STATUS AND TRENDS IN MANGROVE AREA EXTENT WORLDWIDE

Indonesia

Vegetation description

Mangroves are widespread along the coast of Indonesia. They are keep found along the eastern shore of Sumatra, the western and eastern shores of Kalimantan, the western and southern shores of Bird’s Head as well as the southern shore of Irian Jaya, and the shores of the Aru islands, with limited other areas in south-eastern Sulawesi and along the northern shore of Java. Their structure is simple and they constitute belts of mainly Rhizophora sp., Avicennia sp., Sonneratia sp., Ceriops sp., Xylocarpus sp. and Lumnitzera sp., determined by soil, current and inundation patterns. Tree heights are usually between 7 and 25 m. Large areas of mangrove, especially near the estuaries of major rivers, have been disturbed by extraction for fuelwood, charcoal and tannin production.

Continuing cutting has given rise to thickets of the fern Acrostichum aureum and Acanthus spp., by which natural regeneration of the main mangrove species is greatly impaired.

Martosubroto, P. & Naamin, N. 1977. Relationship between tidal forests (mangroves) and commercial shrimp production in Indonesia. Marine Resources Indonesia 18: 81-86.

National level mangrove area estimates

Year

Area
(ha)

Source

Trend

Methodology/Comments

1950

2 501 825

Martosubroto, P. & Naamin, N. 1977. Relationship between tidal forests (mangroves) and commercial shrimp production in Indonesia. Marine Resources Indonesia 18: 81-86.

Map analysis. This figure excludes Bali and Nusa Tenggara and provides a low estimate for Irian Jaya.

1973

3 807 100

Directorate of forestry Planning. 1981. Report on the Forest of Indonesia. Publication No. 18, 1981

Cited in: Sutter, H., Ministry of Forestry, Government of Indonesia, FAO. 1989. Forest Resources and Land Use in Indonesia.

This figure excludes Nusa Tenggara.

1977

9 500 000

Martosubroto, P. & Naamin, N. 1977. Relationship between tidal forests (mangroves) and commercial shrimp production in Indonesia. Marine Resources Indonesia 18: 81-86.

1978

1 000 000

Directorate of Forest Planning. 1979. Forestry in Indonesia 1978. Bogor

Cited in: FAO, UNEP. 1981. Tropical Forest Resourcess Assesment Project, Forest Resources of Tropical Asia. FAO, UNEP, 475 pp. According to the authors this figure has to be considered as on the high side.

1978

3 600 000

Soemodihardjo, S. 1978. Utilization and management of mangrove resources in Indonesia.

Cited in: Snedaker, S.C. 1984. The Mangroves of Asia and Oceania: Status and Research Planning. In: proceedings of the Asian Symposium on Mangrove Environment Research and Management, p 5-15 Kuala Lumpur, August 25-29, 1980. Edited by E. Soepadmo, A.N. Rao and D.J. MacIntosh. 1984

1978

3 627 119

Wiroatmodjo, P. and Judi, D.M. 1978. Pengelolaan hutan payau di Indonesia / Management of brakish-water forests in Indonesia. Presented at Seminar on Mangrove Ecosystem, 27 February - 1 March 1978, Jakarta.

Cited in: FAO. 1982. Management and utilization of mangroves in Asia and the Pacific. FAO environment paper 3. 160 pp.

This figure does not include Bali.

1978

3 707 119

Knox, G. and Miyabara, T. 1984. Coastal Zone Resource Development and Conservation in Southeast Asia with special reference to Indonesia. UNESCO East-West Centre, Jakarta Pusat, Indonesia, 182 pp.

Based on: Burbridge, P. R., Koesoebiono. 1980. Management of Mangrove exploitation in Indonesia; Wiroatmodjo, P. and Judi, D.M. 1978. Pengelolaan hutan payau di Indonesia / Management of brakish-water forests in Indonesia. Presented at Seminar on Mangrove Ecosystem, 27 February - 1 March 1978, Jakarta

1980

2 171 300

Sutter, H. 1989. Forest Resources and Land Use in Indonesia. Forestry studies: I-1. MOF - FAO.

Vegetation map of Outer Islands at the scale of 1:2 750 000, source date 1972; Jawa and Bali at scale
1: 1 000 000.

1982

3 177 200

Sutter, H., Ministry of Forestry, Government of Indonesia, FAO. 1989. Forest Resources and Land Use in Indonesia. Forestry studies: I-1. MOF - FAO.

