SHORT COMMUNICATION/BRÈVE COMMUNICATION/COMUNICACION BREVE

Village chicken production systems in developing countries: what does the future hold?

A.J. Kitalyi

The author is an FAO André Mayer Research Fellow. Her address is c/o FAO Representation, PO Box 2, Dar-es-Salaam, United Republic of Tanzania.

SYSTÈMES DE PRODUCTION VILLAGEOISE DE POULETS DANS LES PAYS EN DÉVELOPPEMENT: QUE RÉSERVE L'AVENIR?

Les poulets détritivores, que l'on trouve dans la plupart des villages des pays en développement, participent de façon non négligeable à l'atténuation de la pauvreté et au renforcement de l'égalité entre les sexes dans les communautés défavorisées. C'est ce qui ressort de rapports sur divers projets ciblés de développement intégré en faveur des agriculteurs démunis dans les pays en développement. Ces poulets sont indigènes et issus du type local (Gallus domesticus). Leur gestion et leur productivité sont fortement influencées par plusieurs facteurs biologiques et socioéconomiques que l'on rencontre dans le périmètre précis d'un dépôt d'ordures qui, dans la plupart des pays africains, se trouve au sein du village. Le terme poulet de village provient donc de cette habitude de fouiller dans les détritus.
Plusieurs programmes d'amélioration des volailles rurales ayant pour objectif de remplacer le poulet de village par des races améliorées ont échoué ou apporté des améliorations non durables. Il faudrait donc envisager une approche d'amélioration intégrée qui prenne en compte les facteurs biologiques, culturels, sociaux et économiques de ce type de volaille.

SISTEMAS DE PRODUCCION DE POLLOS DE ALDEA EN LOS PAISES EN DESARROLLO: PERSPECTIVAS PARA EL FUTURO

Los pollos de corral que se encuentran en la mayoría de las aldeas de los países en desarrollo desempeñan una importante función en el alivio de la pobreza y el aumento de la equidad entre el hombre y la mujer en las comunidades desfavorecidas. Este dato aparece en los informes de diversos proyectos de desarrollo integrado, orientados a los agricultores con pocos recursos de los países en desarrollo. Se trata de pollos autóctonos, procedentes de las aves nativas (Gallus domesticus). En su ordenación y su productividad influyen mucho varios factores biológicos y socioeconómicos correspondientes a los espacios concretos de una zona de búsqueda de residuos, que en la mayoría de los países africanos está dentro de una aldea. Así pues, el término de pollos de aldea se basa en el hábito de buscar alimentos entre los residuos
Varios programas de mejora de la avicultura rural que pretendían sustituir los pollos de aldea por razas mejoradas han fracasado, o bien las mejoras conseguidas no se han podido mantener. Por consiguiente, se propone un sistema de mejoramiento integrado en el que se tengan en cuenta las dimensiones biológicas, culturales, sociales y económicas de los pollos de aldea.

INTRODUCTION

There has been growing global concern over the worsening problems of poverty, hunger and malnutrition in developing countries. Evaluation reports from a number of integrated development projects in developing countries indicate that scavenging village chickens play a significant role in poverty alleviation and enhancing gender equity among the disadvantaged communities (Saleque, 1996). Chickens form a common resource for the different gender groups in the rural population to which the landless and those who do not possess cattle, sheep or goats attach high socio-economic value. With the new thrust on sustainable food and nutrition security, which aims at creating physical, economic and social environmental access to a balanced diet, village chickens should be placed high in food security programmes.

Scavenging chickens have existed in villages from time immemorial. They form part of the whole farming system. The type of chickens kept and their management are highly influenced by various biological, cultural, social and economic factors prevailing in the villages. In most developing countries chickens scavenge within the village boundaries. Their nourishment depends on the feed available in the village and their health on the local disease situation. Use and offtake of the chickens are also dictated by a number of socio-economic factors prevailing in the village. Because of the role they play in village life, scavenging chickens are best described as village chickens. This term has been adopted by a number of rural poultry development scientists to differentiate between the scavenging/free range/indigenous chicken from the small-scale intensive chicken production systems practised in rural areas. There are a variety of village chicken production systems because of the considerable differences that exist in the physical and socio-economic circumstances of villages in developing countries.
This article describes the various village chicken production systems in developing countries and proposes strategies for their future development.

Characteristics of the village chicken production systems in Africa

Most village chicken production systems in Africa are based on the indigenous or native domestic fowl (Gallus domesticus) and are characterized by a low level of inputs and output. The main input is the feed from household refuse as well as that scavenged around the village. Provision of other inputs such as housing, additional feed and health care vary greatly between and within countries, depending on the farmer's or household's socio-economic circumstances. With such low inputs, the village chicken is capable of generating cheap and readily harvestable meat and eggs for immediate home consumption and sale for income generation, while at the same time performing a useful social hygiene function. In some communities small livestock, particularly village chickens, are important in breaking the vicious cycle of poverty, malnutrition and disease (Roberts, 1992).

