BRIDGING THE RICE YIELD GAP IN INDIA - E.A. Siddiq^*

^* National Professor, Directorate of Rice Research (ICAR), Hyderabad-500030 (AP), India.

India is one of the countries that took full advantage of the plant type based high yielding varieties of rice since their introduction in the mid-sixties. Spectacular production growth initially through combined growth of productivity and area and later largely through productivity enabled the country to attain self-sufficiency by the early eighties and sustain the same since then. Also, its impact is seen from 12-15 million tonnes of milled rice in buffer stocks and an exportable surplus of 2-5 million tonnes. Nevertheless, whether the country will be able to sustain this status in the absence of some and shrinking of many of the favourable growth factors of the 70’s and 80’s, is an issue of concern. Assuming the population to grow annually at around 1.9 percent and income around 5 percent the demand projection for sustaining the present level of calorie supply has been estimated to exceed 158 million tonnes by 2010, which amounts to an annual productivity growth of 2.4 percent. The target is no doubt a challenging task, but it is not unachievable given the potential opportunities and avenues yet to be exploited and rapid advances being made in crop improvement research. Of various strategies being contemplated, consolidation of the genetic yield potential of the currently available high yielding varieties in irrigated and semi-irrigated ecologies, raising the ceiling of yield through hybrid technology and New Plant Type varieties and maximization of yield level in relatively favourable rainfed lowland ecologies in eastern India are the predominant thrusts. Consolidation of yield by correction of yield destabilizing factors is, however, considered as the more promising short-term strategy.

An attempt has been made in this exercise to estimate state-wise/region-wise yield gaps in irrigated, semi-irrigated and shallow water rainfed ecologies, to broadly identify key factors contributing to the gaps, to discuss briefly the various developmental programmes launched during the last two decades at national level, and to suggest remedial measures against manageable constraints for narrowing the yield gap.

2. STATUS OF RICE CULTIVATION

India, the largest rice growing country, plants rice over an area of about 43 million ha and produces around 125 million tonnes of rice with yield level still remaining low at around 2.85 t/ha. Contributing over 43 percent to the nation’s food grain production, rice is grown under four different ecologies, with the irrigated ecology accounting for the largest area and highest production and productivity closely followed by rainfed shallow lowlands. Rainfed upland, just one half of the rainfed lowland area, produces less than one fifth of it (Table 1). Region-wise, the predominantly rainfed eastern zone accounts for the largest area and production but with the lowest productivity, while the largely irrigated north and south zones together accounting for slightly less area produce one and a half times more than that of eastern India with a distinct yield edge (Table 2). The distribution pattern of rice growing districts based on productivity range reveals that of 414 districts less than 9 percent (36) of them have yield levels exceeding 3 t/ha. They are largely located, as one expects, in the high productivity states of Punjab and Tamil Nadu. Around 23 percent (95) falling in the range of 2 to 3 t/ha are in Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, Karnataka, Western Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. Over 180 districts (68 percent) with yield levels less than that of the national average are distributed largely in the rainfed eastern and central states viz. Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Assam, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Gujarat (Table 3). Surprisingly, 32 percent of the irrigated area falls under the low productivity category. On the basis of average productivity the rice growing States may be grouped into four viz., (i) >3.0 t/ha (Punjab); (ii) 2.5-3.0 t/ha (Haryana and Tamil Nadu); (iii) 2.0-2.5 t/ha (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Manipur and Tripura); and (iv) <2.0 t/ha (Assam, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Kerala, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and other North Eastern States). The relationship of productivity with major growth factors reveals that it is strongly associated with percentage of HYVs, level of fertilizer consumption and percentage of irrigated area.

Table 1. Area, Production and Productivity of Rice in India

	Irrigated	Rainfed Lowland	Rainfed Upland	FloodProne/ DeepWater
Area (m.ha)	17.8	15.0	7.0	2.4
	(42.0)	(35.5)	(16.8)	(5.7)
Production (m.t)*	52.0	22.0	4.7	3.3
	(63.5)	(26.8)	(5.7)	(4.0)
Productivity (t/h)*	2.97	1.47	0.67	1.37

Figures within parenthesis represent percentage area/production
* Milled rice

Table 2. Contribution of Geographic Zones to Rice Production

Zone	Area (m. ha)	% Total Area	Production* (m. t)	% of Total Production	Average Yield (kg/ha)
East & North East	18.4	44	43.5	37	2367
South	7.7	18	31.0	26	3728
North & North West	9.0	21	30.0	25	3281
West*	7.4	17	13.8	12	1878

* Paddy

Table 3. Distribution of Districts Based on Rice Productivity (1994-95)

State	Yield Range (t/ha)						Total
	>3.5	3.0-3.5	2.5-3.0	2.0-2.5	1.5-2.0	<1.5
Andhra Pradesh	0	1	11	6	4	1	23
Assam	0	0	0	0	10	13	23
Bihar	1	0	0	4	7	38	50
Gujarat	0	0	0	3	7	6	16
Haryana	2	1	7	3	0	0	13
Himachal Pradesh	00	0	0	1	0	10	11
Jammu & Kashmir	0	0	0	0	1	0	1
Karnataka	0	2	7	3	5	2	19
Kerala	0	0	1	4	6	3	14
Madhya Pradesh	0	0	0	3	1	43	47
Maharashtra	0	0	0	4	3	22	29
Orissa	0	0	0	0	4	26	30
Punjab	6	7	1	0	0	0	14
Rajasthan	0	0	0	2	0	20	22
Tamil Nadu	9	7	3	1	1	1	22
Uttar Pradesh	0	0	3	18	24	18	63
West Bengal	0	0	2	8	4	3	17
Total	18	18	35	60	77	206	414
%	4.3	4.3	8.5	14.5	18.6	49.8

2.1 Area, Production and Productivity Growth

Rice production has increased steadily and continuously during the last 10 years touching an all-time record of 125 million tonnes in 1997-98. With the production area getting stabilized at around 43 million ha, the production advance is largely attributable to increased productivity from 2.2 to 2.85 t/ha. The yield growth during the nineties was at a very high rate of 47 kg/year as against 17kg/year during the 80’s. The rapid increase appears to be a result of appreciable increase in area under HYVs (58.4 to 74.0 percent), fertilizer consumption (49 to 77 kg/ha) and replacement of old disease-pest susceptible varieties by new resistant types.

