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2. Has higher growth in livestock production in Asia been associated with greater variability in Asian livestock production?§


Appendix 2A. - Growth in the production of livestock products in the Asia-Pacific region, 1961-2000
Appendix 2B. - The index of variability in the production of livestock products in the Asia-Pacific region, 1961-2000

§ Alicia Rambaldi is thanked for comments on this paper. She is not to blame for any errors.
One of the most noticeable developments to have occurred in the agricultural sectors of countries in the Asia-Pacific region over the last couple of decades has been the rapid growth in many - but not all - parts of the livestock sector. This growth has come about because of a combination of factors on the supply side as well as the demand side. New capital-intensive technologies have made possible the production of poultry and pigmeat in industrial style production facilities across Asia in countries where land is limited. This has greatly increased the supply of pork and poultry meat for domestic consumption or for sale on export markets. According to FAO's index of livestock production, the production of livestock products in the Asian and Pacific region increased almost six fold (from 28.7 to 165) between 1961 and 2000.

The development of the livestock industries has not occurred without criticism. Concerns have been raised about the environmental implications of the almost unrestrained growth that has been occurring in the industrialized livestock sector. The disposal of manure from the pig farms that are a part of this sector in many countries is a major problem in some areas, for example. The possible loss of genetic diversity in the livestock sector, the effect on income distribution and asset prices, and the impact on other agricultural and non-agricultural industries, are additional considerations. On the other hand, others see growth in the livestock industries as playing an important part in improving the nutritional status of low-income households, in providing employment to workers with few alternatives, and as providing income-generating opportunities to people living in rural areas. Many of these issues are not well understood and for that reason are the subjects of ongoing research in the FAO.

The issue that this chapter sets out to examine is whether there exists any association between increased livestock production in a country and the variability of this production in the same country over time. This particular issue appears to have received little if any attention on the part of analysts yet it is important. Variability of production could be viewed as a negative externality for consumers and producers. Low-income consumers are generally not well equipped to cope with fluctuating prices that accompany variable production. For example, they are likely to lack the means to pay the higher prices that accompany shortages and they may lack the ability to stockpile during periods of high production. Producers may find planning more difficult when faced with a highly variable environment. Unlike their counterparts in developed countries, producers in developing countries often do not have available to them risk reducing instruments such as futures markets or insurance. In developing countries where such schemes have been tried, they have not always been successful (Box 3). At the macro level, stability in the domestic production of food is important for developing countries that usually lack the financial resources to turn to international markets to meet domestic shortfalls. In addition, developing country governments faced with variations in domestic production may come to believe that market intervention on their part is the way to even out fluctuating production.

An opposing view is that variability is a necessary part of any market since it reflects changes in the economic environment, creating incentives and opportunities for those involved in the market. Changes in market prices associated with production variability will provide producers with opportunities to make profits and resources will move into and out of activities depending upon changes in relative prices. Certain industries will contract and others will expand. Likewise in principle, consumers will adjust their consumption behaviour depending upon changes in the prices for different commodities in the market. While these changes in producer and consumer behaviour will occur, there will be some costs associated with such changes. Whether these are significant in a particular industry or for a certain groups of consumers or producers is a question that can only be resolved through research.

Box 3 Sri Lanka's experience with livestock insurance

Abeyratne (2001) offers the following description of livestock insurance in Sri Lanka. It was first introduced into Sri Lanka in 1974. Initially it was designed to provide insurance cover to dairy cattle imported and distributed to farmers under an IDA/SRL Livestock Project. The scheme's conditions were revised from time to time. However it was not popular with dairy farmers, and the insurance was limited only to those farmers who were receiving bank loans for dairying. The insurance scheme was later expanded to cover buffaloes and goats. These schemes too were mostly limited to animals obtained on loan schemes either from banks or other sources. Today cattle, buffalo and goat insurance is made available through private insurance companies as well. Although attempts were made to formulate insurance programme for poultry, no scheme ever materialized due to the high risk and higher premiums that would be needed for such high-risk projects. Discussions were held to find out whether it would be possible to offer insurance to parent breeders. As yet, this has not happened.


The data and methodology

The data on livestock production came from the web site of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Coverage extended from 1961 to 2000. Two subperiods were also examined: these were 1961 to 1980 and 1981 to 2000. The methodology used to calculate growth rates is described in Box 4. This methodology is the same as that used in Box 1.1 of Chapter 1 to calculate growth in consumption.