Bina Programme 1982 & FAO 1981 and 1982 edited from Asian Wetland Bureau, quoted in article in The Jakarta Post of 27 March 1989 by Information Officer at AKEPHI, the Network for forest Conservation in Indonesia.

1982

4 251 011

FAO. 1985. Mangrove management in Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia. FAO Environment Paper (FAO), no. 4. FAO, Rome, 62 pp.

BINA program - Directorate of Forest Planning

1982

4 254 312

Forestry Department. 1982

X

Cited in: Soemodihardjo, S., Wiroatmodjo, P., Abdullah, A. Tantra, I.G.M. and Soegiarto, A. 1993. Condition, socio-economic values and environmental significance of mangrove areas. In: Clough, B.F. 1993. The Economic and environmental values of mangrove forests and their present state of conservation in the South-East Asia/Pacific Region. p. 17-38 Mangrove Ecosystems Technical Reports vol.3 ITTO/ISME/JIAM Project PD71/89. Rev. 1(F) Okinawa, Japan, ISME. 202 pp.

1983

2 176 300

Saenger, P., Hegerl E.J. and J.D.S., Davie. 1983. Global status of mangrove ecosystems. Commission on Ecology Papers No.3. IUCN. Gland, Switzerland. 88 pp.

Secondary reference, no primary source provided. The "Year" is the publication year. The figure is very similar to the one cited in Sutter, et al. 1989 (see above) It could refere to the same source, the difference in the figure could be due to a different conversion factor used.

1984

4 250 000

Darsidi, A. 1984. Mangrove forest management in Indonesia. In: Soemodihardjo, S. et al (eds) Proceedings of the Seminar on the mangrove ecosystem II, Baturaden, 1982. LIPI : 19-26

Cited in: Soegiarto, A. 2000. Research and conservation of Mangrove ecosystem in Indonesia. In: Proceedings of the International Wokshop 26-30 March, 2000, Okinawa, Japan - Asia-Pacific cooperation on Research for conservation of Mangroves. This figure could refer to For. Dep. 1982. (see above)

1984

4 345 116

Soegiarto and Sukardjo. 1984.

Cited in: Cholik, F. and A. Poernomo. 1986. Development of aquaculture in mangrove areas and its relationship to the mangrove ecosystem. In: Mepham, R.H. 1986. Papers contributed to the workshop on strategies for the management of fisheries and aquaculture in mangrove ecosystems. p. 93-104. Bangkok, Thailand, 23 June 1986. The "Year" is the publication year.

1985

3 790 500

Regional Physical Planning Programme for Transmigration (RePPProT mid 1980's, 1985-89)

Cited in: The World Bank. 2001. Indonesia: environment and natural resource management in a time of transition. Washington DC. World Bank. 147 pp.

1985

3 737 340

National Forest – Iventory. 1993. INTAGM Dep. Kehutanan using Landsat data from early and mid -1980's

X

Remote sensing.

1988

4 542 100

Spalding, M.D., Blasco, F. and Field, C.D., eds. 1997. World Mangrove Atlas. The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japan. 178 pp.

Map analysis. Scale 1:2 500 000. According to the authors, the estimate by Soemodihardjo, S. et al., 1993 (see above, ref. year 1982) is likely to be more accurate.

1988

3 493 110

Ibid.

X

Combined national level mangrove estimate based on the following remote sensing studies. The reference year is the area weighted average: Bali: Forestry Department. 1982 (cited in Soemodihardjo, S., Wiroatmodjo, P., Abdullah, A. Tantra, I.G.M. and Soegiarto, A., 1993 ). (Ref. Year: 1982). Irian Jaya: National Forest - Inventory, INTAGM Dep. 1993. (by Hatari, H. pers comm 2002). (Ref. Year: 1985). Java: Regional Physical Planning Programme for Transmigration (RePPProT mid 1980's (1985-89) (cited in The World Bank, 2001). (Ref Year: 1985). Kalimantan: National Forest - Inventory, INTAGM Dep., 1993. (by Hatari, H. pers comm 2002). (Ref. Year: 1985) Maluku: National Forest - Inventory, INTAGM Dep. 1993 (by Hatari, H. pers comm 2002) (Ref Year: 1985) Nusa Tenggara, Sulawesi: FAO, Directorate General of Forest Inventory and Land Use Planning. 1995. (Ref Year 1989). Sumatera: Aizpuru, M., Blasco, F. 2000 Reference Year: 2000.

1989

3 743 500

FAO, Directorate General of Forest Inventory and Land Use Planning. 1995. Second Interim Forest Resources Statistics Indonesia. UTF/INS/066/INS

Remote sensing. Same figures as in Nat. For. Inv., 1985 (see above) except for Sulawesi.