The progress measured in terms of growth trend is, however, not impressive, the annual compound growth of production and productivity being 1.84 and 1.54 as against 3.63 and 3.25 of the eighties (Table 4). Zone-wise analysis of growth suggests an equally disquieting trend with the most productive north zone showing very low production and productivity growth of 2.68 and 1.72 as against 5.31 and 4.20 of the 80’s and the south zone showing 0.60 and 0.75 in comparison to 2.32 and 2.88 for the corresponding periods. The only redeeming factor that adds strength to our optimism of achieving the targeted growth in the coming decades is the impressive growth rate of the eastern zone.

Table 4. Trends of Area, Production and Yield Growth of Rice in Major Rice Growing States/Zones

State/Zone	1981-82 to 1989-90			1990-91 to 1997-98
	Area	Production	Productivity	Area	Production	Productivity
West Bengal	1.12	6.82	5.64	0.28	2.06	1.78
Bihar	0.29	4.17	3.87	-0.25	5.59	5.85
Orissa	0.40	3.98	3.58	0.22	-0.48	-0.70
Assam	0.51	1.08	0.57	0.01	1.15	1.14
East Zone	0.60	4.68	4.06	0.06	2.12	2.05
Uttar Pradesh	-0.18	5.46	5.65	0.31	3.03	2.72
Punjab	5.38	6.74	1.28	1.46	1.99	0.51
Haryana	2.39	2.25	-0.14	4.62	4.19	-0.41
Jammu & Kashmir	-0.23	-0.40	-0.18	0.25	-0.59	-0.84
Himachal Pradesh	-1.44	-1.89	-0.46	-0.43	0.73	1.16
North Zone	1.06	5.31	4.20	0.94	2.68	1.72
Andhra Pradesh	0.56	2.60	2.03	-1.69	-1.00	0.65
Tamil Nadu	-1.89	4.04	6.04	2.49	2.05	-0.43
Karnataka	0.35	0.24	-0.11	1.04	2.89	1.84
Kerala	-4.17	-3.07	1.15	-3.14	-1.54	1.65
South Zone	-0.55	2.32	2.88	-0.15	0.60	0.75
Madhya Pradesh	0.27	2.19	1.91	0.60	1.25	0.64
Maharashtra	-0.09	-0.67	-0.58	-0.95	1.96	2.94
Gujarat	0.41	-0.34	-0.74	2.42	4.39	1.92
Rajasthan	-3.15	-0.32	2.92	2.96	3.54	0.56
West Zone	0.15	1.11	0.96	0.47	1.77	1.30
All India	0.37	3.63	3.25	0.30	1.84	1.54

Analysis of productivity growth by ecosystem, although it was not possible for all the four distinct ecologies, reveals productivity growth to be far higher for rainfed (2.4 percent) and semi-irrigated rainfed ecologies (2.5 percent) as compared to much lower yield growth (1.1 percent) in the irrigated ecology during 1987-97. Significantly there was no impact of growth in area (0.51 percent) during the corresponding period.

2.2 Varietal Development and Its Potential

In the last three decades the country has developed and released for general cultivation over 570 varieties for different ecologies. Unlike in the past, when varietal improvement was lopsided towards irrigated ecology, the trend has started changing since a decade ago, now placing equal emphasis on rainfed ecologies. Of 136 varieties released between 1990 and 1998, 63 were for the rainfed ecologies. The pattern of varietal improvement reveals change in breeding priorities as well. Whereas medium earliness with yield potential close to medium duration varieties and multiple resistance to pests and diseases have received emphasis in the irrigated ecology, breeding for higher yields and better adaptation to shallow water and upland ecologies has been the thrust in the rainfed ecology (Table 5). Varieties gaining popularity are invariably from the region of their development suggesting that specific adaptability is the key to varietal success in ecologically handicapped regions. Though breeding efforts have been made in all seriousness to cater for saline/alkaline and acid/acid sulphate soils, the progress is not as yet to the desired level.

Table 5. High Yielding Rice Varieties Released for Different Ecologies During 1990-1998

Release Committee	Irrigated			Rainfed Lowland			Rainfed Upland	Total
	Early	Med	Late	SW	SDW	DW
Central	3	5	2	1	1	---	4	16
State (21)	19	44	---	30	3	3	21	120
Total	22	49	2	31	4	3	25	136

Popular Varieties:

Irrigated:

Medium/Med.late - Vijetha (A.P), HKR126, CSR10(Har), PR110(Pu), TKM10 (TN), Pantdhan 10 (U.P.), Meher (0), Mahamay a (M.P.) SKU 27 (Kash) - Av. yield 4.7 to 5.0 t/ha

Rainfed Shallow water:

Ranjit, Bahadur (Ass), Shyamala (M.P.), Ratnagiri 3 (Mah), NEH Mega Rice 1&2 (Megh), Manika, Mahalaxmi (Ori), Co45 (TN), Bipasa (W.B.) - Av. yield 4.0 to 4.6 t/ha

Semideep:

Purnendu (W.B.), Jalalahari (U.P.), Hemavathi (Kar) - Av. yield 3.0 to 3.4 t/ha

Deep water:

Jalapriya, Jalanidhi (U.P.), Jitendra (W.B.) - Av. yield 2.0 to 2.2 t/ha

Upland:

Narendradhan 97 (U.P.), Khandagiri, Ghateswari, Nilagiri (Ori), GR5 (Guj), Birsadhan 103, 104, Vandana (Bih), Luit, Kapilee (Ass), Mtu 9993 (AP) - Av. yield 1.7 to 3.5 t/ha

An encouraging development in the nineties motivated by the success story of China is the thrust given to development of hybrid rice technology. Massive support from ICAR-UNDP/FAO-MRF has enabled the country to successfully evolve and commercialize the technology since 1995. As many as six heterotic hybrids with proven yield advantage of a tonne more per hectare than the locally popular variety are planted today over an area of 100,000 hectares in various parts of the country (Table 6). The pace of adoption of the technology is, however, slow and far from the targeted 0.5 million hectares by the year 2000. Less acceptable grain quality, short duration, and disease/pest susceptibility are some of the important factors that impede its pace of growth.

Table 6. Salient Features of Released Hybrids

Name of Hybrid/Year of Release	Duration (days)	Yield in OFT (t/ha)		Yield adv. Over Check (%)	Released for the State of
		Hybrid	Check
APHR-1 (1994)	130-135	7.14	5.27 (Chaitanya)	35.4	Andhra Pradesh
APHR-2 (1994)	120-125	7.52	5.21 (Chaitanya)	44.2	Andhra Pradesh
MGR-1 (1994)	110-115	6.08	5.23 (IR 50)	16.2	Tamil Nadu
KRH-1 (1994)	120-125	6.02	4.58 (Mangala)	31.4	Karnataka
CNRH-3 (1995)	125-130	7.49	5.45 (Khitish)	37.4	West Bengal
DRRH-1 (1996)	125-130	7.30	5.50 (Tellahamsa)	32.7	Andhra Pradesh
KRH-2 (1996)	130-135	7.40	6.10 (Jaya)	21.3	Karnataka
Pant Sankar Dhan-1 (1997)	115-120	6.80	6.10 (Pant Dhan-4)	9.7	Uttar Pradesh
CORH-2 (1998)	120-125	6.25	5.20 (ADT 39)	20.2	Tamil Nadu
ADTRH-1 (1998)	115-120	7.10	4.90 (ASD-18)	44.9	Tamil Nadu
Sahyadri (1998)	125-130	6.64	4.89 (Jaya)	35.8	Maharashtra
Narendra Sankar Dhan-2 (1998)	125-130	6.15	4.94 (Sarjoo-52)	24.5	Uttar Pradesh
PHB 71 (1997*)	130-135	7.86	6.14 (PR 106)	28.0	Haryana, U.P, TN.

* Private bred hybrid released by CVRC

Potential yield of varieties varies with the ecology as well as the agro-climatic region. Precise knowledge on zone and ecosystem specific potential is a pre-requisite for meaningfully determining the still untapped yield of the currently popular high yielding varieties. Plant type-based dwarf variety exclusively tailored for relatively risk free environment is taken as the standard variety for irrigated ecology and its potential used to be assessed from its average performance in country-wide National Demonstrations. Following the discontinuation of the National Demonstration programme since the last 10 years, there is no option but to rely on test location yield of the All India Coordinated Trials being conducted all over the country in all the major ecologies. Mean yield of the top entry at various locations in the given State over the years was taken in the present study as the experimental station (potential/achievable) yield and the State average yield as the actual/achieved yield. The difference in yield levels expressed in percentage was taken as the yield gap. In respect of rainfed ecologies, in the absence of ideal high yielding varieties, improved varieties now being popularized have been chosen as the standard varieties and their potential assessed from their performance in the compact block Frontline Demonstrations (FLD). Mean FLD yield in a given State over a 3-5 year period was taken as the potential yield and that of the check varieties used in the FLDs and State average yield as actual farmers’ yield. Yield difference in percentage between FLD yield and State average yield was taken as the yield gap.

2.3.1 Irrigated ecology

State-wise yield gap analysis reveals vast scope for yield consolidation in all the zones (Tables 7 and 8). In the south zone, except Tamil Nadu where the gap is the least (15.6 percent) all are in the range of 34 (Karnataka) to 49.8 percent (Kerala), while in the north zone, Punjab is the only exception, where 78 percent of the potential has already been realized with others remaining with yield gaps of 50 to 57 percent. In the Western and N.W. Hill Zones the gap is too wide, the range being between 47.0 percent in Maharashtra and 75.6 percent in Rajasthan. The same is true of the predominantly rainfed eastern zone with the sole exception of West Bengal (37 percent), which appears to be due to high State average yield boosted by the impressive productivity growth witnessed in about a million ha of Boro rice (Table 8). Comparison of the present analysis with that of the one done 10 years ago reveals hardly any difference in yield gap. But this no-change trend should not mean failure or lack of efforts in the last 10 years to narrow the gap. Rather, the rapid and steady productivity advance made since 1987 appears to have contributed to the persistently wide yield gap warranting much more effort to narrow the gap appreciably.

Table 7. Yield Gap in Major Rice Growing States 1990/91 - 1997/98

State	Paddy yield (kg/ha)		Yield Difference (kg/ha)	Gap of St. Av. over Exptl. Av.
	State Av.	Exptl. trial Av.*
South Zone
Tamil Nadu	4460	5286	826	15.6
Andhra Pradesh	3767	5882	2115	36.0
Karnataka	3456	5250	1794	34.2
Kerala	2857	5690	2853	49.8
North Zone
Punjab	5042	6460	1418	22.0
Haryana	4074	7396	3322	44.9
U.P.	2870	6598	3728	56.5
East Zone
West Bengal	3147	5003	1856	37.1
Orissa	1993	5620	3627	64.5
Bihar	1811	6083	4272	70.2
Assam	1954	6437	4483	69.6
Eastern U.P	1881	6598	4717	71.5
Manipur	3233	7619	4386	57.36
Tripura	2932	6331	3399	537
West Zone
Maharashtra	2380	4501	2121	47.1
Gujarat	2146	5557	3411	61.4
M.P.	1581	4710	3129	66.4
Rajasthan	1582	6485	4903	75.6
N.W. Hills
J & K	2774	7254	4480	61.8
Himachal Pradesh	1976	5003	3027	60.5
All India	2759	5781	3022	52.3

* Mean yield of best entry (Irrigated Medium) at AICRIP test locations over 7 years period.

