Collected information concerns the origin and quantities of salt-dried shark meat, and the purchase/selling price per kilo. Statistical information is also being collected concerning dried trepang (sea cucumber), snail nails (categorized in large and small sizes), dried mullets (small, medium, and large), and salt-dried jacks.
Data on processed commodities are supposed to be collected also in the Dahlak archipelago, Tio, and Bassarole and sent along with the Assab and Massawa records to Asmara. So far the transmittal of information from field offices has been rather poor. As in the case of food-fish statistics, ad hoc surveys will have to be conducted in order to obtain a clearer picture of the situation with regard to volumes and disposition of products, and to provide some basis for more systematic monitoring.
It would seem advisable to bring all statistical data collection and processing under the supervision of one single unit (e.g. a DMRIF “Statistics and Information Unit”), as opposed to the present situation where statistics for food-fish (domestic market) and for processed products (export-oriented commodities) are handled through different channels. Also, the organisation of a standardised information flow from field offices to the central office is in need of very substantial improvement, both quality- and quantity-wise. Introduction of mechanised (computerised) data processing could play a significant role in reducing the time-lag between collection and availability of analysed information.
Such improvements to the statistical system would best be done in conjunction with efforts to build capabilities within the Department for the conduct of regular frame surveys and special purpose surveys (e.g., to verify weight conversion ratios, collect socio-economic and marketing/consumption information, etc.), the operation of a Catch Assessment Survey System covering both marine and freshwater fisheries, and the monitoring of the pattern of fishing pressure and the state of the stocks (vide Sector Studies Nos 2 & 4).
DMRIF staff have had little opportunity as yet to conduct any systematic research related to fish stock conditions or other marine resources and fisheries biological and socio-economic issues. A few officers have had some background in the organisation and execution of research work acquired through their experiences as undergraduate and graduate students at local, regional, and overseas universities. Several were able to gain further practical field research experience through their participation in frame and market surveys carried out in the latter half of 1992. More opportunities to acquire “hands-on” experience are likely to come through the “National Fisheries Surveys Programme” planned in connection with the Semhar Project, which intends to probe a range of questions of both biological and socio-economic import. Also, judging from contacts and correspondence already established, it is quite possible that marine biology and other researchers from overseas academic institutions may wish to develop collaborative links with DMRIF in order to carry out specific projects. The proposed GEF Coastal Conservation projecs (Annex 7) offers further (though at this stage still uncertain) possibilities for gaining research experience.
However, the most important collaborative links will probably be those established locally, with colleagues at the University of Asmara (see below). Of overriding importance at this juncture is the need to develop, in co-ordination with the University, an applied research agenda rationalised according to priority areas identified in the sector development programme as officially adopted. High on this agenda should be the task of improving the fund of knowledge on the exploitable fish stocks and other living resources of the Eritrean Red Sea, so that existing estimates may be verified or corrected as necessary.
On its own initiative DMRIF in early 1992 organised a residential training course at Hargigo for 40 young novices who were war refugees from the Sahel Region. The young men were given instruction in basic fishing and boat-handling techniques and related skills over a three-month period with the expectation that they would be able to resettle at sites along the depopulated Sahel coastline and develop their enterprises. Unfortunately due to lack of funds the Department has not been able to provide any follow-up on the resettlement aspect of the training scheme.
In terms of other training in the context of particular projects, mention has already been made of the scuba divers training course now being conducted in the Dhalaks by a volunteer specialist officer, and of the instruction that a group of local women are receiving in net-making and repair from a Masterfisher under the Urk Interchurch Foundation project.
In-service training opportunities have been provided to DMRIF personnel through the TCP Project in connection with the organisation and implementation of field survey work and subsequent data compilation and analysis. An initiative was also taken to sponsor seven DMRIF officers to attend brief courses to develop their computer skills for word processing, spreadsheet, and database applications. Further training opportunities are built in as a central component of the UNDP/UNCDF Semhar Project now getting underway, and are expected to provide a strong contribution to skill enhancement both for DMRIF staff and local fisherfolk.
As previously noted, DMRIF is promoting the idea of establishing a fisheries/marine technology training centre at the coast. Whilst the goals of such a centre -- wide-ranging skill development for fisheries staff and operators and promotion of national capabilities to provide technical support and servicing of the sector -- are certainly desirable in principle, the very considerable development and recurrent costs that would be entailed will also have to be carefully evaluated.
