Annex 2: Profiles of providers of agricultural extension services

A "farmers' farm", established and funded by large-scale commercial farmers through their various commodities. Operates as a private entity, separately constituted and self-funded. Comprises three sections: research and demonstration, farm management, and commercial agricultural production. Has 30 off-station research sites.

Organizational mandate: No externally driven mandate. Established as a field laboratory for agricultural research based on on-station research and experiments, and on-farm research and trials. Research section, and a commercial agricultural production section focusing on income generation, most of which is reinvested in the farm's research activities. Charges other organizations for use of its research facilities.

Motive for extension work: Generating and disseminating technologies for the benefit of all farmers.

Major extension approaches used: Field experiments, demonstrations, field days and discussion group meetings at which sales representatives from seed houses and agrochemical companies talk on new varieties and other innovations. Field days at off-station research sites to extend technologies. Summer and winter trial and experiment results conveyed through periodic reports/publications.

Extension/community development programmes: Include a maize variety evaluation programme on behalf of Seed Co, Pioneer, Pannar, Monsanto, National Tested Seeds and CIMMYT; variety trials for sunflowers and other oilseeds; and agronomic trials on irrigation, tillage, etc.

Sources of funding: Self-funded by large-scale commercial farmers through their commodities.

Sustainability of funding: Depends on the growers' ability to pay or the value of the work undertaken.

Geographic focus: The farm is located about 20 km from Harare, in agro-ecological region II. Generated technologies are adapted at off-station research sites throughout other regions, notably the midlands, eastern districts and the lowveld. Most of these sites are in commercial farming areas, and only about four or five in smallholder farming areas.

Target population/beneficiaries: Members and affiliate groups. Large-scale commercial farmers are the prime target clients. Field days and demonstrations also benefit smallholder farmers.

Coverage: Most technology generation and dissemination is on-farm, where research personnel are based. Off-station research sites have extended the coverage considerably, although there is no significant impact in smallholder farming areas as yet.

Mobility capacity: Reasonably good.

Effectiveness: Off-station research sites have generated much interest among smallholder and emergent black commercial farmers. Smallholder farmers' attendance at demonstrations and field days for summer crops has increased, but winter trials are still dominated by large-scale commercial farmers.

The largest non-sectarian, non-governmental development organization in the world. Operates in more than 60 countries to implement humanitarian aid and development programmes. Operational in Zimbabwe since 1992.

Organizational mandate: In Zimbabwe, the focus is on long-term development initiatives in small economic activity development, agriculture and natural resources, and health. Specific objectives include enhancing the household livelihood security of poor people in rural areas, strengthening the capacity of banks and NGO financial institutions to extend credit to microenterprises in the informal sector of the economy, establishing and facilitating market systems for agricultural products in rural areas, and creating jobs by expanding financial services in both rural and urban areas.

Motive for extension work: Facilitating the processes of social change and community and rural development.

Major extension approaches used: Needs assessments, orientation sessions and the training of all involved actors as part of individual or community mobilization and capacity building activities.

Extension/community development programmes: Numerous programmes in three sectors: agriculture and natural resources, small economic activity development, and health and nutrition. The agriculture and natural resources sector implements four programmes: a small dams rehabilitation programme aims at reducing the vulnerability and food-insecurity of drought-prone areas through community management of small dams; an agribusiness entrepreneur network and training programme has the objective of establishing a sustainable network of agribusiness agents in rural communities to facilitate the distribution of agro-inputs and outputs to and from smallholder farmers; a rainwater harvesting project promotes rainwater harvesting as an alternative water supply; and a land reform project supports complementary approaches to equitable and sustainable land reform in the country. Programmes are designed to complement each other.

Sources of funding: International donors.

Sustainability of funding: Not secure; most NGOs and international donors are withdrawing for socio-politico-economic reasons.

Geographic focus: The small dams rehabilitation programme is being implemented in Masvingo and Midlands Provinces; the Agribusiness Entrepreneur Network and Training Programme in Masvingo, Midlands, Mashonaland East, Mashonaland Central and Manicaland Provinces; and the other two programmes are both in Masvingo Province.

Target population/beneficiaries: Poor people in rural areas, the informal sector, rural enterprises in general, and rural microentrepreneurs (particularly women). Farmers are the prime beneficiaries of agriculture and natural resources sector programmes.

Coverage: Poorly represented on the ground, but direct delivery and partnerships with government departments, the private sector and other NGOs reach more than 450 000 people nationwide.

Mobility capacity: Equipped with numerous vehicles, including four-wheel drive motor vehicles.

Effectiveness: Reasonably successful in Zimbabwe, owing to holistic analysis and understanding of households, cross-sectoral integration of complementary interventions, coherent information systems, and use of institutionalized learning processes.

A community development agency commissioned by the Catholic Church. Classified as an NGO.

Organizational mandate: Undertaking community development work in rural areas.

Motive for extension work: Facilitating rural development through various intervention programmes.

Major extension approaches used: Group extension methodologies.

Extension/community development programmes: Four major community development programmes: a water development and sanitation programme funds small irrigation schemes, bore-holes and water-harvesting projects at rural schools, using the schools' roofs; a sustainable agriculture programme trains local farmers on sustainable agriculture through the use of organic material from local farm production; a development education programme trains participants in project management, including leadership, conflict resolution, constitution development and record keeping; and a programme on gender and development involves people from surrounding areas in gender sensitization and ensures that all programmes are implemented in a gender-sensitive way.

Sources of funding: The Catholic Church.

Sustainability of funding: Has a relatively sustainable source of funding.

Geographic focus: Countrywide, but teams in provinces operate as independent units.

