Chapter 40. Other Oceania

Figure 40-1. Other Oceania: forest cover map

The vast area of the Pacific Ocean is dotted with a number of island countries and territories,[52] including American Samoa, Cook Islands, Fiji, French Polynesia, Guam, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Nauru, New Caledonia, Niue, Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga and Vanuatu. American Samoa and Guam are United States Territories, Northern Mariana Islands is a United States Commonwealth and French Polynesia and New Caledonia are French Territories; the others are independent States. In addition, the subregion includes Papua New Guinea, which shares the island of New Guinea with Irian Jaya, a province of Indonesia (reported under Asia) (Figure 40-1).

Landforms vary from low atolls, barely above sea level, to the mountains of Papua New Guinea, reaching 4 500 m. Most of the islands are of volcanic origin, although New Guinea and some western Pacific islands are continental.

The subregion can be divided into three geographic areas, Polynesia, Micronesia and Melanesia, located roughly in the central, northwest and southwest Pacific, respectively. The flora of Melanesia is the richest, given its proximity to the Indo-Malaysia region and Australia. Similarly, the vegetation of Micronesia is largely of Indo-Malaysian origin, becoming less rich from west to east. Polynesia, while still having many species of Indo-Malaysian origin, also includes species from America and New Zealand. The many coral atolls, with difficult growing conditions, have limited vegetation of strand plants (Mueller-Dombois and Fosenberg 1998).

Table 40-1. Other Oceania: forest resources and management

Country/area	Land area	Forest area 2000					Area change 1990-2000 (total forest)		Volume and above-ground biomass (total forest)		Forest under management plan
		Natural forest	Forest plantation	Total forest
	000 ha	000 ha	000 ha	000 ha	%	ha/ capita	000 ha/ year	%	m3/ha	t/ha	000 ha	%
American Samoa	20	12	0	12	60.1	0.2	n.s.	n.s.	-	-	-	-
Cook Islands	23	21	1	22	95.7	1.2	n.s.	n.s.	-	-	-	-
Fiji	1 827	718	97	815	44.6	1.0	-2	-0.2	-	-	-	-
French Polynesia	366	100	5	105	28.7	0.5	n.s.	n.s.	-	-	-	-
Guam	55	21	0	21	38.2	0.1	n.s.	n.s.	-	-	-	-
Kiribati	73	28		28	38.4	0.3	n.s.	n.s.	-	-	-	-
Marshall Islands	18	n.s.	-	n.s.	-	-	n.s.	n.s.	-	-	-	-
Micronesia	69	15	0	15	21.7	0.1	-1	-4.5	-	-	-	-
Nauru	2	n.s.	-	n.s.	-	-	n.s.	n.s.	-	-	-	-
New Caledonia	1 828	362	10	372	20.4	1.8	n.s.	n.s.	-	-	-	-
Niue	26	6	0	6	-	3.0	n.s.	n.s.	-	-	-	-
Northern Mariana Islands	46	14	-	14	30.4	0.2	n.s.	n.s.	-	-	-	-
Palau	46	35	0	35	76.1	1.8	n.s.	n.s.	-	-	-	-
Papua New Guinea	45 239	30 511	90	30 601	67.6	6.5	-113	-0.4	34	58	5 341	17
Samoa	282	100	5	105	37.2	0.6	-3	-2.1	-	-	-	-
Solomon Islands	2 856	2 486	50	2 536	88.8	5.9	-4	-0.2	-	-	43*	n.ap.
Tonga	73	3	1	4	5.5	n.s.	n.s.	n.s.	-	-	-	-
Vanuatu	1 218	444	3	447	36.7	2.4	1	0.1	-	-	-	-
Total Other Oceania	54 067	34 875	263	35 138	65.0	4.7	-122	-0.3	34	58	-	-
Total Oceania	849 096	194 775	2 848	197 623	23.3	6.6	-365	-0.2	55	64	-	-
TOTAL WORLD	13 063 900	3 682 722	186 733	3 869 455	29.6	0.6	-9 391	-0.2	100	109	-	-

Source: Appendix 3, Tables 3, 4, 6, 7 and 9.
*Partial results only. National figure not available.

Halophytic strand vegetation forms a narrow belt around high islands and covers most atolls. Tidal zones, particularly those protected from the open ocean by coral reefs or river estuaries, often host mangrove swamps, with vegetation varying from scrub to forest. Lowland tropical rain forest, multistoried and with epiphytes and shrubs when undisturbed, was originally the most extensive vegetation type but has been eliminated or highly altered by human activity in most areas. At higher elevations, on moist hilltops and slopes, this forest grades into a lower, epiphyte- and shrub-rich montane rain forest. Cloud forests are often found at the highest elevations. On leeward slopes are more mesophytic forests or even seasonally dry evergreen forests, grading into xerophytic types on the more severe sites (Mueller-Dombois and Fosenberg 1998).

