Mandivamba Rukuni
Professor of Agricultural Economics University of Zimbabwe
The political economy of food, agriculture and irrigation development in East and Southern Africa
Land tenure, governance and sustainable irrigation development
Economics of small-scale irrigation
Institutions supporting small-scale irrigation
Conclusions and implications for donors
References
It is estimated that 15 million ha of land are currently under irrigation in sub-Saharan Africa. This hectarage represents two percent of all cropped land, as compared to 29% in Asia or 15% globally (Barghouti and Moigne, 1990), see Table 1. These figures do not only demonstrate inadequate levels of infrastructural investment in Africa, but they also underscore the unwarranted level of pessimism over prospects for viable irrigation development in Africa. Some of the reasons for the poor performance of irrigation will be discussed in this paper. More importantly, however, this paper will build on a growing body of research-based knowledge demonstrating that there are indeed high levels of economic return to the right type of irrigation investment in Africa. This paper will explore characteristics and qualities of such viable irrigation and discuss the factors leading to a more conducive environment for economically viable irrigation development in Africa. Examples will be drawn largely from South and Eastern Africa.
The preference for large and specialized irrigation systems by African governments and donors alike, is arguably the most serious error of economic judgement with respect to irrigation. There is, of course, an assortment of other reasons. It can be argued however, that large systems are generally incompatible with most African smallholder farming systems. These large systems fit the operational styles of Africa's top down, over-centralized public sector organizations. Support services for farmers, such as extension and credit, are therefore ineffective. Large, state-imposed systems often alter the established patterns of land tenure and land settlement, and have the effect of disrupting or undermining the established traditional economic institutions. The scenario painted so far can be summed up in the current prevalence of inappropriate irrigation systems, alien to most African farmers, state driven, poorly integrated with the local economy and trade markets, and poorly supported by an array of ineffective public organizations. Some of these problems will be elaborated upon later.
Before elaborating on the negative, one needs to paint a positive picture that is emerging in African irrigation development. In general, smallholder irrigation is showing greater financial and economic viability. Smallholder irrigation is even doing better where the system is owned and operated by the farmers. Smallholder irrigation is better integrated with rainfed systems, if farmers are able to either develop their own individual water source or run their irrigation more independently of other farmers in terms of management decisions, such as what to grow and when to water. Farmers in such situations achieve a higher return to their set of limited resources. The scenario painted with smallholder irrigation, in summary implies greater design flexibility based on current farming systems, greater prospects for diversifying into high value crops such as fruits, vegetables and flowers and, generally, a more acceptable integration of irrigation as part of the farming system. There is also a reduced reliance on large bodies of water, and more sustainable use of locally sourced ground and shallow water.
TABLE 1 Sub-Saharan Africa: estimates to irrigated areas, 1987, in relation to irrigation potential
|
Area developed: country |
Irrigation potential 1982 |
Modern (thousands of ha) |
Small-scale or traditional |
Total |
Developed as % of potential |
|
Angola |
6700 |
0 |
10 |
10 |
<1 |
|
Benin |
86 |
7 |
15 |
22 |
26 |
|
Botswana |
100 |
0 |
12 |
12 |
12 |
|
Burkina Faso |
350 |
9 |
20 |
29 |
8 |
|
Burundi |
52 |
2 |
50 |
52 |
100 |
|
Cameroon |
2430 |
11 |
9 |
20 |
8 |
|
Central African Republic |
1900 |
0 |
4 |
4 |
<1 |
|
Chad |
1200 |
10 |
40 |
50 |
4 |
|
Congo |
340 |
3 |
5 |
8 |
2 |
|
Equatorial Guinea |
n.a |
n.a |
n.a |
n.a |
n.a |
|
Ethiopia |
670 |
82 |
5 |
87 |
13 |
|
Gabon |
440 |
0 |
1 |
1 |
<1 |
|
Gambia |
72 |
6 |
20 |
26 |
36 |
|
Ghana |
120 |
5 |
5 |
10 |
8 |
|
Guinea |
150 |
15 |
30 |
45 |
30 |
|
Guinea Bissau |
70 |
n.a |
n.a |
n.a |
n.a |
|
Ivory Cost |
130 |
42 |
10 |
52 |
40 |
|
Kenya |
350 |
21 |
28 |
49 |
14 |
|
Lesotho |
8 |
0 |
1 |
1 |
13 |
|
Liberia |
n.a |
3 |
16 |
19 |
n.a |
|
Madagascar |
1200 |
160 |
800 |
960 |
80 |
|
Malawi |
290 |
16 |
4 |
20 |
7 |
|
Mali |
340 |
100 |
60 |
160 |
47 |
|
Mauritania |
39 |
3 |
20 |
23 |
59 |
|
Mozambique |
2400 |
66 |
4 |
70 |
3 |
|
Niger |
100 |
10 |
20 |
30 |
30 |
|
Nigeria |
2000 |
50 |
800 |
850 |
43 |
|
Rwanda |
44 |
0 |
15 |
15 |
34 |
|
Senegal |
180 |
30 |
70 |
100 |
56 |
|
Sierra Leone |
100 |
5 |
50 |
55 |
55 |
|
Somalia |
87 |
40 |
40 |
80 |
92 |
|
Sudan |
3300 |
1700 |
50 |
1750 |
53 |
|
Swaziland |
7 |
55 |
5 |
60 |
>100 |
|
Tanzania |
2300 |
25 |
115 |
140 |
6 |
|
Togo |
86 |
3 |
10 |
13 |
15 |
|
Uganda |
410 |
9 |
3 |
12 |
3 |
|
Zaire |
4000 |
4 |
20 |
24 |
1 |
|
Zambia |
3500 |
10 |
6 |
16 |
>1 |
|
Zimbabwe |
280 |
127 |
3 |
130 |
46 |
|
TOTAL |
33641 |
2638 |
2381 |
5019 |
14.9 |
|
Sources: |
Study team estimates of area developed; Irrigation potentials from FAO Land and Water Development Division, 1985 (provisional estimates). |
This paper will attempt to elaborate on these scenarios by addressing a number of key issues defining the environment in which small-scale farmers adopt low-cost irrigation equipment and associated technology. The broader environment is addressed by taking a "new" political economy perspective on the overall status of agriculture and irrigation development in Africa. Associated with this new perspective are issues of land tenure and governance. Finally, the paper examines a number of key institutions serving small-scale irrigation: credit, extension and marketing, before discussing prospects for improving the enabling environment for small-scale irrigation.