Target population/beneficiaries: Rural communities.

Coverage: Operates from the province, working through AGRITEX extension workers in districts. AGRITEX extension workers help monitor the projects and train project beneficiaries.

Mobility capacity: Very good.

Effectiveness: As is the case with most NGOs, the agency is relatively effective largely because it uses community participation approaches.

The umbrella body that represents all large-scale commercial farmers and advocates for increased output from the large-scale commercial farming sector. The Agricultural Research Trust Farm is part of this organization.

Organizational mandate: Represents all large-scale commercial farmers, politically, economically and from a technical perspective.

Motive for extension work: Boosting agricultural production and increasing productivity and efficiency in the large-scale commercial farming sector.

Major extension approaches used: Periodic newsletters based on interest,e.g. grain, cereal, coffee and oilseeds; technical publications to disseminate research results; "circuses" where invited speakers disseminate research results through farmers' clubs at two annual events - one for winter and one for summer crops; crop competitions as extension vehicles (e.g. the Maize 10-Tonne Club, the Soybean 4-Tonne Club and the Maize Grower of the Year); and successful farmers (competition winners) host field days, which are held in conjunction with on-farm discussions. The number of field days and discussions varies according to the enterprise (e.g. the Commercial Cotton Growers' Association meets three times each growing season).

Extension/community development programmes: Include research work at the Agricultural Research Trust Farm. Rather than providing a blanket extension service, most extension is in response to specific individual or group requests.

Sources of funding: Self-funded, through membership licences and legislative commodity levies.

Sustainability of funding: Significantly sustainable.

Geographic focus: Countrywide.

Target population/beneficiaries: Large-scale commercial farmers.

Coverage: Based on a technical team at the head office consisting of an agronomist, an entomologist, a plant pathologist, a soils and nutrition expert and a marketing specialist. No technical staff on the ground, but the union is represented by commodity-based committees, e.g. cattle, cotton and grain. Activities such as field days are conducted in conjunction with DR&SS technical staff and marketing agents from various private agrochemical companies.

Mobility capacity: Relatively good.

Effectiveness: Very good, given the remarkable success of the large-scale commercial farming sector (in spite of other factors).

Established in 1989 by the Government of Zimbabwe through the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management. Basically an NGO that is registered as a welfare organization. Its mother body, the CAMPFIRE Association, is an association of rural district councils involved in CAMPFIRE activities.

Organizational mandate: Focus on community-based management of natural resources; designed to deal with equity and regulatory problems after the realization that communities with natural resources, especially wildlife, were not benefiting from those resources. Initial focus on wildlife has diversified into other natural resources and initiatives such as fisheries, forestry and timber products, mining and ecotourism.

Motive for extension work: Ensuring the sustainable management of natural resources by the communities that live and stand to benefit from them. Ensuring that the benefits from natural resources accrue to the communities that coexist with them.

Major extension approaches used: Group extension activities.

Extension/community development programmes: CAMPFIRE.

Sources of funding: Donors.

Sustainability of funding: Indications that one of the main donors, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) might pull out.

Geographic focus: Countrywide.

Target population/beneficiaries: All rural communities that are guardians of natural resources.

Coverage: Operated in 41 districts in 2000/2001, up from 37 districts in 1999/2000. Appears to be poorly represented at the grassroots level, but works through ZimTrust officers at the grassroots level. The involvement of rural district councils gives the programme very widespread extension coverage.

Mobility capacity: Well equipped and well provided with transport facilities.

Effectiveness: A resounding success. Its major strength is community participation.

A rural development unit under the Agricultural and Rural Development Authority, which is itself a parastatal under the Ministry of Lands, Agriculture and Rural Resettlement.

Organizational mandate: Enhancing rural development through the production and marketing of milk. Grassroots objectives are to develop strong viable business-oriented smallholder dairy groups through adopting more formalized business procedures, mutual support and exchange of ideas, and comparing and contrasting experiences and efforts to develop entrepreneurship among involved farmers. Also includes support, training and initial management of smallholder dairy projects as the basis of a viable smallholder dairy sector.

Motive for extension work: Enhancing the development of a viable smallholder dairy sector.

Major extension approaches used: The educational approach: agricultural extension and liaison workers attend courses on smallholder dairying and disseminate what they have learned to smallholder dairy farmers. Field days and competitions are used as platforms for farmer-to-farmer dissemination of information.

Extension/community development programmes: Dairy Development Programme.

Sources of funding: The government through its Public Sector Investment Programme, the Bulk Milk Counterpart Funds and Africa Now (United Kingdom). The Norwegian Development Agency (NORAD) was the major funder for the ten projects under Phase I, with contributions from the Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA) for one of them. The Zimbabwe European Union Microprojects Programme has provided grant assistance for one project.

Sustainability of funding: Funding was guaranteed until 2002.

Geographic focus: Mashonaland East, Mashonaland Central, Mashonaland West, Manicaland and Midlands Provinces. Programme expansion to Masvingo and Matebeleland South Provinces.

Target population/beneficiaries: Smallholder farmers.

Coverage: Personnel at 17 project sites in seven provinces,i.e. covers 17 of Zimbabwe's 57 administrative districts. Each project is staffed by one project officer, one centre attendant and two liaison workers. Local Milk Collection Centres are each staffed by a processing technician, assistants and vendors employed by the local Dairy Farmers' Association. Most extension work in smallholder dairying is conducted through AGRITEX. The official liaison worker to farmer ratio is about 1:60, but liaison workers sometimes work with unregistered, interested farmers who are not counted in these figures.

Mobility capacity: Motor cycles and bicycles for officers and liaison workers.