FOREST RESOURCES

A workshop, with participation from many of the Pacific countries, was organized in Apia, Samoa in 2000 for the collection of information for this subregion. In addition, FAO assembled historical data to estimate forest cover as of 2000 and change from 1990 to 2000.

The quality of information varies greatly from country to country, but much of it is incomplete or out of date. Surveys were conducted in American Samoa, the Federated States of Micronesia, Northern Mariana Islands and Palau in the 1980s. New inventories are beginning for these locations, but will not be ready for several years. An inventory was completed for Solomon Islands in 1995, for Tonga in 1999 and for Vanuatu in 1992. An inventory, mainly focused on merchantable volume, was conducted in Samoa in 1977. Fiji has had national forest inventories in 1966-1969 and 1991-1993. Papua New Guinea's recent inventories are mostly project-specific surveys and maps of areas being considered for exploitation.

Papua New Guinea dominates the statistics for this region, with by far the bulk of the forest land (Table 40-1, Figure 40-2). Its proportion of forest cover remains high, even though it has experienced a continuing loss of forest cover. Although much smaller in area, Solomon Islands likewise has a high proportion of land in forest cover and a high area per capita. Fiji, New Caledonia and Vanuatu all have considerable forest land. The amount of forest land in the remaining island countries and territories is small.

Fiji, Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands have done the most in establishing plantations, but a number of those in Papua New Guinea are reported to be neglected or abandoned (Papua New Guinea Forest Authority undated). Small areas of plantations have been established in the other countries, both for protection and production.

Volume and biomass are estimated only for Papua New Guinea.

FOREST MANAGEMENT AND USES

Only one of the 18 countries and areas reported on in this subregion provided national data on the area of forest managed according to a formal, nationally approved forest management plan (Table 40-1). However, this country alone (Papua New Guinea) accounted for 87 percent of the total forest area in the subregion. A reported 5 million hectares, or 17 percent of the total forest area in Papua New Guinea, is subject to a formal management plan. Partial information was available from Solomon Islands in the form of the forest area that had obtained third party certification by the end of 2000.

Forests contribute significantly to the economy and foreign exchange earnings of Papua New Guinea. Exports in 1999 reportedly totalled US$151 952 000, although this was down from the mid-1980s when export earnings were approximately US$500 million. At present a total of 10.98 million hectares is under logging concessions, with a further 3.0 million hectares that have yet to be allocated. The annual log harvest from these concessions in 1999 was 2 097 000 m³, excluding the volume that was harvested using small-scale portable sawmills and removals as a result of land clearing for agriculture or other land uses. Most of this was exported in the form of round logs to China (including Taiwan Province), Japan, the Republic of Korea and the Philippines. Some wood chips are exported to Japan as well as some sawn timber, plywood and veneer, mostly to Australia and New Zealand (FAO in press).

Figure 40-2. Other Oceania: natural forest and forest plantation areas 2000 and net area changes 1990-2000

Solomon Islands is heavily forested; slightly more than 88 percent of the country is in forest, mostly tropical rain forest. However, like Papua New Guinea, a large proportion of the forests are inaccessible owing to steep terrain. Approximately 1 000 ha per annum of plantations have been established, mostly on Government-owned land. As with Papua New Guinea, log exports in the past have provided significant revenue. Harvest levels in the recent past appear to have been above sustainable levels (FAO 1997).

Fiji has experienced continuing loss of natural forests, particularly in the lowlands. Approximately 40 percent of the remaining natural forest has already been logged over and an additional 30 percent is in protected reserves. The remaining 30 percent is being cut over at a rate of about 8 000 ha per year (FAO in press). Fiji has a substantial plantation resource, both softwood and hardwood. An aggressive plantation programme is continuing. Fiji has a substantial forest-based industry and is a producer and exporter of woodchips, sawn timber and plywood/veneer (FAO 1997).

Vanuatu has a substantial forest resource, but much of it is on steep, inaccessible sites, and from a commercial standpoint many species are of limited commercial use. At the present time, harvesting is well within sustainable levels and the loss of forest land is modest. Efforts to establish plantations have been small and largely unsuccessful. A notable export is sandalwood (FAO in press).

In Samoa, during a 15-year period from 1978 on, it is estimated that 50 percent of the merchantable forest and 30 percent of the non-merchantable forest was cleared (FAO 1997). Natural forests remain on 36 percent of the land area, with another 1 percent in plantations. The bulk of the remaining commercial forest is on the larger island of Savai'i, with small areas on Upolu. Deforestation, primarily conversion to agricultural use, remains a significant factor. Timber exports once provided significant employment and export earnings, but have decreased significantly since cyclones in 1990 and 1991 resulted in severe damage to the forests (FAO in press).