1992

3 515 471

Selamat Datang di Situs- Departemen Kehutan Republik Indonesia. n.d. Peta Fungsi Kawasan Hutan (Peta Tata Guna Hutan Kesepakatan).

Remote sensing imagery (Landsat)

1993

2 490 185

Giesen, W. 1993. Indonesia's mangroves: an update on remaining area and main management issues. Presented at the international seminar on coastal zone management of small island ecosystems. Ambon 7 - 10 April 1993. AWB Indonesia. 10 pp

Calculation on remaining mangrove areas based on RePPProT's (1985-1989) series and Land-system maps plus remote sensing information for some of the islands.

1996

3 533 600

Kitamura, S., Anwar, C., Chaniago, A., Baba, S. 1997. Handbook of mangroves in Indonesia - Bali & Lombok - JICA, ISME, Japan, p.119.

Secondary reference, no primary source is provided.

2000

4 000 000

Aizpuru, M., Achard, F., and Blasco, F. 2000. Global Assessment of Cover Change of the Mangrove Forests using satellite imagery at medium to high resolution. In EEC Research project n 15017-1999-05 FIED ISP FR – Joint Research center, Ispra.

National level estimate extrapolated from a remote case study (Java) plus literature review.

2000

2 423 700

World Resources Institute. 2000. World resources 2000-2001: people and ecosystem—the fraying web of life. Washington, DC., UNDP. 400 pp.

Secondary reference, no primary source provided. "Year" is the publication year.

Trends in mangrove area extent over time

Box 2. The Indonesian mangroves: actual status and available information.

The archipelago of Indonesia contains the largest area of mangroves in the world. The country can be divided in eight main groups of islands: Bali, Irian Jaya, Java, Kalimantan, Maluku, Nusa Tenggara, Sulawesi and Sumatera. Mangroves are located along the coast of all islands, totalling 3,493,110 ha (ibid), distributed as shown in table 1.1.

There is a rich literature on the status and extent of Indonesian mangroves. However, the estimates vary tremendously, from 1,000,000 (Directorate of Forestry Planning, 1979) to 9,500,000 ha (Martosubroto, P. and Nurzali, N. 1977).

Table 1.1 Mangrove extent in Indonesia per group of island

ISLAND

extent (ha)

%

Bali

1 950

0,1

Irian Jaya

1 326 990

38,0

Java

33 800

1,0

J. Tengah

18 700

0,5

J. Barat

8 200

0,2

J.Timur

6 900

0,2

Kalimantan

1 139 460

32,6

K.barat

194 300

5,6

K.Tengah

48 740

1,4

K. Timur

775 640

22,2

K.selatan

120 780

3,5

Maluku

148 710

4,3

Nusa Tenggara

15 400

0,4

Sulawesi

256 800

7,4

Sumatera

570 000

16,3

Indonesia total

3 493 110

100

The total number of country specific references reviewed for Indonesia is 29 providing 424 datasets (27 at national level and 397 at sub-national level). The analysis of the existing documents highlighted the lack of recent reliable assessments covering the whole country and a composite national level estimate was thus created using the most recent, reliable sub-national level information. The weighted average year for this estimate is 1988. The regression analysis for the period between 1980 and 2000 shows a loss of mangroves of 1,324,000 ha, equalling 31 percent of the extent in 1980.

Discrepancies between the various assessments analyzed were mainly due to the different cover of the surveys with some of the studies assessing the extent of a group of islands (e.g. Kalimantan or Sulawesi) without covering all the islands included in the group. Trends in area changes over time developed for each group of islands were used to generate the overall trend for the country as a whole. The lack of recent estimates of the area of mangroves found on Irian Jaya, which contains the largest mangrove area of all the islands, was a major constraint. Only 9 different estimates were identified for this island with the latest available information dating from 2000.

For a list of references for these estimates please refer to

FAO. 2002. FAO’s database on mangrove area estimates, by M.L. Wilkie, S. Fortuna and & O. Souksavat. Forest Resources Assessment Working Paper No. 62. Rome.