Table 8. Yield Gap in The Rainfed Lowland Ecologies in The Eastern States (1990/91-1997/98)

State	Paddy Yield (kg/ha)		Yield Gap (kg/ha)	Gap between St.Av. and Exptl. Av. %
	State Av.	Exptl. trial Av.*
Orissa	1993	4944	2951	59.7
West Bengal	3147	4673	1526	32.7
M.P.	1581	4048	2466	60.9
Assam	1954	4829	2875	59.5
Eastern U.P.	1500	5067	3265	64.4
Bihar	1811	5288	3476	65.7

* Mean yield of best entry (rainfed shallow lowland) at AICRIP test locations over 7 years period

The estimation of achievable yield through adoption of currently popularized improved varieties reveals similar wide yield gaps in the major rainfed ecologies as well. In the shallow lowland ecology, for instance, it varies from 34.8 percent in Eastern Uttar Pradesh to 59.5 percent in Assam, while it is less than 30 percent in the semi-deep water ecology possibly because of the fact that the potential yield itself is low (2.5 t/ha) (Tables 9 and 10). In the rainfed upland the gap varied from nearly zero in Bihar to 41.6 percent in Maharashtra (Table 11). The no-gap situation in Bihar does not mean that the gap has already been bridged. Comparison of FLD yield level with that of widely cultivated local varieties would show that large yield differences still exist there. A limited study to determine the untapped potential of salt tolerant varieties raised in salt affected areas in Orissa, Maharashtra and Eastern Uttar Pradesh reveal a bridgeable gap of 40-48 percent (Table 12).

Table 9. Achievable Paddy Yield Through Improved Varieties in Rainfed Ecologies: 1. Shallow Lowland (Frontline Demonstration)*

* Area covered ranged between 632-1220 acres every year in compact blocks of 10-20 acres/demonstration (Assam: 180-400; Bihar; 100-200; East: M.P: 200-300; East. U.P: 100-240; Orissa: 60; W. Bengal 80-320)

** Mean paddy yield over five years (1993-94 to 1997-98)
TV = Test varieties; CV= Check varieties; SA = State average

Table 10. Achievable Yield Enhancement Through Improved Varieties in Rainfed Ecologies: 2-Semideep Water (Frontline Demonstrations)*

* Area covered ranged between 50-400 acres every year in compact blocks of 10-20 acres/demonstration. (W. Bengal: 100-400; eastern U.P. 50)

** Mean paddy yield over 4 years (1993-94 to 1997-98)
TV = Test varieties; CV = Check varieties; SA = State average

Table 11. Achievable Yield through Improved Varieties in Rainfed Ecologies: 3-Uplands (Frontline Demonstrations)*

* Area covered ranged between 282-438 acres every year in compact blocks of 10-20 acres/demonstration. (Bihar: 100-200; East M.P.: 120; East UP: 50-100; Orissa: 60)

** Mean paddy yield over 2-5 years (1993-94 to 1997-98)
TV = Test varieties; CV = Check varieties; SA = State average

Table 12. Achievable Yield Enhancement Through Improved Varieties in Salt Affected Areas in Irrigated Ecology: (Frontline Demonstrations)*

* Area covered ranged between 35-110 acres every year in compact blocks of 10-20 acres/demonstration.

** Mean paddy yield over 2-3 years (1995-96 to 1997-98)
TV = Test varieties; CV = Check varieties; SA = State average

True to the strategy of converting constraints into opportunities, existence of wide yield gaps found across ecologies and zones should be regarded as potential opportunities for raising the yield level and achieving thereby the future production targets. The success level in such ventures would depend on our precisely determining at micro level (village/block level) technological, developmental and socio-economic constraints and finding remedies to keep pace with steadily growing yield level.

An exercise done to diagnose the key constraints reveals them to vary with ecology, zone and State/district (Appendix 1). In high productivity irrigated southern and northern zones over-mining of nutrients and/or faulty irrigation caused salinity/alkalinity, delayed planting due to uncertainty of canal water release in command areas, imbalanced fertilizer nutrient use, sub-optimal plant population, widespread micronutrient (Zn) deficiency and high incidence of pests and diseases constitute the major constraints. In other zones, low/medium fertilizer use, salinity/alkalinity in pockets, widespread P and Zn deficiency, heavy weed infestation and pest/disease pressure are important. As for the high rainfall semi-irrigated coastal areas, saline/acid/acid sulphate soils, saline water inundation, low adoption of HYVs, low to very low fertilizer use, late planting, and disease/pest pressure are constraints in the southern zone, while salinity and deficiency of P, Ca, S, Zn, lack of ideal varieties, low fertilizer use, and submergence/moisture stress at times seriously affect productivity in the eastern and western zones.

In the rainfed lowlands of eastern India, acid soils of poor fertility, saline soils deficient in N, P and Zn, lack of ideal HYVs, low to very low fertilizer use, submergence in flood prone areas, early/intermittent dry spells, poor plant stand, disease/pest incidence and ineffective transfer of technology besides widespread poverty constitute the key constraints. Acid soils deficient in N, P, Zn, boron and organic matter content, lack of ideal varieties and slow adoption of improved varieties, inadequate supply of quality seed, very low fertilizer use, poor crop stand, severe weed/wild rice infestation, blast and brown spot diseases, moisture stress and slow transfer of technology are the major constraints in the rainfed uplands. In the northeast hill region prevalence of shifting cultivation, excessive dependence on native varieties, limited use of quality seed, soils with low P and Fe toxicity, very low fertilizer use, severe weed infestation and lack of exposure to improved technology packages are the major constraints.