Article 5 of the draft Fisheries Proclamation provides for the establishment of a Fisheries Advisory Council (FAC) whose main function will be to advise on the management and development of fisheries and to ensure policy co-ordination amongst fisheries and related institutions. The FAC is to be composed of: a Fisheries Officer appointed by the Secretary, DMRIF; one representative each from the Department of Ports and Maritime Transport, the Department of Economic Development and Co-operation, and the University of Asmara; and at least of two persons engaged in the industry. It may invite other persons to participate in its meetings when deemed useful.
The FAC is expected to play a central role in harmonising the implementation of Government macro-economic policy with regard to the fisheries sector. It should prove useful in resolving conflict of competencies and “grey areas” between institutions, and be of particular value as an consultative and advisory body when management plans are being formulated. It should also serve an important role in facilitating the National Fisheries Development Programme.
Past experiences
In the 1980s under the former regime associations were promoted in both the Massawa-Dahlak and Assab areas. The Dahlak Fishermen's Service Cooperative reportedly was formed in 1981 with some 290 members, was officially registered as a legal entity in 1987, and had grown to around 480 members by 1988. It was composed of six village level associations from around the Dahlaks and had a central office at Jemhile on Dahlak Kebir Island. Its services to members included the supply against cash payment of various fishing inputs (gear, equipment, fuel, engines, and spare parts) and consumables (grain, tea, sugar, etc.), and operation as a marketing link (for a 5% commission on sales) to the Fish Production and Marketing Corporation (FPMC). The co-operative also channelled to its members inputs supplied on a loan basis by the LWF Massawa-Dahlak project. This project also provided two ferrocement boats which the co-op rented out to members. Mostly, however, members owned and operated their vessels on an individual basis.
A second Massawa area organisation, formed in the mid-1980s was the Semhar Cooperative. This group was originally supposed to absorb trainees out of the LWF/UNHCR/RRC project, itself originally intended for the rehabilitation of experienced “returnee” fishers. In fact the project ended up training a group of unemployed young men from the Massawa and Hargigo areas and was never involved with “returnees”. Of the 100 or so young men trained only about 20 remained seriously committed to fishing. The Semhar Cooperative was formed as a “producer co-operative” in which all boats, engines, gear, etc. that had been handed over by the LWF project in late 1986 and early 1987 were used collectively by the members. A combination of overhastiness in getting the organisation going, inexperience of members, absence of personal responsibility for looking after property, reliance on inappropriate models of equipment, and lack of spare parts for repairs yielded the not surprising result that all the co-op's resources and equipment had been used up and all its boats were inoperable within the first year. An evaluation mission recommended at this point that the Semhar group be turned into more of a service organisation, along the lines of the one operating in the Dahlaks. It appears however that no real recovery was achieved before the whole area was overtaken by events of war.
Meanwhile, in the south, efforts started in 1988 through the UNDP/UNCDF-funded Assab Project (fisheries and marketing development) to promote the formation of producer associations at major fish landings between Haleb Island and Barasole and link them together through an apex cooperative in Assab. Through this network it was planned to set up a fisheries input credit scheme and a catch collection and marketing service. Although there was no chance to develop the entire setup as planned before the project was abandoned due to the war in 1991, elements were already functioning on a pilot basis in 1990. A local boat was commissioned as an ice and fish carrier plying between Assab and the collection centres at Barasole and Ras Darma. On two occasions fresh fish were bulked and transported to Addis markets in the project's fish trucks. Furthermore, the input credit scheme was established using a revolving fund mechanism and nets, outboard engines, and related equipment were distributed through the apex co-operative to members of the local fishers' associations along the coast.
Current situation
The current situation with regard to fisher associations does not seem entirely clear. In the south, the associations and apex cooperative organised with the assistance of the former Assab project are no longer functioning, though there exists a remnant membership that could be revitalised in some form if properly encouraged. DMRIF has already taken steps in this direction by promoting in early 1992 the formation of an association involving fishers operating in and around Assab town. About 100 individuals are said to have joined, each agreeing to pay an initial subscription fee of Br 100. The association is supposed to serve members by advancing credits of inputs and supplies, but has not really consolidated itself as yet. A lack of motivation is reported, though this probably owes more to the current difficulties of obtaining supplies of inputs and ice needed to properly outfit fishing operations than to underlying morale.
