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Country review: Sudan


Osman Mohamed Saeed
Animal Resources Research Corporation, Ministry of Science and Technology, Sudan
September 2004

INTRODUCTION

The Sudan has an area of 2 505 825 km2 (approximately 8.3 percent of the African Continent) and lies between the geographical coordinates 15 00 N and 30 00 E. This vast country embraces different vegetation patterns reflecting various climatic zones grading from tropical rain forests in the south through semi tropical savannah to arid zone in the extreme north with annual rainfall ranging between 1 600 mm and 25 mm in the same sequence.

Sudan borders nine countries with a total land boundaries of 7 687 km and has a population of 35 079 814 and an annual growth rate of 2.8 according to the year 2000 estimates. Agriculture (including fisheries) dominates Sudan economy contributing 80 percent of the total working force and 42 percent of the GDP. The contribution of fisheries in GDP is currently marginal.

In 1989, Sudan adopted a Federal Government System. Accordingly, an administrative structure of 26 autonomous States was established. The Sudanese coast lies within the Red Sea State. This state has an area of 214 458 km2 of which 55 percent is pastoral grounds, 42 percent is saline and desert areas and 3 percent is cultivable lands. Coastal populations rely mainly on the sea for their food security and income generation in such an area with limited alternatives livelihood opportunities.

Sudan is endowed with diversified surface and under ground water resources and arable lands that are qualified to support to a vigorous capture fisheries and aquaculture. Currently, capture fisheries activities are centered around the River Nile and its tributaries and the territorial waters of Sudan on the Red Sea.

Sudan marine finfish fisheries account for about seven percent of total fish potential of the country (140 000 tonnes/year) and contributes 8.8 percent of the total production (57 000 tonnes).

From its geographical characteristic, the Red Sea is considered as a tropical water course with a prevailing desert and semi-desert climate. The jurisdiction of Sudan on the Red Sea is limited to a coastline of some 750 km and an Exclusive Economic Zone of 91 600 sq. km of which 22 300 km2 constitute the shallow coastal area.

Sudan territorial waters are generally characterized by weak currents, lack of upwelling phenomenon, weak tide (1-2 feet), high water temperature (20 degrees in February and 33 degrees in August), high salinity, (39-45 percent) lack of permanent rivers and freshwater runoff except the freshwater reaching the sea seasonally from Baraka River forming Delta Towker in the south and rain water that influx through valleys and ephemeral khors such as Arbaat in the north and Khor Kilab, Khor Moug, Hoshiery Valley and Khor Nawarat south of Port Sudan. These basic characteristics are believed to have their negative impact on productivity and organic production of the Sudanese sector of the Red Sea. These same territorial waters are rich in intensive coral formations in the inner and outer continental shelf. Although these corals represent attractive feeding localities and refuge areas for coralline fish as well as resorts for tourism activities, they also constitute obstacles to bottom trawl fishing due to their irregular beds.

Mariculture constitutes a potential avenue to augment fish production from capture fisheries for local consumption and export. Emphasis has been historically placed on oyster cultivation targeting production of oyster shells for export as raw material for button manufacturing, cosmetics, medicinal and inlay works. Technologies for oyster cultivation from spat collection to market size stages have been developed and implemented in small-scale oyster family farms adjacent to human settlements in the northern sector of the Sudanese coast. These technologies need to be further disseminated for expansion of this lucrative business along the entire Sudanese coast. Over and above, there are other indigenous finfish and crustacean species that proved elsewhere to be qualified and feasible for cultivation in land- based structures (ponds, pens, and lagoons) or floating cages in the open water. Diversification and intensification of mariculture is a research and development area that accord high priority in government policies for proper resource utilization for food security and socio-economic enhancement.

Sudan Marine Fisheries is small-scale and artisanal in nature, as defined as a labour intensive fisheries that is conducted by artisanal craftsmen whose level of income, mechanical sophistication, quantity of production, fishing range, political influence, market outlets, employment and social mobility and financial dependence keep them subservient to the economic decisions and operating constraints placed upon them by those who buy their production.

As of yet, no industrial and or recreational fisheries have emerged. The limited number of 20 tonnage capacity foreign trawlers that frequent the territorial waters usually operate on seasonal basis mainly targeting shrimps and discarding the by-catch.

The information contained in this review are gathered from various sources including records of the Fisheries Administration and Fisheries Research Centre, FAO Publications, Previous Assignments prepared by the author of these reports to FAO (FAO Fisheries Country Profile; http://www.fao.org/countryprofiles/) and PERSGA (ICZM Plan), National Strategy Documents, local conference papers and personal communication. Detailed supportive specific data and figures pertaining to management of marine fisheries are provided in a completed version of a 53 page FAO Questionnaire.