2.5 Programmes for Narrowing the Yield Gaps

The spectacular advance made in rice production was achieved by tapping only a part of the potential of the plant type based high yielding varieties. An analysis done 15 years ago by the International Rice Research Institute revealed that India then fell under the category of countries, wherein hardly 60 percent of their yield potential had been realized, warranting a serious effort to identify the factors contributing to such a wide yield gap and find appropriate technical and developmental remedies. The exercise was largely confined to the irrigated ecology and broadly identified the pest-weed complex, slow spread of HYVs, relatively low level of fertilizer use, soil problems in general (particularly salinity/alkalinity), and inadequate supply of quality seed to be important among many manageable constraints. Research efforts to find solutions to these constraints resulted over the years in a wide choice of HYVs combining the desired level of resistance to most of the pests and development of an effective integrated pest management strategy and area specific packages of cultivation practices. Development initiatives including massive production and supply of quality seed, timely supply of fertilizer nutrients and pesticides, extensive technology transfer programmes of various kinds, favourable policy support measures etc., were also considered important.

2.6 Development Programmes

Historically, launching of Intensive Agriculture Development Programmes in five districts in 1960 marked the beginning of extension efforts for maximum harvests through modern technology followed by the High Yielding Varieties Programme (HYVP), coinciding with the introduction of HYVs of rice and wheat in 1966. The National Demonstrations launched were accelerated following the unprecedented drought which badly affected crop prospects over 44 million ha spread over 269 districts in 1987. A Task Force was consequently constituted by the Planning Commission to develop a “Framework Action Plan” for achieving the targeted 102 million tonnes of rice (262 million tonnes of food grains) by the 7^th Plan period ending in 1989-90. Wide differences observed between State-wise potential (National Demonstration average) and actual farmers’ (State average) yields helped the Task Force identify on the basis of micro (village, taluka, block) level constraints analysis - 108 potential districts in 25 States/Union territories - and suggest appropriate technological/developmental interventions needed to maximize the yield level. This proved a starting point for the launch of a series of more rice-focussed development programmes with the goal of narrowing the yield gap through effective transfer of high yield technology, better input supply and management, training and development of infrastructure facilities as detailed below.

2.6.1 Rice “Seed Minikit” programme

For the rapid spread of high yielding varieties availability of quality seed in adequate quantity is vital. The realization that production and supply of quality seed through the normal seed chain would take a long time, prompted the Department of Agriculture during the very first decade of the introduction of HYVs to launch the “Seed Minikit” programme with the objective of reaching farmers fast, with new varieties and promoting their increased seed production at farmers’ field level. The strategy consists of making available the seed of a newly released variety to farmers in very small quantities at low cost. The programme enables farmers to see for themselves its superiority over what they are growing while facilitating the increased production of its seed for the benefit of fellow neighbouring farmers. This ingenious device continues to effectively supplement the normal seed channel in meeting the demand for quality seed of new varieties.

2.6.2 Rice production training

Exposure of extension personnel at all levels to the latest varietal and production technologies has paid rich dividends in effectively transferring them since 1975, when a State level training programme on Rice Production Technology was sponsored. The one week to three-month training programmes are organized by the ICAR research institutes and State agricultural universities.

2.6.3 Special thrust programmes

Predominantly rainfed eastern India accounts for over 65 percent of the total rice area. Yet, its share to total production is less than 55 percent largely on account of its long stagnating yield at very low levels. Besides hostile weather-related risks, several manageable technological and socio-economic constraints had been impeding the productivity growth until the launch of the centrally sponsored “Special Rice Production Programme” (SRPP) on the recommendation of the Prime Minister’s Economic Advisory Council in 1984-85. The thrust of this programme has been to improve the supply of key inputs viz., quality seed, fertilizer, pesticide, plant protection equipment, farm implements as well as irrigation and drainage facilities to a limited extent. The main focus, however, remains awareness creation among farmers of the existence of higher yielding varieties and location specific packages of production technologies. Encouraged by the impact that the experiment made on productivity, the strategy was extended to nearly all the rice growing States through yet another but much more ambitious “Special Food Grain Production Programme” (SFPP) again with the same objective of achieving 262 million tonnes of food grains by the 7^th Plan Period. Unlike the block-oriented SRPP confined to 51 districts in 5 eastern States, the district-oriented SFPP-Rice, covered 106 potential districts in 13 States. The SRPP and SFPP-Rice were integrated subsequently into one unified project viz., “Integrated Programme for Rice Development” (IPRD) which covered all the rice growing districts in the country. The unique feature of this programme is its flexibility enabling the States to choose according to their specific needs from among the input components provided under the IPRD viz., distribution of quality seed, micro nutrients, herbicides, pesticides, plant protection equipment and farm implements including power tillers for small and marginal farmers. Extensive field demonstrations and training programme for farmers and farm labourers are other components of the programmes for effective transfer of crop production technology.

Since 1994-95 the ongoing single commodity-oriented IPRD-Rice has now been re-structured into a system-oriented “Integrated Cereals Development Programme” in rice-based cropping system areas (ICPD-Rice). The programme launched with the objective of increasing the overall productivity of cereals under rice-based cropping systems is being implemented today in 1,200 identified blocks spread over 16 States, where rice and rice-based cereal productivity levels are below the State/national average. Specifically, ICPD-Rice aims to enhance the total productivity of major rice, non-rice cereal cropping systems on a sustainable basis giving greater emphasis to large scale on-farm demonstrations of latest varieties/hybrids, farmers’ training, promotion of eco-friendly crop production/protection packages like IPM and INM, improvement and sustenance of soil health by use of soil ameliorants, creation of competitiveness among farmers to excel in productivity maximization, promotion of quality seed production for handicapped ecologies, and provision of assistance to State agricultural universities (SAUs) for undertaking contractual research on local problems.