The two organisations now buying and distributing fish from Massawa, the “Marat Bahri Fishermen's Cooperative” and the “Red Sea Fishermen's Service Cooperative”, appear in some ways to be co-operatives more in name rather than substance. This is particularly the case for the Red Sea group, which seems in effect to run as a private fish trading company. Its managers/directors operate their own fishing units and also provide advances to enable other vessel operators to obtain supplies of fuel, ice, food, etc. needed to mount fishing trips, recouping the money when catches are landed.
As far as is known, however, there is nothing in the way of a collective ownership share system and distinct legal status that marks the classic co-operative organisation.
Marat Bahri comes closer to conforming to this model. It comprises a group of around 300 paying members who mostly come from the main island of Dahlak Kebir. The co-op serves as a buying agency for members' catches and is supposed to provide them with fishing inputs on credit run through a revolving fund. Given the lack of locally available equipment and gear, it has not yet been able to provide this latter service in any effective way. Marat Bahri does however give advances to members against sale of catch to allow them to buy ice and fuel supplies needed on fishing trips.
What remains uncertain about any cooperative organisation in Eritrea for the moment are the questions of legal status and procedures through which groups will be registered, business conducted and the rights and obligations of members defined. The PGE may wish to study the legal and institutional arrangements that were in effect under the former regime with a view towards their revision and adaptation to fit present circumstances. Matters of legal status and standardisation of procedures will have to be clarified if co-operatives/associations are to play an important partnership role in the development of Eritrean fisheries.
The University of Asmara includes several branches whose curricula and teaching and research staff have interests and competencies related to the fisheries sector, including the departments of Marine Biology and Fisheries, Management, Accounting, and Law, and the Institute of Research and Development. The University's faculties, operations, and physical assets -- indeed, its whole performance as an institution -- was severely disrupted during the later stages of the war. In September 1990 all operations were shifted to the campus of Addis Ababa University except for certain extension courses, which continued to be taught at the Asmara campus. The move back to Asmara occurred a year later, in September 1991. Major curriculum development and restructuring are now being undertaken, though it may be some time before the University is able to function in a fully effective manner.
The status of the programme in Marine Biology and Fisheries has been rather unsettled in recent years. It was formerly a Unit under the Faculty of Natural Sciences, apparently became a Faculty in its own right in 1990, and was re-designated as a Department after the return of the University to the Asmara campus.
Under the restructuring now in process the Department of Marine Biology and Fisheries (DMBF) has been shifted to the College of Agriculture and Aquatic Sciences. Its staff is now comprised of three lecturers, one of whom serves as Department Head, and a laboratory technician. Two other teaching staff are expected to return from training abroad in 1993. Three students graduated with BSc. degrees in Marine Biology and Fisheries in September 1992, 10 and about 25 new students are anticipated to join the BSc. studies programme in the next academic year. An MSc. Degree programme is reportedly under development and may be launched subject to the availability of external support.
The DMBF formerly had a research station at Massawa, but this was heavily damaged during the war and will probably no longer be available to the Department anyway since the site has been designated for other use by the Massawa Municipality.
When it was still in operation during the latter half of the 1980s the research station was used as a base or part-time base for various investigations. Studies and projects carried out at that time included: “Marine fish food consumption in Asmara and Massawa Town”; “Survey of Coral Reefs Around Massawa”; various activities under the global Red Sea Monitoring Programme focusing on primary productivity and nutrient analysis; and research on mangrove stands.
DMBF's situation is still very much in a state of flux with respect to its staff establishment, facilities, enrollment, and academic and research programme, and all of these components should be evaluated and fashioned in a way that takes the fisheries sector strategic development orientations into account. It is understood that an international advisor may soon be appointed as Coordinator of Marine Research with the support of an overseas foundation. If this arrangement is fixed, it should be used to facilitate collaboration between DMRIF and DMBF on the planning and implementation of a marine biology and fisheries research programme with a strong applied orientation, geared to serve priority sector development needs.