POLICY FRAMEWORK

Sudan policy, at large, is directed towards achieving international standards in the following areas:

In 2002, Sudan launched its long-term national strategy entitled the Quarter-Century Strategy (2002-2027) that incorporates fisheries development and rational utilization. With regard to fisheries and aquaculture, the strategy states the following seven guiding objectives:

The policies and implementation and enforcement mechanisms adopted within the strategy to attain these seven objectives include:

LEGAL FRAMEWORK

The following are examples of direct and indirect legislations related to marine fisheries:

Marine Fisheries Ordinance 1937

This ordinance was launched on 15 June 1937 to regulate the marine fisheries. The ordinance was a very modest administrative and technical guideline reflecting the available knowledge and expertise available at the time. The main rules specified in this ordinance are:

1975 by-law

On 15 April 1975 a by-law was issued by the Minister of Agriculture Food and Natural Resources (where Fisheries at that time was under the ministries mandate) and published as supplement No 1175 (in Arabic) in the Sudan Government Gazette. In this by-law, a slight amendment of the Marine Fisheries Ordinances was made whereby a new item was added dealing with banning use of water guns, fishing of certain fish resources and aquatic pollution. According to this amendment no body is allowed to:

It goes without saying that the Marine Fisheries Ordinance (1937) and its By-law are old-dating and demand radical amendment to accommodate recent development in management concepts and procedures and benefit from the international boom of legal and administrative development and initiatives.

Other Legislations

The following are examples of other Sudanese legislations indirectly relating to marine fisheries and environmental management:

The organs and mechanisms directly involved in fisheries management are the Fisheries Administration, the Fisheries Training Institute (Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries) and the Fisheries Research Centre (Ministry of Science and Technology) according to the mandate of these ministries specified in relative Presidential Decree of their establishment.

According to Sudan federal government system, there are structural arrangement for fisheries administration at the federal and states levels.

The Fisheries Administration within the Ministry of Animal Resources is the central fisheries authority entrusted with planning, policy formulation, training and overall supervision of the fisheries sector. This administration is answerable to the Undersecretary of the Ministry. It is formed of three main divisions: namely Capture fisheries, Aquaculture and Conservation.

At the state level, Fisheries Administration structures are under the umbrella of the Director General of the State Ministry of Agriculture who is answerable to the State Minister of Agriculture. There are currently 12 fisheries administration structures in the states endowed with fisheries resources out of the 26 federal states of Sudan including the Red Sea State.

This current Fisheries Administration discharges its mandatory obligations from its headquarters and associated structures based in Khartoum in close coordination with its Marine Fisheries Department in Port Sudan (Red Sea State) and with other relevant public and private sector institutions and agencies.

The Fisheries Training Institute in Khartoum is one of the specialized training facilities within the Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries. It provides short-term training courses targeting fisheries officers and fishermen from the public and private sectors. Fisheries extension services are coordinated with the Extension Administration within the Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries.

The Fisheries Research Centre, on the other hand, is the main applied research body which is under the umbrella of the Animal Resources Research Corporation, Ministry of Science and Technology. The Fisheries Research Centre HQ is in Khartoum and performs its mandatory functions through a number of specialized Capture Fisheries and Aquaculture Research Stations geographically distributed in strategic fisheries resources localities. The Red Sea Fisheries Research Station of this centre in Port Sudan caters for the marine environment.

Other collaborative institutions and support mechanisms include the following:

STATUS OF THE FISHERIES

Despite the high biodiversity of aquatic life, exploitation emphasis has been historically placed on harvesting finfish, shrimps and wild molluscs. Both activities are largely of traditional and subsistence nature. The other highly valued resources are either untapped or occasionally fished.

As for finfish, fishing activities are carried out by the artisanal sector using traditional gear, craft and fishing techniques and frequenting near shore areas. Investments in commercial fisheries are limited in magnitude with a tendency to increase in recent years using small and medium-size trawlers and purse seiners. Some firms are engaged in collection and marketing fish through different forms of production relations with local fishermen. Cartilaginous fishes include 30 species of sharks and 21 species of skates and rays. The reported bony fishes amount to 280 species. However, 60-70 percent of the finfish catches are attributed to Epinephallus aerolatus, Lutjanus bohar, L. gibbus, Lethrinus spp., Caranx spp., Plectiopomus maculates, Aprion spp., Scomberomorus commersoni and Mugil spp. Estimates for finfish potential in the Sudanese waters are rather discordant ranging between 6 000 and 35 000 tonnes/year as proposed by stock assessment studies at different times. However, for precautionary approach measures, a fish potential figure of 10 000 tonnes/year is adopted. Of this, the current annual finfish landing did not exceed 5 000 tonnes.