Box 4 Methodology used to calculate production growth

To find the growth rates, production in country i of commodity j in year t, (Yijt), is hypothesised to grow from production in the initial year (Yij0), according to (1.0):

Yijt = Yij0exp(gijt×t) (1.0)

where g is the growth rate in country i of commodity j and t is the year

Taking logarithms of both sides, (2.0) and (3.0) are obtained:
ln(Yijt) = ln(Yij0) + gijtt (2.0)

and for year (t - 1)

ln(Yijt-1) = ln(Yij0) + gijt(t - 1) (3.0)

Subtracting (3.0) from (2.0) gives (4.0), and from this (4.1):
gijt = ln(Yijt) - ln(Yijt-1) (4.0)

gijt = gij + xt (4.1)

where gij is the average growth rate for the period studied and xt is an error term.

Equation (4.1) was estimated using the statistical package Microfit for each of the three periods 1961 to 1980, 1981 to 2000 and 1961 to 2000. The estimated value for gij was used as a point estimate of the growth rate in country i for commodity j providing that it was statistically different from zero at the 10 percent level or better. If the estimated value of gij was not statistically significant, growth in that particular country i, for that particular commodity j, was viewed as being zero.


Data for 19 countries in the Asia-Pacific region and for up to eight livestock products for each of these countries were examined. Table 18 contains a listing of the countries and the commodities investigated. Data were not available for every product for every country. For example, Pakistan, as a strict Muslim country, does not have a pig industry, while Australia, New Zealand and Japan produce little or no buffalo meat. Although there are differences across countries, in general goat meat, mutton and lamb, duck meat and buffalo meat are products that come mainly from small traditional farms and few tradeable inputs are used in their production. Data quality is an issue for a number of the countries examined. One of the reasons for this is that livestock information has not always been collected in a systematic fashion, and/or may involve a number of different agencies with differing objectives. Box 5 discusses this in relation to the data on China's beef industry.

Box 5 Government agencies involved in information collection for China's beef industry

There are many government bodies responsible for the collection and collation of agricultural data in China. These include the Ministry of Agriculture, National Bureau of Statistics, General Administration of Customs, State Meteorological Bureau, State Bureau of Industry and Commerce Administration, State Development Planning Commission, State Internal Trade Bureau, Ministry of Chemical Industry, Ministry of Railways and the All-China Federation of Supply and Marketing Co-operatives. Information collection methods include sample survey, bottom to top reporting, case study and core investigations. Smith (2001) makes the following points in relation to China's data.

· In most cases the information is designed only for the use of the particular line agency that has collected it. Access to data by other agencies is heavily restricted. This leads to efficiency losses and increased cost. Although the situation is being partially remedied by the setting up of information collation agencies such as the Ministry of Agriculture Information Center, the overlap and lack of openness of much of the collected data remains a serious problem.

· Multiple information channels and bottom to top reporting hierarchies have led to distortions of figures for political considerations. Output and production data is a strong reflection on administrative performance. Many figures are exaggerated at all levels in the hierarchy in order to win political advantage.

· In many cases there is a lack of co-ordination of agricultural information standards between various agencies and also between provinces. This relates to data definitions, statistical gathering techniques, modification methods and standardized point and period data standards.

· Funding for beef industry development programmes is heavily dependent on past performance levels of indicators such as cattle inventory, turn off and beef production. There is a strong incentive for officials at all levels to overstate statistics relating to the beef industry at their administrative level. Villages, towns and counties can all receive potentially large increases in funding if they can show that beef industry development has been successful. According to the National Bureau of Statistics, it is not easy to overstate land area or grain production, but it is very easy to overstate animal inventories and turn of numbers. Also when surveys are carried out, officials may direct sampling towards administrative units that have atypically high production figures.

· Slaughter numbers and beef production figures are not collected at slaughterhouse level. This is because the majority of beef production occurs at small slaughterhouses under private ownership. Supervision, inspection and taxation of these facilities is not widespread.


Table 18 Country and commodity coverage for the analysis

How much has meat production grown in the countries of Asia-Pacific?

In 1961, total meat production in the countries studied was 9 600 000 Mt, and by 2000, total meat production had grown by more than 900 percent to 90 919 000 Mt. China was the largest meat producer, accounting for 26.27 percent in 1961 (2 500 000 Mt) and 70.88 percent in 2000 (64 400 000 Mt). India had the second highest production of meat followed by Australia. For both of these countries, their relative shares declined because of the rapid growth in Chinese production. The Republic of Korea (South Korea) was the only country where the share of meat production increased between 1961 and 2000: its share of production among the countries studied rose from 1.09 percent to 1.79 percent (Table 19).