Year	Area (ha)	Source	Trend	Methodology/Comments
1950	2 501 825	Martosubroto, P. & Naamin, N. 1977. Relationship between tidal forests (mangroves) and commercial shrimp production in Indonesia. Marine Resources Indonesia 18: 81-86.		Map analysis. This figure excludes Bali and Nusa Tenggara and provides a low estimate for Irian Jaya.
1973	3 807 100	Directorate of forestry Planning. 1981. Report on the Forest of Indonesia. Publication No. 18, 1981		Cited in: Sutter, H., Ministry of Forestry, Government of Indonesia, FAO. 1989. Forest Resources and Land Use in Indonesia. This figure excludes Nusa Tenggara.
1977	9 500 000	Martosubroto, P. & Naamin, N. 1977. Relationship between tidal forests (mangroves) and commercial shrimp production in Indonesia. Marine Resources Indonesia 18: 81-86.
1978	1 000 000	Directorate of Forest Planning. 1979. Forestry in Indonesia 1978. Bogor		Cited in: FAO, UNEP. 1981. Tropical Forest Resourcess Assesment Project, Forest Resources of Tropical Asia. FAO, UNEP, 475 pp. According to the authors this figure has to be considered as on the high side.
1978	3 600 000	Soemodihardjo, S. 1978. Utilization and management of mangrove resources in Indonesia.		Cited in: Snedaker, S.C. 1984. The Mangroves of Asia and Oceania: Status and Research Planning. In: proceedings of the Asian Symposium on Mangrove Environment Research and Management, p 5-15 Kuala Lumpur, August 25-29, 1980. Edited by E. Soepadmo, A.N. Rao and D.J. MacIntosh. 1984
1978	3 627 119	Wiroatmodjo, P. and Judi, D.M. 1978. Pengelolaan hutan payau di Indonesia / Management of brakish-water forests in Indonesia. Presented at Seminar on Mangrove Ecosystem, 27 February - 1 March 1978, Jakarta.		Cited in: FAO. 1982. Management and utilization of mangroves in Asia and the Pacific. FAO environment paper 3. 160 pp. This figure does not include Bali.
1978	3 707 119	Knox, G. and Miyabara, T. 1984. Coastal Zone Resource Development and Conservation in Southeast Asia with special reference to Indonesia. UNESCO East-West Centre, Jakarta Pusat, Indonesia, 182 pp.		Based on: Burbridge, P. R., Koesoebiono. 1980. Management of Mangrove exploitation in Indonesia; Wiroatmodjo, P. and Judi, D.M. 1978. Pengelolaan hutan payau di Indonesia / Management of brakish-water forests in Indonesia. Presented at Seminar on Mangrove Ecosystem, 27 February - 1 March 1978, Jakarta
1980	2 171 300	Sutter, H. 1989. Forest Resources and Land Use in Indonesia. Forestry studies: I-1. MOF - FAO.		Vegetation map of Outer Islands at the scale of 1:2 750 000, source date 1972; Jawa and Bali at scale 1: 1 000 000.
1982	3 177 200	Sutter, H., Ministry of Forestry, Government of Indonesia, FAO. 1989. Forest Resources and Land Use in Indonesia. Forestry studies: I-1. MOF - FAO.		Bina Programme 1982 & FAO 1981 and 1982 edited from Asian Wetland Bureau, quoted in article in The Jakarta Post of 27 March 1989 by Information Officer at AKEPHI, the Network for forest Conservation in Indonesia.
1982	4 251 011	FAO. 1985. Mangrove management in Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia. FAO Environment Paper (FAO), no. 4. FAO, Rome, 62 pp.		BINA program - Directorate of Forest Planning
1982	4 254 312	Forestry Department. 1982	X	Cited in: Soemodihardjo, S., Wiroatmodjo, P., Abdullah, A. Tantra, I.G.M. and Soegiarto, A. 1993. Condition, socio-economic values and environmental significance of mangrove areas. In: Clough, B.F. 1993. The Economic and environmental values of mangrove forests and their present state of conservation in the South-East Asia/Pacific Region. p. 17-38 Mangrove Ecosystems Technical Reports vol.3 ITTO/ISME/JIAM Project PD71/89. Rev. 1(F) Okinawa, Japan, ISME. 202 pp.
1983	2 176 300	Saenger, P., Hegerl E.J. and J.D.S., Davie. 1983. Global status of mangrove ecosystems. Commission on Ecology Papers No.3. IUCN. Gland, Switzerland. 88 pp.		Secondary reference, no primary source provided. The "Year" is the publication year. The figure is very similar to the one cited in Sutter, et al. 1989 (see above) It could refere to the same source, the difference in the figure could be due to a different conversion factor used.