Diving in search of wild molluscs is an old dating occupation for the majority of coastal population. Molluscs of commercial importance include Pinctada margaritifera, Trochus dentatus, Strombus, Lambia, Chicorus, Fasciolaria and Sypraya spp. The first two species contribute to over 90 percent of the wild mollusc collection which is exported to Europe as raw material for button manufacturing, cosmetics and inlay works. Other species such as Strombus Lambia and Tridachnia are also fished for local market as souvenirs or use of the shell and meat as ingredients in poultry feed and local perfume production. The available production statistics that need updating suggest a total annual landing of 500 tonnes of Trochus spp., 30 tonnes of Pinctada spp., 600 pieces of Strombus and 500 kg of Lambia spp.

Crustaceans belonging to the families Penaedae, Palinuridae and Potunidae have been reported in coastal waters. Eight shrimp species have been reported in the coastal waters that are fished by local inhabitants along the coast or by bottom trawling by local and foreign vessels. Of these, Penaeus semisulcatus, Penaeus latisulcantus and Metapenaeus Monocerus contribute the highest population density. Non stock assessment studies have been carried out to quantify these resources. Statistics on shrimp catches are rather discordant suggesting an estimate not exceeding 20 tonnes/year.

The coral reef population in Sudan represent a unique and highly regarded national heritage that deserves utmost attention to preserve. This constitutes a potential asset for tourism industry. The fish resources associated with the coral formations and their vicinity can contribute, apart from food security, in supporting a vigorous ornamental fish industry. There are three types of coral reef in the Sudanese waters including the fringing reef, barrier reefs and atolls. Sanganab atoll. (35 km northeast of Port Sudan) has been declared since 1990 as an internationally recognized Marine National Park. Management of this park is the main responsibility of Environmental and Wildlife Protection Force of the Ministry of Interior. Two other potential marine reserve areas have been surveyed and identified in Makoar Island and Dongonab Bay (approximately176 km north of Port Sudan). Administrative and legal steps pertaining to their official declaration are underway. In these areas the threatened Dugong, Sea Turtles, Sharks, Manta Ray and resident and migratory birds such as Osprey, Goliath, Heron, white-eyed gull, Sandpipers and Crab Plover have been reported.

There are other living marine resources that are either untapped or sporadically fished.

Apart from fragmentary studies on finfish, no stock assessment data and basic information are available for these resources. Much of the research emphasis was placed on oyster biology and culture technologies. Several alternative hanging and bottom culture systems have been evaluated and tested in pilot farms. Based on that, a programme of establishing small oyster family farms was launched with financial support from the Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Resources and Irrigation of the Red Sea State, OXFAM and ACCORD.

Seven fishing zones have been recognized and exploited within Sudan Territorial Waters. These are:

A limited number of trawlers are used in coastal and offshore fishing. Fishing gear in use include surrounding nets, seine nets, gillnets, cast nets, handline, hook and line and limited number of trawl nets used in seasonal bottom and mid water fishing.

The irregular sea bed confined trawling operations to an area of 71 000 hectares in Delta Toaker (29 500 hectares), Gulf of Agieg (6 500 hectares) Mersa Mogadam (3 000 hectares) Khor Nawarat (2 000 hectares) and other areas.

There are 1 800 registered local fishermen operating 410 fishing crafts including 3-5 meter dugout canoes (Houri), 5-7 meter wooden and steel boats (Felucca) and 7-10 meter lunches (Sambouk). The majority of the Houris is manoeuvred by wooden oars and bamboo staff while the other fishing vessel are fitted with outboard or inboard engines ranging between 10 and 100 horsepower. Over and above, there are some 50 medium size wooden boats and steel trawlers of capacities in the tune of 20 - 25 tonnes each most of them operate on seasonal basis. Trawling is performed by a limited number of small size trawlers in confined areas in southern and northern parts of the Sudanese Red Sea and mainly of seasonal nature targeting shrimps, lizard fish, goat fish and threadfin bream.

Cultivation of the black-lip mother-of-pearl shell, pinctada margaritifera, is the form of mariculture practiced in Sudan. The systems adapted for oyster cultivation are based on off- bottom and bottom culture techniques. Culture operations were geared towards production of oyster shells for export as raw material for button manufacturing, cosmetics and inlay works. The industry is predominantly based on oyster family farms along the Sudanese coast on the Red Sea, as well as large investment in the area of artificial pearl production.