Table 19 Total meat production in the Asia-Pacific region and the share of each country, 1961 to 2000

Year

Unit

1961

1965

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

East Asia

China

%

26.27

44.18

42.31

44.94

50.06

54.61

59.60

66.35

70.88

Mongolia

%

1.71

0.98

0.96

1.03

0.77

0.59

0.49

0.29

0.25

South Asia

India

%

17.38

11.68

11.07

10.08

8.83

8.16

7.64

6.17

5.31

Pakistan

%

3.77

2.62

2.55

2.54

2.41

2.47

2.60

2.55

1.93

Bangladesh

%

1.74

1.31

1.36

1.08

0.71

0.68

0.60

0.51

0.47

Sri Lanka

%

0.40

0.34

0.31

0.26

0.18

0.14

0.10

0.12

0.10

Nepal

%

0.64

0.46

0.45

0.45

0.43

0.43

0.37

0.28

0.26

South-east Asia

Indonesia

%

3.48

2.45

2.38

2.40

2.26

2.72

2.84

2.62

2.13

Philippines

%

3.44

2.98

3.06

2.72

2.67

1.84

2.14

1.95

1.95

Malaysia

%

1.05

0.80

0.90

1.09

0.99

1.10

1.22

1.32

1.13

Thailand

%

4.32

3.24

3.68

3.35

3.03

3.06

2.59

2.52

2.06

Viet Nam

%

3.96

2.80

2.38

1.91

1.84

2.25

2.10

1.90

2.17

Laos

%

0.20

0.17

0.17

0.09

0.10

0.10

0.09

0.09

0.09

Myanmar

%

1.10

0.87

1.06

0.90

0.84

0.81

0.49

0.42

0.49

Cambodia

%

0.28

0.29

0.41

0.24

0.08

0.23

0.23

0.21

0.21

High-income countries

Australia

%

14.43

11.80

11.44

11.02

9.01

6.43

6.01

4.53

4.01

New Zealand

%

7.64

5.22

5.53

4.80

3.81

3.43

2.19

1.83

1.47

Japan

%

7.08

6.91

9.06

9.97

10.31

9.03

6.87

4.38

3.32

Korea, Rep. of

%

1.09

0.91

0.93

1.12

1.65

1.92

1.85

1.94

1.79

Total

Kt

9 706

15 464

18 095

22 204

29 538

38 340

51 023

72 712

90 919


Source: Calculated from FAO data

Of the different types of meat, pigmeat has been the most important meat in terms of quantity produced. In 1961, pigmeat represented 30.26 percent of total meat production. Beef and veal was next in importance followed by mutton and lamb. Pigmeat had become even more dominant by 2000 when it represented over 55 percent of the meat produced. Poultry meat had displaced mutton and lamb in second place while beef and veal was the third most important meat (Table 20).

On the one hand, the importance of pigs is not altogether unexpected. Pigs have bioenergetic features that make them efficient producers of meat. Pigs have a low basal metabolism, and as a result at the mid-point of their growth will channel almost two-thirds of their metabolised energy into weight gain whereas the share for a 300 kg steer is about 45 percent and between 50 and 60 percent for chickens (Smil 2000). Pigs also have a short gestation time, reproduction starts at four to eight months of age, pregnancy lasts 114 days on average, and litter sizes range from eight to eighteen (Smil 2000). They can also eat a wide range of feedstuffs. On the other hand, there are many cultural, religious and social biases against pigs that make the growth in pigmeat production perhaps a little surprising. Some of these are discussed in Chapter 4.

Table 20 Relative shares of different meats in the Asia-Pacific region, 1961-2000

Year

Mutton & lamb

Beef & veal

Pig meat

Poultry Meat

Goat meat

Other meat


%

%

%

%

%

%

1961

13.92

22.34

30.26

13.63

4.42

15.44

1965

9.37

18.05

47.59

10.69

3.07

11.23

1970

9.60

17.05

47.06

12.97

2.93

10.39

1975

6.95

18.46

47.97

14.12

3.05

9.45

1980

5.96

14.73

53.57

15.19

2.73

7.83

1985

5.29

11.66

58.19

14.51

2.77

7.58

1990

4.41

11.98

58.23

16.17

2.95

6.27

1995

3.71

12.32

55.03

20.16

2.78

6.00

2000

3.52

12.23

55.69

21.10

2.55

4.91


Source: Calculated from FAO data

Average rates of growth in total meat production were found to be statistically different from zero between 1961 and 2000 in all countries with the exception of Mongolia and New Zealand. Not unexpectedly in light of the information presented in Table 19 on each countries' share of production, the highest rate of growth was for China where the growth in total meat production averaged 8.28 percent for each year. The Republic of Korea (shown in the following figures as South Korea) had the second highest average rate of growth at approximately 7 percent. Most of the other countries where growth in total meat production occurred recorded growth rates in the range of 3 to 4 percent per year on average (Figure 2).