The Marshall Islands and Kiribati, as well as parts of other Pacific states, consist of low atolls and the natural forest is mostly strand vegetation. The forests are important for protection and local use. The high islands of American Samoa, the Cook Islands, French Polynesia and the Federated States of Micronesia have significant areas of forest land, but the terrain is rugged. These forests are highly valuable for watershed protection and local use. Little undisturbed forest remains on Guam or on the major Northern Mariana Islands. Palau has a significant amount of forest for its size. There is little natural forest left on Nauru and Tonga. Niue's forests are mostly second growth (FAO 1997).

Mangroves are a significant resource in the Federated States of Micronesia, Kiribati, New Caledonia, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu (FAO in press).

In addition to providing a very important source of fuelwood and local forest products, they provide highly valuable shore protection and habitat. Most countries recognize these valuable benefits and are working to try to prevent the loss of mangrove cover.

Very little forest land in the Pacific is under any sort of a formal management plan. Where there is such a plan, the provisions of the plan are not always strictly enforced.

Fire is of little concern on many of the islands owing to a generally wet climate with few dry periods. The exceptions usually occur on the lee side of mountains, such as in Papua New Guinea, Fiji and Solomon Islands, or during the occasional drought periods. Guam, however, has a severe fire problem. A tradition of deliberately set fires has reduced most of the vegetation on the southern half of the island to grass. On other islands, moreover, introduced grasses, such as Melinis minutiflora, carry fire and prevent other species from regenerating, perpetuating the fire-grass regime (D'Antonio and Vitousek 1992). Fires tend to be especially destructive to plantations.

Occasional insect and disease problems have occurred with introduced plantation species, such as an attack on Cordia alliodora by the fungus Phellinus noxious reported from Vanuatu (FAO in press) and a shoot borer that attacks Swietenia macrophylla (Oliver 1999). Cyclones, particularly in the western Pacific, can cause serious damage. They have often been particularly damaging to plantations of introduced species, which may be more poorly adapted to these conditions than native species growing in mixed forests. Introduced plants are a serious problem throughout the subregion, in some cases completely changing the character of the forests. Some species were introduced for forestry purposes, but most were introduced for other purposes and have escaped (Meyer and Malet in press; Space in press). An introduced small tree, Miconia calvescens, has become a huge problem in Tahiti and some of the other islands of French Polynesia, choking out the natural forests.

Traditional agriculture in the Pacific subregion is closely tied to forests. These tree-gardens include trees producing edible fruits, fuelwood and other products. The undergrowth and small openings produce bananas, cassava and root crops. In wetter areas, taro is grown. This traditional agroforestry provided sustenance and useful non-timber products to the people while maintaining protective forest cover (Thaman and Whistler 1995). Archaeological and historical evidence shows that many of these Pacific islands were able to sustain very high population levels using traditional systems. There is renewed interest in the use of these systems from both the standpoint of improving land management and providing a better diet than imported food.

A ubiquitous resource throughout the Pacific is the coconut palm (Cocos nucifera). In the past, copra was a major component of the economy and source of foreign exchange. Now, use is mainly local. Coconut wood can, however, be sawn into building material and some countries are utilizing senescent coconut trees for this purpose (FAO in press).

The land tenure system often makes the establishment of protected areas difficult. However, many of the countries have managed to formally declare parks and reserves. Papua New Guinea has the largest area, but some smaller countries have made significant efforts in relation to their size, including American Samoa, Fiji, French Polynesia, Niue, Samoa and Vanuatu. New Caledonia has done an exceptional job of creating parks and reserves. The most successful efforts have focused on the strong involvement of local people (FAO in press).

CONCLUSIONS AND ISSUES

In the past, timber harvesting in Papua New Guinea was largely exploitive. Prior to the amendment of the Forestry Act in 1991, "there was a headlong rush throughout the country by landowners ... to allow their forest resources to be logged at totally exploitive rates. This has resulted in the almost complete exhaustion of commercial forest resources in the New Ireland and West New Britain Provinces." (Papua New Guinea Forest Authority undated). Most of the readily accessible production forest areas have already been logged out, nearly logged out or have been committed for exploitation. What are left are forests that are in the hinterland and rugged terrain areas (FAO in press). At the present rate of cutting and with a moratorium on new concessions currently in place, Papua New Guinea appears to be operating within sustainable forest management when the country is viewed as a whole. However, none of the existing forest concessions are being managed on a sustainable basis. While these are being renegotiated as they come up for renewal, a long-term strategy for the assessment, development and use of forest resources is still needed. Thus, while a substantial area is reported as being under management plans, the effectiveness of many of these may be minimal.