Effectiveness: Fairly effective. Success is based on dairying being a fairly new technology that is appropriate to and compatible with local socio-cultural and economic environments. Regular, monthly payments throughout the year make smallholder dairying more appealing than other agricultural activities.

Under the Ministry of Lands, Agriculture and Rural Resettlement; the principal agricultural extension agency in Zimbabwe throughout the period of the study. (It has since been disbanded under the recent restructuring of the Ministry and the subsequent placing of research and extension under the same directorate.)

Organizational mandate: Provision of general agricultural extension services and training for farmers in the use of new technologies. Operational objectives include: creating awareness among all landholders; identifying farmer groups for extension efforts; promoting training schemes, particularly for farmers with limited resources; assisting farmers in solving their own problems; and furthering agricultural development. Other responsibilities include resettlement and land-use planning, conservation and forestry extension in smallholder farming areas.

Motive for extension work: Increasing agricultural productivity, while maintaining the sustainability of the agricultural production base. Mandate-driven.

Major extension approaches used: In most cases, the group extension approach; occasionally, the project extension approach. The group extension approach includes group development areas (GDAs) comprising general development interest groups and commodity interest groups, master farmer training, trials and demonstrations, radio listening groups (RLGs), competitions, field days and study tours. The project extension approach is based on special interest projects. The training and visit (T&V) extension system was abandoned after evaluations found that it was inappropriate for the local context.

Extension/community development programmes: Very general, including a general crop production programme and a livestock development programme.

Sources of funding: Mainly government. Donor funding for specific interventionist programmes and projects such as the T&V system (World Bank), and the Smallholder Dry Areas Resource Management Project (International Fund for Agricultural Development [IFAD]).

Sustainability of funding: Introduction of the Economic Structural Adjustment Programme (ESAP) in 1991 led to gradual reduction in government spending; subsequent budgetary cuts to AGRITEX had serious implications for its operations: in 1993, 79 percent of its budget went on salaries; and in 1995, it exhausted its transport allocation within the first quarter of the year. Donor funding showing signs of donor fatigue and withdrawals for political and socio-economic reasons.

Geographic focus: Countrywide.

Target population/beneficiaries: Concentrates efforts on agricultural extension services for the smallholder farming sector (small-scale, resettlement and communal-area farmers) as an institutional mandate; services large-scale commercial farmers on request. Offers services free of charge to other government agencies, NGOs and private companies with projects in rural areas.

Coverage: The most extensive in the country; offices at the national, provincial and district levels. Each district staffed by one district agricultural extension officer, about three agricultural extension officers, three agricultural extension supervisors and up to 20 extension workers. Ward- and village-level extension workers make for good AGRITEX representation at the farmer level. Extension worker to farmer ratios vary from 1:50 in irrigation and resettlement schemes to 1:2 000 in remote communal areas, with a national average of 1:800 (Mudimu, 1998).

Mobility capacity: Faces serious transport problems. Halting of World Bank-funded T&V scheme has left a depleted and ageing fleet. Travel and subsistence budget is too small to ensure reasonable coverage of all areas by senior and village-level extension officers and workers.

Effectiveness: Blanket public good service, which farmers are expected to use. Adoption of available technologies has not reached expected levels; farmers suggest there is a shortage of new knowledge or information to transfer to them. Use of top-down extension approaches has reduced the effectiveness of extension services.

The main body within the Ministry of Lands, Agriculture and Rural Resettlement responsible for carrying out agricultural research in Zimbabwe, comprises: the Crop Breeding Institute; Seed Services; the Plant Protection Unit; the Chemistry and Soil Analysis Department; the Livestock Research Department; and the Dairy Services Department. Also houses the Farming Systems Research Unit, a semi-autonomous body within the research organization.

Organizational mandate: Conducting research and generating technologies to increase agricultural productivity in all agricultural commodities except tobacco, sugar, forest products, fish, pigs and animal diseases. After independence in 1980, the mandate was redefined to include research and generation of technologies to increase agricultural productivity in the smallholder agriculture sector, while maintaining or even increasing production in the large-scale commercial sector. Offers advisory services on agricultural matters to other government departments, private organizations and individuals.

Motive for extension work: Improving the adoption of generated technologies. Mandate-driven.

Major extension approaches used: On-farm trials, field days and look-and-learn tours. AGRITEX carries out most of the extension work regarding new technologies.

Extension/community development programmes: Farming Systems Research Unit research programme, and on-farm trials programme.

Sources of funding: Mainly government. International donors for some research and extension programmes.

Sustainability of funding: Not secure.

Geographic focus: Decentralized structure, research stations located in all agro-ecological regions.

Target population/beneficiaries: The smallholder agriculture and large-scale commercial sectors.

Coverage: Most of the Farming Systems Research Unit's work is carried out in Mangwende and Chivi communal areas. Generally, very thin on the ground at the local level, usually only one research officer per district. District offices established under a decentralization programme initiated in 1984.

Mobility capacity: Relatively poor.

Effectiveness: Badly affected by ESAP-induced budget cuts: fewer and fewer on-farm trials being carried out; greater distances between extensionists and farmers. About 80 percent of budget allocations go on salaries.

An arm of the Ministry of Lands, Agriculture and Rural Resettlement.

Organizational mandate: Implementing and managing the nationwide Livestock Herd Health Management Programme, involving monitoring and controlling animal diseases through research, enforcing regulations, vaccinations, treatments, dipping, and veterinary extension - mainly advice on animal health.

Motive for extension work: Ensuring a disease-free livestock sector. Mandate-driven.