Figure 2 Annual growth in total meat production, 1961-2000

In the two subperiods 1961 to 1980 and 1981 to 2000, there were differences between the countries in patterns of growth. In 10 countries growth occurred in both subperiods; in two countries (Japan and Australia) growth occurred only in the first subperiod and in four countries (Cambodia, Laos, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh) growth was recorded in the second subperiod but not the first. Mongolia and New Zealand did not show any statistically significant growth in either of the two subperiods (Figure3).

Figure 3 Growth in total meat production, 1961-80 and 1981-2000

Growth rates were calculated for the other livestock products shown in Table 18. These are in Appendix A of this chapter. A number of features stand out:

Box 6 Changes in the distribution of Republic of Korea dairy farms by number of head

There has been a marked structural change in the South Korean dairy industry, with a decline in the number of very small farms - those having 4 or fewer head of cattle. This development in Korea is similar to the experience of Japan. The increase in the average herd size has resulted in an improvement in management. This, combined with an increase in the number of dairy cattle in South Korea, is behind the growth in milk production.

The index of variability in production

An index of variability in the production of each livestock product was calculated for each country producing that product. The methodology followed is described in Box 7. In brief, a trend level of production was calculated using the estimates of production growth presented already. The index of production was found using the trend levels of production and the actual levels of production. The advantage of this index other the commonly used measure of variability - the coefficient of variation - is that it takes into account any trend that exists in the data.

Box 7 The index of variability in production

The first step in calculating the index of variability involved finding the trend value (5.0). This was estimated from the growth rates found using (4.1). The proportionate deviation of this trend value from the actual value was then found for each year using (5.1). The final step involved calculating the standard deviation of the proportionate deviations using (6.0). This standard deviation was used as the index of variability in production.

Tijt = exp[gij + ln(Yij,-1)] (5.0)

(5.1)

(6.0)

where
tijt is the trend value for livestock product i in country j in year t

gij is the growth rate for livestock product i in country j

Yij,-1 is the production of livestock product i in country j, lagged one year

Dijt is the difference between the actual production (Yijt) of livestock product i in country j in year t, and the trend level of production from (6.0), expressed as a proportion of actual production (Yijt) and

Iij is the index of variability for product i in country j


Values calculated on the index of variability for total meats for 1961 to 2000 are shown in Figure 4. Cambodia, the Philippines and the Republic of Korea obtained the highest values on the index implying the greatest variability in production, while India and Nepal had the lowest values, implying the least variable production. There was a group of countries - Australia, Japan, New Zealand, Myanmar, Thailand, Indonesia and Sri Lanka - that obtained similar values on this index, indicating that their production variability was broadly the same for the period 1961 to 2000.

Figure 4 Index of variability for total meat production, 1961-2000

The index of variability was calculated for the different livestock products. These are in Appendix B.

The index of variability in production and production growth

To test whether there was any statistical relationship between the index of variability and growth in the production of livestock products, (7.0) was estimated:

Iij = b0j + b1jgij + b2jHij + b3jGij + nij (7.0)

where

Iij is the index of variability for country i and commodity j

gij is the growth in country i of production in commodity j

Hij is a dummy variable that takes a value of 1 for high-income countries, and 0 otherwise

Gij is a dummy variable that takes a value of 0 if the estimated growth rate was not statistically significant at the 10 percent level, and 1 otherwise

b0j, b1j, b2j and b3j are coefficients to be estimated

nij is an error term

The results from fitting this model to the data for the period 1961 to 2000 are shown in Table 21.