2.6.4 Frontline demonstrations

Lack of high yielding varieties which was attributed as the major factor to low productivity of eastern India is no longer valid, as research efforts of the past two decades have led to the development of a reasonably wide choice of improved varieties adapted to highly diverse and complex growing environments. Strangely, such technologies have hardly been exposed to either farmers or extension personnel in the region, necessitating the Directorate of Rice Research to conceive and launch in 1990 the Frontline Demonstration (FLD) programme jointly with the Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture, State Agricultural Universities and State Department of Agriculture in the region with the objective of demonstrating to farmers the potential and suitability of these technologies in major rainfed ecologies and sensitizing the extension personnel in the region to these developments. The FLD that made visible impact in the region is unique in several respects viz.:

· The large and contiguous area of 10-20 acres/demonstration with surrounding farmers fields serving as the check closely representing the target area/environment provides an effective window to showcase the best technology and realistic assessment of its potential for adoption.

· The site of the demonstration serves as a “field school” for imparting on-farm training to local farmers on various recommended packages of cultivation, while remaining a center for seed increase and facilitating farmer to farmer dissemination of technology.

· Effective scientist-extension-farmer linkage facilitates fine-tuning of the technology based on the feed-back from the FLDs.

2.6.5 Impact of the development programmes

The impact the various programmes made during 1984/85-1997/98 in eastern India is visible through a variety of indicators which include production/productivity advance, relative share in national rice production, percentage coverage of HYVs, level of fertilizer consumption etc. (Table 13) as detailed below:

· The coverage of HYVs increased from 44 to 63 percent.

· The level of fertilizer consumption increased from 18 kg to 24 kg/ha.

· Rice production increased by 40.34 percent as compared to 35.93 percent in the rest of the zones.

· Share in national rice production increased from 36.7 to 37.9 percent, and of the overall increase of 32.50 million tonnes of paddy, 13.43 million tonnes is from the eastern zone.

· Productivity increased from 1887 kg to 2508 kg/ha and annual productivity growth is 2.05 percent as against 0.75 percent in the southern and 1.75 percent in the northern zones.

Table 13. Relative Contribution of Eastern India for Rice Production Advance During 1986/87-1997/98

	East Zone			All India
	1986-87	1997-98	Increase (%)	1986-87	1997-98	Increase (%)
Area (m.ha)	17.64 (42.8)	18.63 (42.9)	0.99 (5.61)	41.17	43.42	2.25 (5.39)
Production (m.ha)	22.19 (36.7)	31.14 (37.9)	8.95* (40.34)	60.54	82.20	21.66 (35.78)
Productivity (kg/ha)	1258	1672	414 (32.9)	1417	1893	422 (28.69)
HYV (%)	44.0	63.0		58.4	74.0
Fertilizer con. (Kg/ha)	18.0	24.0		49.0	77.0

* Percentage contribution of Eastern India to national production increase during 1986/87-1997/98 = 41.32.

Figures in parenthesis underlined denote % of All India figures.

· Yield plateauing in high productivity areas: In States of high productivity like Punjab and Tamil Nadu etc., the yield level is plateauing. Does this trend mean that the goal of bridging the yield gap vis-a-vis currently available varietal technology has been achieved? Could it be a sign of declining factor productivity given the reports of a higher harvestable potential witnessed in some areas/fields in the region. If not, what is the strategy for further raising the productivity? This is a major researchable issue to be tackled before being content with our accomplishments.

· Continued imbalanced use of fertilizer nutrients: In general and for high productivity areas in particular, imbalanced use of fertilizer nutrients is on the increase largely due to price escalation and distortion, restricted subsidy on P and K and no subsidy on micro-nutrients like Zn, deficiency of which is widespread.

· Shrinking labour availability in the rural areas: It is increasingly evident that time bound crop management activities account for about 20 percent yield across the ecologies. In the wake of fast migrating rural population to urban areas, timely planting/harvesting etc., in this labour intensive crop is going to be a serious challenge. Impact of this trend is already showing up in States like Kerala, Punjab and Andhra Pradesh.

· Location specific production packages for diverse growing conditions under rainfed ecologies: Precise environment characterization has to precede development and adoption of location specific crop production packages.

· Low input management vis-a-vis risk of crop losses dissuading farmers from high input management in rainfed ecologies: More than lack of awareness, poverty coupled with justifiable apprehension on crop success are attributable to the low use of fertilizer and other monetary inputs including quality seed in rainfed eastern States. Without reliable tactical technology packages for risk distribution, legal mechanism for crop insurance/yield guarantee, and improved credit facilities and special incentives, higher input use will not be possible. This requires research input and policy support for motivating farmers towards intensive farming.

· Increasing area under low yielding high value rice varieties: Prompted by growing export prospects for Indian basmati rice, the area under the traditional variety has grown by 15-30 percent in the traditional basmati growing states like Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab etc., replacing high yielding non-basmati varieties. The impact of this trend on national production growth warrants close scrutiny for appropriate corrections.

· Accessibility to inputs in remote areas and availability of quality seed of appropriate varieties for stress environments: Timely supply in adequate quantity of quality seed is the major constraint to productivity growth in the remote North Eastern hill region, while short supply of certified seed of appropriate varieties continues to be the major problem in salt affected areas.