Major extension approaches used: Veterinary activities are compulsory, resulting in the use of top-down, coercive approaches. Educational approach includes veterinary courses and meetings.

Extension/community development programmes: The nationwide Livestock Herd Health Management Programme encompasses numerous splinter programmes.

Sources of funding: Mainly government for salaries and general operational costs. Donor funding for specific projects/programmes.

Sustainability of funding: Not secure.

Geographic focus: Countrywide.

Target population/beneficiaries: Mainly farmers within the smallholder farming sector.

Coverage: Good district-level coverage by researchers-cum-extensionists: each district entitled to one district veterinary officer, two animal health inspectors, six veterinary extension assistants and one animal health assistant; also orderlies, dip attendants and 56 casual workers. (Some positions unfilled, however.) Average extension assistant to stock owner ratio ranges between 1:1 000 and 1:3 000.

Mobility capacity: Poorly equipped: only one working vehicle often serves an entire district.

Effectiveness: Not secure given the limited resources, personnel and transport facilities.

A community-based organization formed through partnerships among organizations.

Organizational mandate: Providing training and extension for emergent and existing tobacco farmers, now expanded to include other high-value commodities and operations where AGRITEX might be lacking, such as paprika, horticulture, cotton and irrigation development. For irrigation development the trust runs a scheme for three years, during which it builds capacity in local communities, and after which the schemes are handed over to AGRITEX. Offers financial brokerage services and advocacy for better services, cheaper inputs and competitive markets.

Motive for extension work: Emphasizing and facilitating the development of smallholder farmers in terms of the production and marketing of lucrative cash crops.

Major extension approaches used: Lectures, practicals and demonstrations.

Extension/community development programmes: Include:i) a ten-month intensive training programme for school leavers;ii) weekly modular courses for practising farmers;iii) an on-farm training programme for busy farmers and pregnant women farmers, which uses AGRITEX extension advisers; andiv) a capacity building programme to provide AGRITEX extension workers with more information so they can become more effective facilitators in the rural development process.

Sources of funding: Mainly donors. Government provides financial resources through established training centres, and large-scale commercial farmers provide seedlings, tillage, etc. to involved farmers.

Sustainability of funding: At risk, if the current socio-politico-economic environment prevails.

Geographic focus: Five farmer training centres: Trelawney in Mashonaland West Province, Dozmery in Mashonaland East, Panorama in Mashonaland Central, and Nyamazura and Nyamasinga in Manicaland.

Target population/beneficiaries: Small-scale, resettlement and communal-area farmers; cooperatives involved in tobacco, paprika, cotton and irrigated-crop production.

Coverage: Serves 10 000 barley tobacco growers, 6 000 flue-cured tobacco producers, and 500 oriental growers, as well as working with cotton farmers. Average of one extension adviser per three administrative districts;i.e. an extension adviser to farmer ratio ranging between 1:20 000 and 1:150 000, depending on the size of the district.

Mobility capacity: Relatively good.

Effectiveness: Sources within the trust claim that its intervention has led to an increase in tobacco yields from 500 kg to 2 000 kg per hectare, compared with an average of 900 kg per hectare in smallholder areas that are not covered by the trust.

A parastatal agency within the Ministry of Environment and Tourism; the official agency for implementation of the state-initiated Rural Reforestation Programme.

Organizational mandate: Promoting tree planting and management as an integrated part of farmers' agricultural work; developing and maintaining farmers' awareness of the needs to increase rural wood supplies and conserve indigenous wood resources; and promoting awareness of the need to use wood efficiently.

Motive for extension work: Maintaining existing woodlands and putting trees back on the land. Mandate-driven.

Major extension approaches used: Demonstration woodlots near nurseries show resettlement and communal-area farmers correct methods of establishing, maintaining and exploiting plantations. Awareness campaigns through short courses and one-day workshops. Most forestry extension work is done through AGRITEX. Wider dissemination of information through schools and farmer-to-farmer extension.

Extension/community development programmes: Rural Reforestation Project, Social Forestry Project, National Tree Planting Day Programme, and Forestry Conservation Awareness Programme.

Sources of funding: Mainly government; also commercial activities and grants from donors (GTZ for the Social Forestry Project).

Sustainability of funding: Sustainable until the late 1990s. Now threatened by stringent budget cuts. Continued donor funding also not secure.

Geographic focus: Countrywide.

Target population/beneficiaries: Farmers in communal and resettlement areas, with emphasis on rural women as the traditional collectors of fuelwood and other forest resources. Master farmers are the main targets for extension, which they are expected to pass on to others.

Coverage: Very thin on the ground: an average of only one forestry extension officer per district at extension worker to farmer ratios of between 1:7 000 and 1:50 000. AGRITEX does most groundwork.

Mobility capacity: One vehicle or motorcycle per district. Severe transport problems in some districts.

Effectiveness: Two potentially conflicting roles (forest enterprise and regulatory body) pose problems in maintaining identity and purpose. Enforces provisions of restrictive legislation such as the Forest Act and encourages farmers to plant trees at the same time, resulting in conflicting regulatory and extension roles and detrimental effects for the conservation forestry programme.

A German Government agency responsible for planning and implementing development cooperation projects for and on behalf of the German Ministry of Economic Cooperation.

Organizational mandate: Initiating, facilitating and funding rural development projects, as well as supporting capacity building of rural development institutions (government and non-governmental) within developing country contexts.

Motive for extension work: Facilitating processes of social and organizational change to enhance services management and delivery in support of rural communities and rural development.

Major extension approaches used: Since 1995, participatory extension approaches have been developed in Zimbabwe to foster more client-oriented and demand-led responses from extension service providers.