Table 21 Results from regression of the index of variability against production growth, the high income dummy and the significance of growth dummy, 1961 to 2000

Model

Estimated coefficient

t-statistic

p-value

Beef and veal




Constant

0.0764

4.79

0.0002

Growth

0.5001

1.39

0.1835

High-income dummy

0.0383

1.70

0.1098

Growth dummy

-0.0251

-1.29

0.2147

Buffalo meat




Constant

0.1067

4.38

0.0011

Growth

0.0825

1.54

0.1511

Growth dummy

-0.0712

-2.09

0.0602

Pigmeat




Constant

0.1986

3.36

0.0056

Growth

1.1000

0.78

0.4494

High-income dummy

-0.0189

-0.34

0.7396

Growth dummy

-0.1509

-2.59

0.0236

Chicken meat




Constant

0.3278

5.70

<0.0001

Growth

-3.0404

-3.26

0.0053

High-income dummy

0.01728

0.3852

0.6859

Growth dummy

-0.0395

-0.4124

0.7055

Duck meat




Constant

0.0435

2.95

0.0121

Growth

1.6642

0.53

0.6069

High-income dummy

0.2520

1.75

0.1054

Growth dummy

-0.4341

2.67

0.0206

Mutton and lamb




Constant

0.1615

2.65

0.0228

Growth

-0.1924

-0.17

0.8695

High-income dummy

-0.0018

-1.25

0.2378

Growth dummy

0.0985

1.11

0.2900

Goat meat




Constant

0.4291

3.46

0.0042

Growth

-5.4188

-3.04

0.0096

High-income dummy

0.6546

3.39

0.0049

Growth dummy

-0.0851

-0.56

0.5852

Total meat




Constant

0.0261

1.06

0.3090

Growth

0.4417

1.13

0.2790

High-income dummy

0.0258

1.17

0.2631

Growth dummy

0.0031

0.18

0.8576

Hen eggs




Constant

0.0349

0.32

0.7505

Growth

-0.0001

-0.49

0.6318

High-income dummy

0.0928

0.82

0.4257

Growth dummy

0.1290

1.27

0.2251

Cow milk




Constant

0.0977

5.59

<0.0001

Growth

0.7982

3.80

0.0018

High-income dummy

-0.0224

-0.98

0.3447

Growth dummy

-0.0544

-2.46

0.0263


The results presented in Table 21 indicate the following:

Concluding comments

The results in this paper show the extent of the growth that has occurred in the livestock industries of the countries of Asia. It is apparent that growth rates differ between countries and between the livestock industries. These changes have effects that extend beyond the livestock sector. For example, growth in the poultry meat and pigmeat industries has enormous implications for feed resources since it signals a shift from pasture based production systems for livestock to industries based upon cropping. Countries with inadequate local feed production have had to turn to imports to meet the feed needs of these industries. In Indonesia, for example, imports of animal feed accounted for 11.4 percent of the value of agricultural imports in 1985-86 and 12 percent in 1996-97. This dependence on imports of animal feeds led to the collapse of the poultry industry in 1998 since that industry was dependent upon imports for 70 percent of its feed requirements (Suryana, Bahri and Wahida 1998). An expanded livestock sector also has implications for the environment and for food distribution and marketing systems (Steinfeld 1998; Smil 2000). With pigmeat and poultry representing such a high proportion of the meat consumed in the Asia-Pacific region, improvement in feeding in these industries could provide substantial payoffs in terms of greater production from the same level of feed. Smil (2000) argues that the pig's omnivory presents tremendous opportunities for tapping underutilized or wasted feed resources ranging from unmarketable bananas to leucaena leaf meal and from cocoyams to seaweeds. On the other hand, technological breakthroughs in the use of pastures could swing the balance in favour of ruminants.

An association between growth in production and variability in production was discovered for only a limited number of the livestock products, the most important of which were chicken meat and cow milk. For the former, it seems that increased production has led to reduced variability in production, while for the latter increased production has been associated with increased variability. This suggests that the countries of the Asia-Pacific region have been able to expand these industries without having to deal with production shortfalls or oversupply.

References

Abeyratne, A. S. 2001. Perspectives and Strategies for the Asian Livestock Sector in the next Three decades (2000 - 2030) - Sri Lanka. Unpublished report prepared for FAO, Bangkok.

Smil, V. 2000. Feeding the World: a Challenge for the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge, Mass. MIT Press.

Smith, D. 2001. Data issues and reliability in the Chinese beef industry. mimeo.

Steinfeld, H.1998. Livestock production in Asia and the Pacific region: current status, issues and trends. World Animal Review.

Suryana, A., S. Bahri and Wahida. 1998. Key agricultural and agribusiness policy issues in Indonesia. mimeo.