The village chicken production system in developing countries is often marginalized by policy-makers, scientists and development workers because of its low productivity compared with the commercial poultry production system (Table 1). Most poultry improvement programmes in developing countries have been directed towards the introduction of specialized or exotic breeds, cross-breeding and management intensification. While there have been measurable improvements in egg and poultry meat production in the satellite layer and broiler production units started in developing countries, the high mortality of introduced breeds, low feed resource base at the village level and lack of understanding of the complex biological, cultural and socio-economic relationships have limited the success of most of these programmes. Surveys in developing countries have shown that farmers have preferred to maintain their local stock, i.e. the village chicken, for social and economic reasons. Table 2 gives estimates, drawn from various reports, of the village chicken populations and their contribution to national flock productivity. In Africa, they constitute over 50 percent of the total poultry population and contribute 30 to 80 percent of total national poultry products (Sonaiya, 1990). Estimates based on human and livestock populations in Ethiopia showed that the village chicken provides 12.5 kg of poultry meat per caput per year, whereas cattle provide only 5.34 kg (Forssido, 1986). Village chicken products are often the only source of animal protein for resource-poor households. Eggs are a source of high-quality protein for sick and malnourished children under the age of five.

1
Productivity of the scavenging chicken relative to specialized breeds
Productivité du poulet de village par rapport à celle de races spécialisées
Productividad de los pollos de corral con respecto a las razas especializadas

2
Estimated population of rural poultry in developing countries
Population estimée des volailles rurales dans les pays en développement
Población estimada de aves en el medio rural de los países en desarrollo

Source: Awan (1993).

There are not a lot of published data on the village chicken production system in Africa. Even though country reports in various international workshops (see Box) de-scribe the rural poultry production system in Africa, most of these reports are not supported by research data. Low productivity is the main feature of this production system, which scientists have attributed to low genetic potential, poor disease control programmes and poor feeding. More recently, the highly infectious Newcastle disease is reported to have almost reached a 100 percent mortality. It has been identified as a major production constraint in the village chicken production systems of the United Republic of Tanzania, Ethiopia and the Gambia.

Ownership and management of village chickens and their effect on improvement programmes

Ownership of village chickens in most African communities is a function of social and cultural aspects. Although village chickens move freely about the whole village, they are all attached to a specific household. The relationship between the chickens and the owner household is unique and has led some researchers to describe the village chickens as part of the household, often sharing the same shelter. In Ghana, for example, chickens move with the farmers between homesteads and fields (Williams, 1990). There is a general school of thought that village chickens are in the domain of women (Kitalyi, 1996). However, in a recent workshop on village chickens in Pretoria, group discussions on the ownership of village chickens revealed that there are variations within countries because of the closer association of women with other household activities.

The attachment of the village chicken to the household and the variations in intrahousehold relationships within the African villages result in different village chicken production systems. In some villages, the mixing of flocks between households is limited to scavenging periods only. In some villages there is a greater association of flocks from different households, which can extend to sharing shelter and housing. Such situations are found in the Gambia where Rushton (in FAO, 1995) described the management unit as a "compound flock".
The management of village chickens is complicated by the presence of multi-age groups in the same flock. High chick losses have been attributed to poor feeding, housing and health control practices. With no preferential treatment of the chicks, some starve to death because of high competition for the available scavenging feed resource. Where supplementary feeding and water is provided, the containers used are too deep for the chicks to reach the contents. Predation is also a major cause of high chick losses because the young stock are more vulnerable. This management problem also leads to the failure or poor performance of health control programmes. Competition for the vaccine carrier, whether food or water, results in unprotected birds. Feeding and health improvement programmes will only be successful if this situation is given due consideration to ensure that the different age groups are covered.
The importance of the flock unit in management calls for use of flock productivity indicators as a means for improvement. The failure of some past improvement programmes can be attributed to a lack of appreciation of these unique features of village chickens relative to industrial poultry production.

Rural poultry improvement programmes

Most rural poultry improvement programmes have centered on introducing exotic blood and management intensification. With the advent of this approach, a bigger portion of funding was allocated to centralized farms for the production of either fertilized eggs, pullets or cockerels, and most projects which followed this approach were not successful. Kaiser (1990) gave a critical review of a multilateral rural poultry improvement programme in the Niger, which started in the late 1970s. The programme was based on delivery of pullets at laying age or hatching eggs. Both approaches resulted in poor performances because of the high mortality of the exotic stock. Similarly, Rhode Island Red roosters, given to Mali women for poultry breeding within a major rural development programme (CILCA-Mali), suffered high mortality rates (Creevey, 1991). The failure of some programmes has been attributed to management problems associated with the centralized farms. In the United Republic of Tanzania, a long-term project on the improvement of traditional poultry keeping was terminated prematurely because of management problems (Government of Tanzania, 1995).