Extension/community development programmes: Involved in community development programmes since 1990: piloted participatory extension approaches in the Integrated Rural Development Project with the Intermediate Technology Development Group (ITDG) (1995-1998); facilitated AGRITEX's Agricultural Services Management Project (since 1998); and funded the Social Forestry Programme, which it jointly implemented with the Forestry Commission.

Sources of funding: The German Government via the Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation.

Sustainability of funding: Long-term involvement in Zimbabwe's rural development. Emphasizes the promotion of sustainability through partners' participation and ownership.

Geographic focus: The Integrated Rural Development Project spans the national, provincial and district (local community) levels; the Agricultural Services Management project is national; and the Social Forestry Programme operates in Hwedza, Hwange, Mwenezi, Gwanda and Muzarabani Districts. A poultry programme is being implemented in Wedza District, and the Participatory Extension Programme in Chivi District. Training in participatory extension approaches has expanded from Masvingo to Matebeleland North and South.

Target population/beneficiaries: Poor and disadvantaged rural communities and the organizations that provide services to them.

Coverage: Serious understaffing results in ineffective coverage of operational areas, but good collaboration and coordination (including monthly meetings) with other organizations - such as AGRITEX and the Forestry Commission, who have better grassroots representation - result in a situation of organizations complementing and depending on each other.

Mobility capacity: Reasonably good.

Effectiveness: The use of participatory extension approaches and the organizational development of government departments have laid the basis for greater self-exploration, learning and accountability among the managers and providers of services for farmers.

An NGO involved in technology development and dissemination for small-scale producers in agroprocessing, mining, energy, construction, transport and light engineering.

Organizational mandate: Focuses on developing and disseminating appropriate technologies for the production and marketing of agricultural produce. Emphasis on developing appropriate technologies, developing technology dissemination approaches, and/or finding ways of improving technology dissemination approaches (technology delivery or extension), as well as improving technology adoption, policy formulation and programme development.

Motive for extension work: Strengthening technology and institutional capacity, and improving leverage in the livelihoods of rural communities through promoting technology dissemination and improving technology adaptation and adoption.

Major extension approaches used: Action research, with an emphasis on participatory extension approaches. ITDG facilitation sites are used for pilot programmes that involve small-scale producers and aim to develop and adapt technologies. Research results and experiences are made available to other organizations with wider geographic coverage and are used in policy formulation and programme planning.

Extension/community development programmes: Three programmes: the Food Security Project aims at understanding and addressing constraints to household food security; the General Rural Livelihoods Project is based on the Food Security Project but has a far broader focus and the aim of testing the facilitation approach as a way of addressing such problems as rural poverty and natural resources management; and the Natural Resources Programme recognizes that sustainable natural resources management in Zimbabwe has to follow a community-based approach and currently focuses on trying to understand the communities that ITDG will be working with.

Sources of funding: Donors, mainly from the European Union, particularly the United Kingdom.

Sustainability of funding: Not secure given the current socio-politico-economic environment.

Geographic focus: The Food Security Project is being implemented in Chivi District; the General Rural Livelihoods Project in Nyanga District; and the Natural Resources Programme across a wider area, which includes Chivi, Nyanga, Chimanimani and Gwanda Districts.

Target population/beneficiaries: Small-scale producers in agriculture (and other sectors of ITDG involvement) are the primary targets. Works with other associations and institutions involved with the same target beneficiaries, including the Zimbabwe Farmers' Union, rural district councils and the CAMPFIRE Association.

Coverage: Site facilitators at all pilot programme sites (one officer per area) work with local institutions such as rural district councils, support institutions such as AGRITEX and research institutions in particular districts.

Mobility capacity: Relatively good; all site facilitators use vehicles.

Effectiveness: The Chivi Food Security Project has been a resounding success, and other projects are following in its footsteps. The Nyanga General Livelihoods Project is on course and expected to produce positive lessons. Work in Chimanimani and Gwanda is still in its infancy, so it is difficult to assess its impact. Whether a project is conceived as positive or negative, there are always lessons to be learned and useful experience for the primary beneficiaries of that project.

An international research institute specializing in maize and wheat research.

Organizational mandate: Improving national and international food security and alleviating poverty through research in maize and wheat, while protecting the natural resources on which future productivity depends. Conducts crop and natural resources management research designed to exploit the full potential of improved seed and to preserve or enhance farmers' soil and water resources.

Motive for extension work: Promoting the widespread and effective use of maize and wheat varieties as a means of ensuring food security in developing countries.

Major extension approaches used: On-station research, on-farm trials, demonstrations and field days.

Extension/community development programmes: Implements, inter alia, four major programmes: conservation of invaluable maize and wheat genetic resources from around the world; research programmes to increase the productivity of maize and wheat within local farming systems, while protecting the natural resources on which future productivity depends; and the economics programme, which generates information for research programmes and provides information for decision-making at the farm level.

Sources of funding: International donors in Australia, Canada, Denmark, the United States, the Netherlands, etc.

Sustainability of funding: Relatively stable and quite sustainable given its international focus.

Geographic focus: Most work is based at the CIMMYT centre about 13 km north of Harare. Off-station and on-farm research sites are spread throughout the country.

Target population/beneficiaries: Only maize research benefits smallholder farmers because wheat production is still in the hands of large-scale commercial farmers.

Coverage: Research staff at the CIMMYT centre, and collaboration with DR&SS research stations in different geographic and agro-ecological regions of the country, which extends the coverage.

Mobility capacity: Reasonably good.