· Varietal solution to problematic soils: Years of breeding for salt tolerance has yet to come out with high yielding varieties ideally suited to saline/sodic/acidic soils. Increasing severity of the stress is visible in gradually declining productivity.

· Withdrawal of subsidy on chemical pesticides and plant protection equipment: Pesticide-free pest management in a pest endemic tropical country like India is unthinkable in the absence of host plant resistance. Whether the reported decline in pesticide consumption is on account of either increased exploitation of host plant resistance or adoption of non-pesticide approaches or cost prohibited limited use is a debatable question. As long as need based use of chemical pesticides continues to be a component of IPM, withdrawal of subsidy on them and appliances needs a review.

· Least attention to investment intensive development programmes: Research findings and practical experience have brought out the fact that drainage improvement in the deltas and waterlogged areas and provision of life-saving irrigation during dry spells in semi-irrigated rainfed areas have increased yield level by 25-30 percent. Modernization of drainage and creation of facilities for conservation of rain water are some of the subject areas where very little has been done.

· Utilization of ground water in high rainfall areas in eastern India for bringing more area under productive ‘Boro’ (winter) rice: Besides West Bengal, where rapidly increased Boro rice area exploiting ground water has led to a spectacular increase in productivity, equally potential areas with abundant ground water such as Bihar and Assam have yet to be exploited. Sadly, in West Bengal inadequate power/fuel supply has left hundreds of shallow wells under-utilized. Being one of the most potential niches, investment in exploitation of ground water could prove highly rewarding.

· Adverse effects of over-mining of ground water and excessive use of irrigation water and N-fertilizer: Over exploitation of ground water in some of the eastern States is believed to introduce new problems like high iron and arsenic content, while excessive and unscientific use of irrigation water is turning otherwise healthy and productive soils into saline and less productive farms. Inland salinity, which is continuously on the increase, is regarded as a more serious threat to rice production than coastal salinity. Research and development efforts to check the further spread and to ameliorate already affected areas should receive priority.

4. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Given the fact that the area under rice is nearly stabilized at around 42 million ha, the only option left for achieving the future production targets is vertical yield improvement. Amidst a disturbing scenario of declining productivity growth, especially in the northern and southern zones and shrinking natural resource bases, opportunities for sustaining the current level of sufficiency are seen in the vast under-exploited potential of rainfed eastern India, existence of sizeable untapped yield potential in the currently available high yielding varieties, and technological innovations like hybrid technology for raising the genetic yield ceiling and plugging of yield eroding biotic and abiotic stresses. Consolidation of already gained genetic potential in irrigated and shallow lowland ecologies should be our short term strategy for sustained production/productivity growth. Micro-level constraints analysis at village/block levels is the pre-requisite for mounting appropriate research/development efforts and harvesting maximum possible potential. While the knowledge base in this regard is satisfactory for irrigated ecology it is incomplete in respect of the rainfed lowland ecology. As for the status of key components of growth, technology in terms of appropriate HYVs and production packages and inputs (quality seed, fertilizer nutrients and pesticides) are adequate for both the ecologies. However, time bound crop management activities i.e., timely planting, irrigation, weeding, plant protection and harvesting constituting the third component and accounting for more than 20 percent of the harvestable yield is far from satisfactory. Technology transfer needs innovation and augmentation in respect of the rainfed ecology. On the basis of the perception of the problem and research/development/policy support needs (Appendix 2) for overcoming them, the following strategies are suggested:

4.1 Irrigated Ecology

· Development and use of technological packages for reversing the declining trend of factor productivity in rice-rice and rice-wheat cropping systems.

· Augmentation of breeding research for development of (a) higher yielding varieties combining multiple stress tolerance with emphasis on salinity/alkalinity and (b) hybrids with higher productivity stability and acceptable quality for areas approaching potential yield.

· Promotion of selective mechanization in intensively cropped areas to ensure timely cultural operations in the wake of increasing labour shortage and prohibitive wage structure.

· Development and adoption of effective technological and social devices for enhanced water use efficiency in the irrigation command areas.

· Ensuring adequate power/fuel supply to already energized wells in well-irrigated pockets in general and shallow wells in the Boro areas in the eastern region.

· Modernization in phases of drainage in the major rice growing deltas and waterlogged areas.

· Precise delineation of diverse growing conditions on the basis of micro-level constraints analysis for development of location specific varietal and production technologies.

· Special efforts/mechanisms for production and supply in adequate quantity of quality seed.

· Encouraging with incentives for production of quality seed for fragile environments like saline/alkaline soils, flood prone areas etc.

· Creation of infrastructure facilities preferably at block level for buffer stocking of seed of short duration varieties (10-15 percent of the seed requirement of the block) for re-sowing under situations of crop losses due to early flash floods/long dry spells.

· Development of facilities for providing limited life-saving irrigation when needed most in semi-irrigated rainfed lowland ecologies.

· Timely supply of all essential inputs, especially quality seed and fertilizer.

· Restoration fully of the subsidy on P and K fertilizer, extension of subsidy to micro-nutrients (zinc) and provision of at least partial subsidy on selected pesticides.

· Promotion of integrated pest management giving emphasis to the bio-control component as well as integrated nutrient management placing emphasis on inclusion of a leguminous crop in the cropping system.

· Improvement of credit facilities in areas of low productivity which is attributable largely to poor economic status of the peasantry to use the recommended level of purchased inputs.

· Continuous support to FLD, SFPP/IPRD/ICRD.