While the inaccessible upland areas of Solomon Islands will undoubtedly remain in forest cover, Oliver (1992) estimated that approximately half the commercially exploitable natural forest was already logged over by 1990. Maturing plantations may be able to alleviate the situation for a while, but harvest levels will have to decrease significantly to be sustainable. Brown in FAO (1997) states: "The basic story at present appears to be that of a resource being harvested too quickly and unsustainably with few of the benefits being reinvested to ensure the long-term viability of the forest industry".

New Caledonia's forest situation appears to be stable, with reasonable harvest levels, progressive forest management and a modest plantation programme. Substantial areas have been set aside as parks and reserves.

Fiji has policies and organizations in place that should permit future sustainable management of its forest resources. In addition to trying to achieve full acceptance of sustainable forest management, it is working to strengthen the involvement and active participation of landowners in forestry and the wood-based industries as well as to further strengthen value-added processing and promote alternative and non-destructive uses of natural forests (e.g. ecotourism) (FAO in press). Continuing loss of natural forest is of concern, but is offset to some degree (from a production standpoint) by a strong plantation programme.

Vanuatu has been working hard to put appropriate policies and procedures in place for sustainable management of its forests. A National Forest Policy was promulgated in 1997. The Forestry Act is currently being revised. Harvesting licences have been reduced to a level well within sustainable forest management. A logging practice code is in place and reduced impact logging is being promoted by the Forestry Department. There is the potential for a substantial increase in forest plantations.

The National Forest Policy of Samoa calls for the sustainable utilization and management of the remaining merchantable indigenous forests. Neither a code of logging practices nor reduced impact logging guidelines has yet been established, although a practices code has been drafted. A sustainable forest management project, carried out with donor assistance, is currently under way that aims to develop a model sustainable harvesting system. Most of the previous plantations were damaged by cyclones, and the current rate of planting is only between 50 and 100 ha per year (FAO in press). Given the current situation, it appears that Samoa will increasingly depend on timber imports (FAO 1997).

Forest management throughout the Pacific is complicated by the customary land tenure system, which is a combination of individual and communal rights. Although land itself usually cannot be sold, the forest resources on the land can be. This has often led to exploitive practices that turn these resources into cash or other land uses with little thought to the future or to the benefit or loss to society as a whole. In the past, claim to a piece of land was usually established by clearing it. Only recently have most countries begun efforts to work within the customary system to promote responsible and sustainable forest practices. Likewise, the land tenure system makes it difficult to obtain commitment for enough land for a sufficiently long period to establish protected areas or a viable plantation system (FAO 1997; FAO in press).

The demand for living space and agricultural land continues to have a significant effect on the reduction of forest land, particularly in American Samoa, the Federated States of Micronesia, Samoa and Solomon Islands. The Second World War and subsequent urbanization had a significant effect on the forests of Guam and some of the Northern Mariana Islands. Forestry organizations are underfinanced (often dependent on donor funding) and poorly staffed. Even when funding is available, it is very difficult to find trained foresters and technicians. Enforcement of forestry laws and regulation is often lax. There is frequently a lack of awareness of the importance of forest resources and the inability of local people to make informed decisions on their use (FAO in press).

Nevertheless, most countries have a forest management organization in place and operating, at least to some degree. Most countries have put in place forestry policies, usually recognizing the need for sustainable forest management. Some countries have forest practice codes in place and are implementing reduced impact logging. Awareness on the part of the people and the political leadership seems to be steadily increasing. Most Pacific nations are signatories of the international conventions and treaties dealing with conservation. Regional institutions are in place that focus assistance and promote intercountry cooperation. Much remains to be done, but on balance significant progress is being made.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

D'Antonio, M. & Vitousek, P.M. 1992. Biological invasions by exotic grasses, the grass-fire cycle, and global change. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 23: 63-87.

FAO. 1997. Regional study - the South Pacific, by C. Brown. Asia-Pacific Forestry Sector Outlook Study Working Paper APFSOS/WP/01. Rome.

FAO. In press. Proceedings of the workshop on Data Collection for the Pacific Region. FRA Working Paper. Rome.

Meyer, J.Y. & Malet, J.P. In press. Forestry and agroforestry alien trees as invasive plants in the Pacific Islands. In FAO Workshop Data Collection for the Pacific Region. FRA Working Paper. Rome, FAO.

Mueller-Dombois, D. & Fosenberg, F.R. 1998. Vegetation of the tropical Pacific islands. New York, Springer-Verlag.

Oliver, W.W. 1992. Plantation forestry in the South Pacific: a compilation and assessment of practices. Project RAS/86/036. FAO/UNDP.

Oliver, W.W. 1999. An update of plantation forestry in the South Pacific. SPC/UNDP/AusAID/FAO. Pacific Islands Forests and Trees Support Programme.

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Space, J.C. In press. Invasive plants threatening Pacific ecosystems: the Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk Project. In FAO Workshop on Data Collection for the Pacific Region. FRA Working Paper. Rome, FAO.

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