Effectiveness: The maize programme is developing and disseminating streak-resistant varieties and hybrids, developing locally adapted drought- and low-nitrogen-tolerant maize varieties, and providing maize farmers with alternatives for sustainably managing low-fertility soils. However, the extent to which smallholder farmers (the bulk of local farmers) have adopted these technologies remains open to question.

Administrators of local-level development activities through its network of District Administrators.

Organizational mandate: Responsible for initiating and implementing development activities; coordinating and monitoring the delivery of advice, extension services and other forms of assistance by government and non-governmental agencies within an integrated project planning and management framework; carrying out surveys and censuses for planning purposes; advising local people about government policy; facilitating community participation in project implementation; and monitoring and evaluating rural development initiatives.

Motive for extension work: Not directly involved in agricultural extension programmes, but coordinates the process and helps to mobilize the communities.

Major extension approaches used: None.

Extension/community development programmes: Community Action Programme, and Poverty Alleviation Action Programme.

Sources of funding: Government.

Sustainability of funding: Not secure.

Geographic focus: Countrywide.

Target population/beneficiaries: All rural inhabitants.

Coverage: Represented at the district level by District Administrators.

Mobility capacity: Relatively good.

Effectiveness: Activities concerning the in-house monitoring and evaluation of rural development programmes are not very evident on the ground.

Recently amalgamated new government ministry responsible for tackling issues pertaining to youth, gender and employment creation. Comprises three departments: employment creation, youth development and gender.

Organizational mandate: Facilitating the socio-economic empowerment of communities through advocacy and developing entrepreneurship focused on youth, women and the unemployed. Specific objectives include: developing a policy framework for micro- and small enterprises; analysing policy,i.e. by-laws affecting the informal sector or small business enterprises; developing investment packages for small and microenterprises; designing projects/programmes for employment creation; and developing and operating micro-lending programmes for the informal sector and small and microenterprises (including the smallholder agriculture sector).

Motive for extension work: Facilitating and enhancing the socio-economic empowerment of communities through advocacy and entrepreneurship development.

Major extension approaches used: Mainly group extension methods.

Extension/community development programmes: Training courses for target beneficiaries on improving business management, gender and project planning and management; capacity building programmes for the informal sector through developing participants' lobbying or advocating skills; encompasses farmer training in the management of agribusinesses and small-scale enterprises.

Sources of funding: Government and international donors.

Sustainability of funding: Not secure.

Geographic focus: Countrywide.

Target population/beneficiaries: Youth, women and the unemployed,i.e. most community members within the smallholder agriculture sector.

Coverage: Collaborates with line ministries and government departments on the ground (e.g. AGRITEX provides technical training). Trains individuals or groups, facilitates established linkages and mobilizes communities.

Mobility capacity: Poorly equipped and almost immobile.

Effectiveness: Too early to judge.

An agency and statutory body within the Ministry of Environment and Tourism.

Organizational mandate: The public trustee of all natural resources; engaged in the direct supervision of natural resources utilization, including enforcing conservation measures.

Motive for extension work: Conservation of all natural resources. Mandate-driven.

Major extension approaches used: Based on a criminalization policy with regulations. To improve effectiveness, policy has shifted from policing to a more integrated approach using education and extension work to manage natural resources: awareness raising campaigns through workshops, courses, competitions, films and literature. Forms conservation commit-tees, and complements the reforestation drive by working through interest groups such as master farmer groups and schools.

Extension/community development programmes: Enforces the Natural Resources Act (1942), the Forestry Produce Act (1981), the Parks and Wildlife Act, and the Forestry Act (1948, amended 1982); all include penalties for non-compliance. Implements education programmes and awareness raising campaigns.

Sources of funding: Mainly government.

Sustainability of funding: Affected by ESAP and its resultant budget cuts.

Geographic focus: Countrywide.

Target population/beneficiaries: Largely indigenous farmers in small-scale, resettlement and communal areas. Laws and regulations also apply to large-scale commercial farming and urban areas.

Coverage: Very thin on the ground: offices and personnel at the district level only. Education and awareness programmes implemented by AGRITEX. Depends on the unreliable Zimbabwe Republic Police to enforce fines for environmental wrongdoing.

Mobility capacity: Poor transport facilities.

Effectiveness: Effective policing and legislation made difficult by farmers' dislike of coercive conservation (a hangover from the colonial period), resulting in continued destruction of natural resources and limited success for conservation programmes. Change in policy towards education has greatly improved awareness and farmer participation in conservation programmes.

The decentralized administrative arms of the Ministry of Local Government.

Organizational mandate: Spearheading and coordinating development initiatives and administrative issues at the local or district levels.

Motive for extension work: Facilitating rural development. At the operational level, the objective is to improve the living standards of rural people.

Major extension approaches used: Depends on individual programme and collaborating partners.

Extension/community development programmes: Include the Poverty Alleviation Action Programme, which seeks to build the capacity of communities to develop on their own. Also involved in collaborative initiatives such as the Social Forestry Programme and CAMPFIRE.

Sources of funding: Mainly government; other donors fund some specific rural development initiatives/programmes.

Sustainability of funding: Not secure.

Geographic focus: Countrywide.

Target population/beneficiaries: Rural people living in their areas.

Coverage: Thin on the ground: each district contains between 7 000 and 50 000 households. Most programmes are implemented through district-level coordination.

Mobility capacity: Most officers are motorized.

Effectiveness: Relatively effective because of their good conduct and proximity to communities at the grassroots level.

Established in 1964 as a forum for addressing the burning issues of the day and galvanizing people into action for change. Transformed into a centre for leadership training and development education. A centre of the Catholic Church and classified as an NGO.