The marine environment and fisheries have been observed to be apparently subject to various hazards and risks that demand high priority attention. Some of these negative impacts are cited below:

MANAGEMENT ACTIVITY

Management measures stem from research recommendations and directives and guidelines of FAO and relevant institutions.

The Fisheries Administration is the mother institution entrusted with implementation of the various aspects of fisheries management in collaboration with public and private sector institutions and agencies. However, contribution of stakeholders in planning and implementation of management programme is currently at a low key profile.

Management is currently focussed on finfish, crustaceans (shrimps, prawns and lobsters) and molluscs. However, most of the management efforts were directed towards finfish. Management capabilities and discharge reflect relative progressive development particularly during the last five years. The reasons behind this progress are increased recognition of the sector and respective political will, human resources capacity building and exchange of expertise with regional and international fisheries agencies and bodies.

Current Fisheries Management Tools and Trends

Management Goal and Objectives as expressed in the Comprehensive National Strategy (1992-2002) called for

Technical measures in use include:

Regulation of Access: licensing local fishermen and fishing crafts and issuing special permits for foreign vessels subcontracted with Sudanese counterparts. It must be mentioned, however, that the issued licenses to artisanal fishers and craft give them the right to fish throughout the year within the territorial waters (e.g. open access regime). As for the foreign fishing boats, permits are given with clear specification of the fishing zone, season and fisheries resource targeted. No catch quota is conditioned at the moment for both categories.

Mesh Regulation: Standard mesh size of fishing gear is recommended. Check on these is performed during routine inspection and illegal nets are confiscated.

Fish Size Regulation: Minimal allowable size limits for the most important fishes are specified and declared to fishers. Undersized fish are usually confiscated.

Banning of certain fishing methods: The law prohibits the use of dynamite, poisons, and spear guns in fishing.

Increase of Fishermen Capacity: Training, extension, improvement of fishing boats, establishment of boat and engine maintenance workshops, and supply of other services are examples.

Closed Areas: Fishing is completely forbidden in Saganab atoll as a conserved Marine National Park. Dongonab Bay is a closed area for oyster farming and small-scale fishing and wild oyster collection by the local inhabitants.

Closed Season: This is applicable to shrimp grounds where fishing is not allowed during the period mid March to mid August coinciding with the breeding season.

ICZM: Recently (2004), an Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) Plan has been prepared by national experts under the umbrella of the Strategic Action Programme (SAP) of PERSGA. The assignment incorporates two complementary parts: a detailed background coastal profile documents and the proposed ICZM plan of action. This plan is geared towards vertical and horizontal coordination of efforts among various stakeholders in the private and public sectors at the state and federal levels for rational use, conservation and sustainable development of the coastal area. The draft of this ICZM had been discussed in two workshops in Port Sudan (January, 2003) and Khartoum (July 2003). A final workshop is planned to convene in Port Sudan on 6-7 October, 2004 before submission of the ICZM plan to the Cabinet of Ministers and legislative bodies for approval. The ICZM Implementation Programme is planned to start with the following activities:

COSTS AND REVENUES OF FISHERIES MANAGEMENT

As mentioned earlier, several institutions are involved in fisheries management in one way or another. The Fisheries Administration and Fisheries Research Centre are directly involved in fisheries management and perform their responsibilities within the available budget and financial support from the Federal and State Governments and other donors. There is no contribution of magnitude from the private sector apart from fishing permit fees. Public and private universities contribute indirectly through capacity building and basic research.

Due to lack of proper records, it was practically impossible for the author to reach actual figures for the overall budget and exact management costs. The available records of the Fisheries Administration and Fisheries Research Centre indicate a general increase in their budgets during the last ten years for finfish and crustacean management while that for management of wild molluscs fishing remained more or less unchanged. Sources of revenue are limited to license fees, penalties and income tax which is applicable at the moment to fish exporters and importers while traditional craftsmen are exempted from income tax. Generally speaking, estimation of the budget, costs and revenues during the last ten years took into consideration the Inflation factor and devaluation of the Sudanese currency.

IMPLEMENTATION OF GLOBAL FISHERIES MANDATES AND INITIATIVES

As of yet, Sudan did not sign, ratify or accedes the Fish Stock Agreement or the Compliance Agreement. However, informally some of the principles, guidelines, and directives of the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fishing were taken into consideration when preparing the strategic plan of the country.

As mentioned, Sudan had prepared in 2003 the Integrated Coastal Zone Management Plan in collaboration with PERSGA which when approved will contribute to rational management and sustainable development of the marine fisheries and its environment.