In 1993, FAO approved a project for Assistance to Rural Women in Protecting their Village Chickens from Newcastle Disease. It was conducted in two African countries, Ethiopia and the Gambia. Most probably this was the first project to address a specific constraint in the production system, while also incorporating user differentiation. However, evaluation reports indicated that the project's success was marred by poor community participation and weak research-extension linkages.
In Kenya a rural poultry improvement programme, which included a cockerel exchange component, resulted in progressive improvements over the years. The success achieved was attributed to the flexibility of the project and its incorporation of participatory approach techniques and an intensive training component (Ngunjiri, 1995). Another successful rural improvement programme, including disease control and training on hygiene, housing, feeding and marketing, is reported in Burkina Faso (Bourzat and Saunders, 1990). This project is reported to have made great achievements and credit was given to the holistic approach followed and the support received from policy-makers.
Despite the marginal progress made in some of the rural poultry improvement programmes, the general state of affairs in most developing countries calls for a change in approach and methodologies. In a symposium on rural poultry development (World Poultry Science Association, 1996), it was strongly suggested that rural poultry improvement programmes should be accompanied by a farmer training component. Areas which require special attention are:

• the development of a sustainable Newcastle disease vaccination programme;
• strategic feeding supplementation using locally available feed resources;
• the development of farm-level skills and entre-preneurship; and
• consideration of the biological, cultural, social and economic dimensions of the production system.

Feeders and drinking containers are often too deep for the chicks
Les mangeoires et les abreuvoirs sont souvent trop profonds pour les poussins
Los comederos y abrevaderos son a menudo demasiado profundos para los pollos

Village chickens are a common resource to all gender groups in developing countries
Les volailles de village sont une ressource commune aux hommes et aux femmes dans les pays en développement
Los pollos de aldea son un recurso común para todos los grupos de hombres y mujeres de los países en desarrollo

Suggested approach for future development programmes

In view of lessons from the past rural poultry improvement programmes, a new approach should aim at increasing flock productivity instead of individual animal productivity. The potential of the village chicken as a provider of food and income should be exploited. A combined approach is suggested, which must be accompanied by improved extension services and farmer training on good husbandry practices, namely: housing, hygiene, feeding and health control. Improvement techniques should be based on indigenous technologies and available local resources. Improvement indicators should measure:

• reduced mortality rates;
• increased chick growth rates through preferential treatment of chicks;
• increased egg production per hen; and
• increased chicken turnover.

The Figure below shows a hypothetical model of the annual production from a household flock of ten mature hens (in Zimbabwe). The model assumes increased flock productivity from strategic improvement practices in feeding, housing and health control (Tadelle, 1996). Annual hen egg production is doubled to give 80 eggs per hen/year as a result of feed supplementation using milling by-products and forages. Mortality is halved to 30 percent for the chicks and 20 percent for the mature chickens as a result of preferential treatment of chicks, improved housing and disease control (deworming and Newcastle disease vaccination). Using current market prices of local chicken products in Zimbabwe, which is about $Z 0.7 per egg and $Z 30 per chicken, the estimated annual gross income is $Z 6 674. Converting the products to nutritional value gives an annual protein yield of 28 kg. Although this production level is very low relative to the yields obtained in industrial/commercial poultry, for rural households this can be a considerable contribution to their welfare.
As stated above, Newcastle disease ranks high among the constraints in village chicken production. This is an area where an external input is imperative. Current research to produce a thermostable vaccine for this sector is a major step forward. However, the field trials conducted in Africa show the need for more on-farm research to develop a sustainable Newcastle disease control programme. African countries which have supported or authorized specific projects to combat the problem of Newcastle disease in village chickens are: Burkina Faso, Senegal, the Gambia, Ethiopia, Zimbabwe and the United Republic of Tanzania. Networking and support to regional programmes can foster progress because of the transboundary or pandemic nature of the disease. It will be interesting to undertake studies at the farm level to establish the input-output relationship of a healthy, productive flock. Models developed from farm data can be used to advise on production alternatives on the basis of farmer objectives and resource endowment. This is a major challenge to scientists working on poultry development in developing countries.
Branckaert (1996) made a very profound statement: "Village chicken is the backbone for a sustainable well- adapted semi-commercial subsector." Those households that appreciate the economic importance of the village chicken and are willing to invest more will easily adopt intensive poultry keeping when resources allow. 

Scavenging chickens in the villages of Ethiopia and India
Volailles fouillant dans les détritus dans des villages en Ethiopie et en Inde
Pollos de corral en aldeas de Etiopía y la India

The village chicken production system: annual food/income from a flock of ten laying hens in Zimbabwe
Système de production de volailles de village, aliment et revenu annuels procurés par 10 poules pondeuses: le cas du Zimbabwe
Sistema de producción de pollos de aldea, alimentos/ingresos anuales de un conjunto de 10 gallinas ponedoras: Zimbabwe

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