APPENDIX 1

MANAGEABLE CONSTRAINTS TO RICE PRODUCTIVITY IN DIFFERENT REGIONS/ECOLOGIES

SOUTHERN REGION

Commands and deltas:

· Over irrigation and poor drainage causing salinity/alkalinity
· Less than optimum plant population
· Delayed planting due to late release of canal water
· Imbalanced fertilizer use
· High incidence of pests and diseases
· Weed infestation

· Saline/acid/acid sulphate (Kuttanad) soils
· Periodic inundation by saline water
· Low adoption of HYVs
· Late and staggered planting
· Low to very low fertilizer use
· Disease-pest incidence

· Poor soil fertility with low organic matter content
· Poor drainage and salinity in lowlands
· Low fertilizer use and low use efficiency
· Widespread Zn deficiency
· Low adoption of HYVs
· Poor plant population
· High weed infestation
· Short to prolonged drought
· Disease-pest incidence

Command area:

· Faulty irrigation/brackish water/high water table causing salinity/alkalinity

· Low organic matter content with varied macro and micro nutrient deficiencies (N, P, S, Fe, Mn, Zn)

· Imbalanced fertilizer use

· Less than optimum plant population

· Delayed planting due to labour constraint

· Weed infestation

· Disease-pest incidence (BI, BLB, WBPH, SB, Sh. BI)

Commands and deltas:

· Low P and widespread Zn deficiency
· Delayed/prolonged transplanting
· Low and imbalanced fertilizer use
· Poor plant population
· Poor water management due to poor drainage
· Weed infestation
· Pest-disease incidence

· Acid soils of low fertility with low N, P and deficiency of Zn, Mo
· Saline soils deficient in N, P and Zn in coastal areas
· Lack of ideal HYVs and slow adoption of improved varieties
· Inadequate supply and use of quality seed
· Low fertilizer use and poor use efficiency
· Submergence in flood prone and waterlogged areas
· Early and intermittent drought spells
· Inadequate and delayed supply of quality seed
· Poor plant stand
· Disease-pest incidence
· Lack of exposure to productive technology packages
· Widespread poverty

· Acid soils with low organic matter content, low N and P and widespread Zn, Boron deficiency

· Lack of ideal HYVs and slow adoption of improved varieties

· Inadequate supply and use of quality seed

· Very low fertilizer use

· Severe weed infestation

· Poor crop stand

· Moisture stress at more than one growth stage

· Blast and brown spot diseases

· Lack of exposure to productive technology packages

· Widespread poverty

· Prevalence of ‘shifting’ cultivation
· Excessive dependence on native varieties
· Poor coverage of HYVs
· Limited use of quality seed
· Low ‘P’ availability and Fe toxicity in pockets
· Very low fertilizer use
· Severe weed infestation
· Low adoption of improved production technologies
· Soils difficult to work with when wet
· Lack of exposure to productive technology package

· Salinity and deficiency of P, Ca, S in coastal areas

· High water table in middle Gujarat, over-mining of water in south Gujarat causing salinity, faulty water management in the command areas of Western Vidharbha etc., causing salinity/alkalinity.

· Low fertilizer use and poor use efficiency

· Periods of moisture stress in rainfed and partially irrigated areas

· Poor plant population

· Heavy weed infestation in Vidharbha and South Gujarat

· Low adoption of improved cultivation package for drilled rice

· Disease/pest pressure

· Saline/alkaline soils in Jammu, sodic soil in Kangra and acidic soil in Mandi
· High water table and faulty irrigation system
· Low organic matter content
· Low fertilizer use
· Delayed and prolonged transplanting

· Low water retention capacity of soils
· High fixation of P and deficiency of N, Zn, Mo
· Waterlogging at early stages and drought at late stages
· Severe weed (wild rice) infestation
· High incidence of pests (GM)

APPENDIX 2

REMEDIAL MEASURES AGAINST MANAGEABLE CONSTRAINTS TO HIGHER PRODUCTIVITY IN IRRIGATED ECOLOGY

Use of quality seed

Replacing old susceptible varieties with more stable disease-pest resistant/salt tolerant new varieties.

Increased level of fertilizer use in areas of moderate and low fertilizer use.

Correction of distorted fertilizer nutrient use in high productivity areas.

Enhanced use efficiency of fertilizer by soil test-based application of major/micro nutrients.

Reversing the declining factor productivity through appropriate soil management strategies in major rice-based cropping systems, especially rice-wheat and rice-rice.

Correction of wide-spread deficiency of zinc, sulphur etc.,

Amelioration of inland salinity/alkalinity affected areas

Promotion of integrated nutrient management packages wherever practicable and needed

Ensuring optimum plant population by close planting of healthy seedlings.

Introduction of mechanized transplanting/wet direct seeding to ensure timely planting in areas where delayed planting is inevitable due to labour shortage, high wage structure etc.,

Promotion of integrated pest management practices in pest-endemic areas.

Effective and timely control of weeds using recommended weedicides.

Adoption of improved varieties of medium late maturity combining photosensitivity.

Use of quality seed

Resorting to transplanting in shallow lowlands where sustainable water depth never exceeds 30cm and direct seeding in semi-deep water areas.

Ensuring optimal stand establishment by adopting closer spacing in transplanted areas and by using 20 percent higher seed rate in direct sown ecologies.

Moderate application by drilling of fertilizer nutrients (a dry sown crop fertilized adequately can withstand better flash floods in August-September)

Effective pest-disease control by adopting integrated pest management practices.

Adoption of early maturing varieties well adapted to direct seeding and varied levels of moisture stress.

Ensuring optimum plant population by adoption of line sowing/using higher seed rate.

Practicing deep summer ploughing and adoption of appropriate rain water management devices for better moisture conservation and utilization.

Soil conservation measures to minimize soil and nutrient losses.

Moderate use of fertilizer nutrient (NPK) and fine tuning of N application.

Start seed bed preparation by harrowing before seeding and pre-emergence application of recommended weedicides followed by raking/hoeing and hand-weeding once or thrice depending on the severity of weed infestation.

Management of blast disease (especially seedling blast) either by use of resistant varieties or suitable fungicide application.

Development and use of risk distribution strategies.