1984	4 250 000	Darsidi, A. 1984. Mangrove forest management in Indonesia. In: Soemodihardjo, S. et al (eds) Proceedings of the Seminar on the mangrove ecosystem II, Baturaden, 1982. LIPI : 19-26		Cited in: Soegiarto, A. 2000. Research and conservation of Mangrove ecosystem in Indonesia. In: Proceedings of the International Wokshop 26-30 March, 2000, Okinawa, Japan - Asia-Pacific cooperation on Research for conservation of Mangroves. This figure could refer to For. Dep. 1982. (see above)
1984	4 345 116	Soegiarto and Sukardjo. 1984.		Cited in: Cholik, F. and A. Poernomo. 1986. Development of aquaculture in mangrove areas and its relationship to the mangrove ecosystem. In: Mepham, R.H. 1986. Papers contributed to the workshop on strategies for the management of fisheries and aquaculture in mangrove ecosystems. p. 93-104. Bangkok, Thailand, 23 June 1986. The "Year" is the publication year.
1985	3 790 500	Regional Physical Planning Programme for Transmigration (RePPProT mid 1980's, 1985-89)		Cited in: The World Bank. 2001. Indonesia: environment and natural resource management in a time of transition. Washington DC. World Bank. 147 pp.
1985	3 737 340	National Forest – Iventory. 1993. INTAGM Dep. Kehutanan using Landsat data from early and mid -1980's	X	Remote sensing.
1988	4 542 100	Spalding, M.D., Blasco, F. and Field, C.D., eds. 1997. World Mangrove Atlas. The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japan. 178 pp.		Map analysis. Scale 1:2 500 000. According to the authors, the estimate by Soemodihardjo, S. et al., 1993 (see above, ref. year 1982) is likely to be more accurate.
1988	3 493 110	Ibid.	X	Combined national level mangrove estimate based on the following remote sensing studies. The reference year is the area weighted average: Bali: Forestry Department. 1982 (cited in Soemodihardjo, S., Wiroatmodjo, P., Abdullah, A. Tantra, I.G.M. and Soegiarto, A., 1993 ). (Ref. Year: 1982). Irian Jaya: National Forest - Inventory, INTAGM Dep. 1993. (by Hatari, H. pers comm 2002). (Ref. Year: 1985). Java: Regional Physical Planning Programme for Transmigration (RePPProT mid 1980's (1985-89) (cited in The World Bank, 2001). (Ref Year: 1985). Kalimantan: National Forest - Inventory, INTAGM Dep., 1993. (by Hatari, H. pers comm 2002). (Ref. Year: 1985) Maluku: National Forest - Inventory, INTAGM Dep. 1993 (by Hatari, H. pers comm 2002) (Ref Year: 1985) Nusa Tenggara, Sulawesi: FAO, Directorate General of Forest Inventory and Land Use Planning. 1995. (Ref Year 1989). Sumatera: Aizpuru, M., Blasco, F. 2000 Reference Year: 2000.
1989	3 743 500	FAO, Directorate General of Forest Inventory and Land Use Planning. 1995. Second Interim Forest Resources Statistics Indonesia. UTF/INS/066/INS		Remote sensing. Same figures as in Nat. For. Inv., 1985 (see above) except for Sulawesi.
1992	3 515 471	Selamat Datang di Situs- Departemen Kehutan Republik Indonesia. n.d. Peta Fungsi Kawasan Hutan (Peta Tata Guna Hutan Kesepakatan).		Remote sensing imagery (Landsat)
1993	2 490 185	Giesen, W. 1993. Indonesia's mangroves: an update on remaining area and main management issues. Presented at the international seminar on coastal zone management of small island ecosystems. Ambon 7 - 10 April 1993. AWB Indonesia. 10 pp		Calculation on remaining mangrove areas based on RePPProT's (1985-1989) series and Land-system maps plus remote sensing information for some of the islands.
1996	3 533 600	Kitamura, S., Anwar, C., Chaniago, A., Baba, S. 1997. Handbook of mangroves in Indonesia - Bali & Lombok - JICA, ISME, Japan, p.119.		Secondary reference, no primary source is provided.
2000	4 000 000	Aizpuru, M., Achard, F., and Blasco, F. 2000. Global Assessment of Cover Change of the Mangrove Forests using satellite imagery at medium to high resolution. In EEC Research project n 15017-1999-05 FIED ISP FR – Joint Research center, Ispra.		National level estimate extrapolated from a remote case study (Java) plus literature review.
2000	2 423 700	World Resources Institute. 2000. World resources 2000-2001: people and ecosystem—the fraying web of life. Washington, DC., UNDP. 400 pp.		Secondary reference, no primary source provided. "Year" is the publication year.