Organizational mandate: Focuses on research, extension and training in various fields, including agriculture, home economics and the development and use of appropriate technologies such as solar dryers for horticultural produce. Four additional priority areas have recently been added: skills training, advocacy work, employment creation and AIDS education. The organizational objective is to promote the sustainable, integrated human development of the poor and marginalized groups to enable them to help themselves.

Motive for extension work: Facilitating the processes of social change, community and rural development.

Major extension approaches used: Short- and long-term courses, workshops, lectures, demonstrations and practicals.

Extension/community development programmes: Programmes in training, research, extension and administration are handled by administrative wings of the same names. Issues addressed include youth, agriculture and farming and income-generating projects.

Sources of funding: The Catholic Church and other donors.

Sustainability of funding: Relatively stable.

Geographic focus: Countrywide, but especially in Mashonaland provinces.

Target population/beneficiaries: Poor and marginalized groups: microenterprise development consultancy (training) services focus on agriculture, and provide individuals and communities at the grassroots level with relevant practical skills for small-scale businesses; school leavers and unemployed youth are also targeted.

Coverage: Very thin on the ground. Collaboration with government agencies (e.g. AGRITEX) and NGOs (e.g. the Farmers' Development Trust) to improve effectiveness.

Mobility Capacity: Relatively good.

Effectiveness: Relatively successful on the ground.

A government-to-government rural development initiative funded by the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD).

Organizational mandate: The overall objective is to provide poorer people in the drier communal areas with enhanced food security and incomes, based on sustainable and drought-tolerant resources management by and for the community. Aims at strengthening communities' capacity to manage and develop their shared resources to the best and lasting advantage (with support from government and non-governmental institutions whose capacities are strengthened by the programme) and at preserving the environment while enhancing improved outputs from better resources management.

Motive for extension work: To ensure food security, improve resources management and strengthen the capacity of rural communities.

Major extension approaches used: Training sessions, participatory rural appraisals, participatory adaptive trials, adaptive research techniques and farmer-to-farmer dissemination of information through exchange visits.

Extension/community development programmes: Splinter programmes include communal resources management projects, the Gully Reclamation and Catchment Area Rehabilitation Project, irrigation development, agricultural development, water harvesting and spreading, and capacity building. Related programmes are the South Eastern Dry Areas Project and the Smallholder Irrigation Support Programme, which are funded by IFAD.

Sources of funding: IFAD.

Sustainability of funding: Relatively sustainable (at least for now).

Geographic focus: The communal areas of six districts in Manicaland Province (Buhera, Chimanimani, Chipinge, Makoni, Mutare and Nyanga), and five districts in Masvingo Province (Bikita, Chiredzi, Chivi, Masvingo and Mwenezi).

Target population/beneficiaries: Poor people living in the drier communal areas of Zimbabwe.

Coverage: Programme coordination by the Ministry of Lands, Agriculture and Rural Resettlement. Implementation on the ground involves a number of players with more extensive coverage (DR&SS, AGRITEX, the Department of Veterinary Services and the Department of Natural Resources).

Mobility capacity: Several vehicles ensure reasonable mobility.

Effectiveness: Too early to judge. The first programme evaluations were under way while this study was being conducted.

An NGO founded in 1994 and drawing heavily on the resources and experiences of its predecessor organization, the Fuelwood Crisis Consortium (FCC).

Organizational mandate: Focuses on facilitating the development and application of innovative approaches aimed at diversifying and improving rural livelihoods and based on the utilization, commercialization and sustainable management of natural resources.

Motive for extension work: Developing the self-sufficiency of rural communities through improving the management and sustainable utilization of indigenous natural resources; supporting and developing the management capabilities of local-level institutions in the sustainable utilization of natural resources; encouraging local efforts and responsibility in participatory natural resources management; assisting the alleviation of environmental degradation in refugee-impact areas; encouraging collaboration among institutions active in indigenous resources management; and advocating for policies that enhance the achievement of these objectives.

Major extension approaches used: Participatory rural appraisals and training courses.

Extension/community development programmes: Directly implements four programmes: the Managing our Indigenous Tree Inheritance Programme; Permaculture in Refugee Settings; Sengwe Women Crafts Project; and the Community Drought Mitigation Project. Supports CAMPFIRE and the Community-Based Natural Resources Management Programme through training and information provision. All programmes are designed to improve rural livelihoods, based on the utilization, commercialization and sustainable management of natural resources.

Sources of funding: International donor agencies.

Sustainability of funding: Not secure.

Geographic focus: The Managing our Indigenous Tree Inheritance Programme is being implemented in Chiredzi, Chipinge, Chimanimani, Nyanga and Rushinga districts; and the other programmes have more extensive coverage (appear to be countrywide).

Target population/beneficiaries: The primary target group is rural communities whose welfare is inextricably linked to the welfare of the environment in which they live. In addition to specially designed intervention programmes, a range of technical support services are provided to community-based organizations, central government agencies, local government authorities, partner NGOs, international organizations and bilateral and multilateral funding agencies.

Coverage: Personnel at head office in Harare, and five sub-offices in Chiredzi, Chipinge, Chimanimani, Nyanga and Rushinga. At the grassroots level, SAFIRE relies on collaboration with government agencies and other NGOs.

Mobility capacity: Relatively good.

Effectiveness: Use of participatory approaches in programmes has ensured relative success in most interventions.

An institute of higher learning (academic institution) and a centre for research. Important units include the Faculty of Agriculture, the Department of Mining Engineering, the Development Technology Centre, the Centre for Applied Social Sciences, and the Institute of Environmental Studies.