Currently, Sudan participates in the following agreements:

PARTICIPATION IN REGIONAL FISHERY BODIES

Sudan participates in the following regional bodies:

There are two legal mechanisms in place to implement measures, agreements and technical guidelines adopted by regional fishery bodies.

Mechanism I: Recommendations stemming from regular meetings, technical consultations or involuntary guidelines are brought to the attention of the central government through technical reports with recommendations from the representative(s) who attended the scientific forum. Within the Fisheries Administration (Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries) and Fisheries Research Centre (Ministry of Science and Technology), the expertise gained and recommendation reached in these meetings are as far as possible adopted to improve performance. Seminars are usually organized to disseminate information and recommendation of these regional and/or international meetings.

Mechanism II: Agreements and Protocols are usually submitted to the Cabinet of Ministers by the concerned Minister for approval as a prerequisite for subsequent signature, ratification, accession and implementation. The procedures involve several steps:

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Sudan Marine Fisheries is exclusively of artisanal in nature. As of yet, no proper industrial and or recreational fisheries have emerged.

Monitoring, intervention and evaluation as basic functions of fisheries management are rather sporadic and intermittent and handicapped by limited financial resource allocation, inadequate capacity building and poor internal and external coordination.

National Fisheries legislations are old-dating and require considerable reforms and amendments to cope with the recent developments in the international arena.

There is much to be done to improve fisheries management for food security and socio-economic sustainable development.

Evaluation and synthesis of the current situation of Sudan marine capture fisheries and mariculture depict, among others, the following problems and constraints that need to be addressed and resolved:

REFERENCES

FAO. 2002. Country Profile for Sudan (available at http://www.fao.org/countryprofiles)

PERSGA. Sudan Integrated Coastal Zone Management Plan. http://www.persga.org.

APPENDIX TABLES

Current management of marine capture fisheries in Sudan

Level of
Management

% Fisheries
Managed

% with Fisheries
Management Plan

% with Published
Regulations

Trends in the number of Managed
Fisheries over ten yrs. (increasing/
decreasing/unchanged

National

30

60

50

increasing

Regional

60

40

50


Local

10

0

0


Summary information for three largest fisheries (by volume) in Sudan (2002)

Category of
Fishery

Fishery

Volume
million
tonnes

Value*
million
US$

% of Total
Volume
Caught**

% of Total
Value
Caught**

Covered by a
Management
Plan? (Yes/No)

# of
Participants

# of
Vessels

Artisanal

Finfish

0.50

34.3

47.6

96.9

yes

1 500

410

Shrimps

0.02

0.6

1.9

1.7

yes

200

50

Molluscs

0.53

0.5

50.5

1.4

yes

100

100

* Value in 2002 U.S. Dollars.
** % values are based on totals for each category of fishery.

Use of fishery management tools within the three largest fisheries in Sudan

Category of
Fishery

Fishery

Restrictions

License/
Limited
Entry

Catch
Restrictions

Rights-based
Regulations

Taxes/
Royalties

Performance
Standards

Spatial

Temporal

Gear

Size

Artisanal

Finfish

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

No

Yes

No

Shrimps

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

No

Yes

No

Molluscs

No

No

No

No

No

No

No

No

No

Costs and funding sources of fisheries management within the three largest fisheries in Sudan

Category of
Fishery

Fishery

Do Management Funding Outlays Cover

Are Management Funding Sources From

R&D

Monitoring &
Enforcement

Daily
Management

License fees in
fishery

License fees from
other fisheries

Resource
rents

Artisanal

Finfish

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

No

Shrimps

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

No

No

Molluscs

Yes

No

No

No

No

No

Compliance and enforcement within the three largest fisheries in Sudan

Category of
Fishery

Fishery

VMS

On-board
observers

Random
dockside
inspections

Routine
inspections at
landing sites

At-sea
boarding and
inspections

Other
(please specify)

Artisanal

Finfish

No

No

Yes

Yes

No

Market Checks

Shrimps

No

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Market Checks

Molluscs

No

No

Yes

Yes

No

Market Checks

Capacity management within the three largest fisheries in Sudan

Category of
Fishery

Fishery

Does
overfishing
exist?

Is fleet capacity
measured?

Is CPUE
increasing,
constant or
decreasing?

Have capacity
reduction
programmes
been used?

If used, please specify
objectives of capacity
reduction programme

Artisanal

Finfish

No

No

increasing

No

-

Shrimps

Yes

Yes

decreasing

No

-

Molluscs

Yes

No

decreasing

No

-


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