Appendix 2A. - Growth in the production of livestock products in the Asia-Pacific region, 1961-2000


Growth in beef and veal production, selected countries in the Asia-Pacific region
Growth in buffalo meat production, selected countries in the Asia-Pacific region
Growth in chicken meat production, selected countries of the Asia-Pacific region
Growth in production of cow milk (whole fresh), selected countries of the Asia-Pacific region
Growth in duckmeat production, selected countries in the Asia-Pacific region
Growth in goatmeat production, selected countries in the Asia-Pacific region
Growth in hen egg production, selected countries in the Asia-Pacific region
Growth in mutton and lamb production, selected countries in the Asia-Pacific region
Growth in pigmeat production, selected countries of the Asia-Pacific region
Growth in poultry meat production, selected countries in the Asia-Pacific region

Growth in beef and veal production, selected countries in the Asia-Pacific region

Growth in beef and veal production, selected countries in the Asia-Pacific region

Growth in buffalo meat production, selected countries in the Asia-Pacific region

Growth in buffalo meat production, selected countries in the Asia-Pacific region

Growth in chicken meat production, selected countries of the Asia-Pacific region

Growth in chicken meat production, selected countries of the Asia-Pacific region

Growth in production of cow milk (whole fresh), selected countries of the Asia-Pacific region

Growth in production of cow milk (whole fresh), selected countries of the Asia-Pacific region

Growth in duckmeat production, selected countries in the Asia-Pacific region

Growth in duckmeat production, selected countries in the Asia-Pacific region

Growth in goatmeat production, selected countries in the Asia-Pacific region

Growth in goatmeat production, selected countries in the Asia-Pacific region

Growth in hen egg production, selected countries in the Asia-Pacific region

Growth in hen egg production, selected countries in the Asia-Pacific region

Growth in mutton and lamb production, selected countries in the Asia-Pacific region

Growth in mutton and lamb production, selected countries in the Asia-Pacific region

Growth in pigmeat production, selected countries of the Asia-Pacific region

Growth in pigmeat production, selected countries of the Asia-Pacific region

Growth in poultry meat production, selected countries in the Asia-Pacific region

Growth in poultry meat production, selected countries in the Asia-Pacific region

Appendix 2B. - The index of variability in the production of livestock products in the Asia-Pacific region, 1961-2000

Country

Beef & veal

Chicken meat

Mutton & lamb

Pigmeat

Buffalo meat

China

0.091

0.054

0.053

0.093

0.011

Cambodia

0.120

0.135


0.249

0.213

India

0.038

0.052

0.040

0.034

0.025

Indonesia

0.061

0.119

0.174

0.100

0.136

Korea, Rep. of

0.186

0.098

0.478

0.190


Laos

0.105

0.124


0.104

0.122

Malaysia

0.107

0.061



0.095

Mongolia

0.129

0.647

0.090

0.477


Nepal

0.018

0.049

0.018

0.030

0.051

Pakistan

0.026

0.117

0.091


0.035

Philippines

0.098

0.143

0.023

0.119

0.166

Srilanka

0.069

0.113

0.111

0.171

0.070

Thailand

0.057

0.084

0.324

0.155

0.069

Viet Nam

0.079

0.114


0.062

0.032

Bangladesh

0.085

0.133

0.199


0.094

Australia

0.097

0.076

0.126

0.067


New Zealand

0.097

0.123

0.066

0.073


Myanmar

0.028

0.121

0.107

0.127

0.035

Japan

0.131

0.071

0.300

0.103



Country

Duck meat

Hen eggs

Cow milk

Goat meat

Total meat

China

0.058

0.057

0.089

0.073

0.074

Cambodia

0.101

0.036

0.076


0.142

India


0.037

0.060

0.209

0.017

Indonesia

0.114

0.150

0.130

0.136

0.060

Korea, Rep. of

0.262

0.765

0.147

1.750

0.099

Laos

0.078

0.104

0.037

0.238

0.083

Malaysia

0.982


0.087

0.936


Mongolia


0.368

0.079

0.138

0.079

Nepal

0.140

0.082

0.017

0.015

0.020

Pakistan

0.125

0.091

0.099

0.093

0.037

Philippines

0.110

0.099

0.083

0.221

0.086

Srilanka

0.236

0.118

0.227

0.104

0.056

Thailand

0.086

0.085

0.161

0.159

0.063

Viet Nam

0.107

0.063

0.057

0.090

0.044

Bangladesh

0.111

0.131

0.053

0.134

0.085

Australia

0.125

0.065

0.044

0.406

0.065

New Zealand

0.950

0.061

0.057

0.651

0.061

Myanmar

0.219

0.091

0.119

0.083

0.064

Japan


0.043

0.041


0.059


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