Organizational mandate: Undergraduate teaching, postgraduate training, research and involvement in outreach activities. The ultimate objective is to contribute to the national goals of increasing agricultural productivity, ensuring national food security, raising income levels and improving household welfare for the majority of the rural population.

Motive for extension work: Training and research designed to increase the productivity, efficiency, viability and sustainability of agricultural enterprises. Outreach activities are part of community development initiatives and a strategic marketing technique.

Major extension approaches used: On-site studies, workshops, on-farm trials and field days.

Extension/community development programmes: Numerous donor-funded research projects and outreach programmes.

Sources of funding: Government for salaries and general operational costs. International donors for specific projects/programmes.

Sustainability of funding: Fairly stable.

Geographic focus: Countrywide.

Target population/beneficiaries: Research and outreach activities are principally targeted at rural contexts (smallholder farming areas), although research results and other interventions also benefit urban populations (e.g. urban cultivators) and large-scale commercial farmers.

Coverage: Unevenly distributed throughout the country. The presence and number of personnel in a particular province or district depend on specific interventions.

Mobility capacity: Excellent: most projects have at least one or two four-wheel drive vehicles.

Effectiveness: Fairly effective, although many interventions are not sustainable because they are based on three- to five-year projects, which limits their impact at the ground level. Some studies have tended to be donor-driven and/or too academic, with little application to grassroots realities.

The umbrella organization that represents all smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe, in all the matters that concern them. These are small-scale, resettlement and communal-area farmers.

Organizational mandate: Liberalization of the economy has led to the union's role shifting from being mainly policy and price negotiation to being facilitation of smallholder agriculture sector development. The changed major drive focuses on improving the market, technical, and general socio-economic position of smallholder farmers. Assists farmers with transporting their produce to markets.

Motive for extension work: Providing technical and market information as a means of improving the welfare of smallholder farmers.

Major extension approaches used: The study group method to provide technical and/or production information; study groups comprise farmers who come together to share ideas, experiences and information about a specific issue in order to meet identified needs, with reference to written self-study materials. Promotes the concept of commodity associations, from the national to the village level, which network with other stakeholders for service delivery. The Market Capacity Building Programme and exchange visits are also used.

Extension/community development programmes: Include the Market Capacity Building Programme, the Study Group Programme, women and youth development programmes, agroforestry, the Livestock Revolving Fund, and the livestock and crops insurance programmes.

Sources of funding: Member subscriptions, commodity levies and donors such as the Swedish Cooperative Centre, the Fredrich Ebert Foundation, the Kellogg Foundation, ESSOR (France) and DANIDA.

Sustainability of funding: The numbers of smallholder farmers involved and the money generated from crop and livestock production give subscriptions great potential as a long-term funding source. Funding therefore remains sustainable, even in the case of donor withdrawal.

Geographic focus: Countrywide.

Target population/beneficiaries: All smallholder farmers.

Coverage: Offices in 32 of the country's 56 districts are each staffed by a district coordinator and a clerk/typist, although staffing levels vary among districts. Village- and ward-level representation through farmers' clubs and committees established to facilitate communication.

Mobility capacity: Relatively well motorized; at least one four-wheel drive vehicle in most districts.

Effectiveness: Although not all farmers are members, structures represent members from the village to the national level. This effective structure on the ground allows the organization to position itself in important service delivery institutions, such as the Livestock Development Trust (LDT) and input credit schemes. Through study groups and market capacity building initiatives smallholder farmers have pooled resources and formed companies to acquire inputs and to handle and market produce.

A private entity classified as a private agrochemical input supplier.

Organizational mandate: No externally driven mandate. As an independent private organization, its line of interest is in manufacturing and marketing agricultural chemicals and fertilizers.

Motive for extension work: Increasing farmers' awareness and use of available fertilizers and agrochemicals with the ultimate objective of increasing sales and maximizing profits. Extension programmes are run for business motives: "investing in the extension programme in anticipation of a return".

Major extension approaches used: To improve farmers' awareness and adoption of technologies, group extension methods such as meetings, farmer training, demonstrations and field days. Sponsors competitions such as the commercial and communal areas' Tobacco Grower of the Year.

Extension/community development programmes: Works with the Southern African Development Community (SADC)/International Centre for Research in the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) Matopos Research Station and AGRITEX in a research programme to develop fertilizers for drier regions and boost the agriculture sector in those regions through irrigation schemes. ICRISAT carries out the research, the company provides research material and AGRITEX disseminates the generated technologies. A complementary programme established a nationwide network of company depots to improve the availability and accessibility of fertilizers and agrochemicals to smallholder farmers through reducing transport costs, thereby effectively ensuring that the technology is more affordable to impoverished smallholder farmers.

Sources of funding: Self-funded.

Sustainability of funding: Depends on the company's ability to function, which in turn depends on the operational environment. Affected by the unstable economic environment (e.g. severely declined demand for fertilizer or agrochemicals).

Geographic focus: Countrywide, particularly in Matebeleland South and Midlands Provinces (especially Gwanda, Tsholotsho and Zvishavane Districts).

Target population/beneficiaries: Both large-scale commercial and smallholder farmers, but the research programme is directed to smallholder farmers in drier regions.

Coverage: Very poorly represented on the ground, with only 35 representatives to cover both the commercial and the communal farming sectors. Heavy dependence on AGRITEX for wider dissemination of technologies, and employs trainers to train farmers in the use of company-generated technologies.

Mobility capacity: All representatives are motorized. Sometimes provides AGRITEX with transport to ensure that its programme and work are effective.

Effectiveness: Quite effective, although while farmers have already adopted maize hybrids, they have only partially adopted complementary technologies such as chemical fertilizers (used by only 40 percent of smallholder farmers).