6. INTEGRATED PRODUCTION PRACTICES OF CASHEW IN MYANMAR - Maung Maung Lay[6]

1. INTRODUCTION

The agricultural sector which receives priority, is the mainstay of the Myanmar economy as it contributes nearly 35 percent to the Gross National Product (GDP). In the Southern region of the country where soil and climatic conditions are more favorable, there is high potential for the production of plantation crops such as cashew, oil palm and rubber. In 1982, cashew was given priority plantation status by the government which resulted in rapid expansion of the crop in many States and Divisions of the country. By the end of 1995, cashew growing extended to 21,009 ha with an annual production of 2,114 tons. As the world demand for cashew kernels increases, Myanmar has the possibility of developing the crop as a foreign exchange earner and is bound to play a significant role in the country’s economy in the future. Being in close proximity to India which has a processing capacity far in excess of its local production, there is much potential to develop the crop for export.

2. CURRENT STATUS OF CASHEW PRODUCTION

2.1 Cashew Growing Areas

Cashew is cultivated at present in ten regions, namely, in Kachin State, Kayin State, Sagaing Division, Taninthayi Division, Bago Division, Mon State, Rakhine State, Yangon Division, Shan State and Ayeyarwady Division.

It can be seen from Table 1 that the area under cashew almost doubled by 1995-96 from the original extents in 1991-92. The major production areas are Taninthayi Division (4,187 ha), Mon State (4,367 ha) and Yangon Division (2,353 ha). Other regions that are expanding production are Bago Division (2,558 ha), Ayeyarwady Division (2,353 ha) and Kayin State (516 ha) while only a few ha have been cultivated so far in Kachin State (61 ha), Shan State (66 ha), Rakhine State (122 ha) and Sagaing Division (7 ha).

Table 1. Area of Production of Cashew in Myanmar (1991-92 to 1995-96)

State/Division	Area of Production (ha)
	1991-92	1992-93	1993-94	1994-95	1995-96
Kachin				61	61
Kayin	264	445	445	445	516
Sagaing			7	7	7
Taninthayi	2,829	3,298	3,465	3,465	4,187
Bago	169	1,884	2,580	1,583	2,558
Mon	4,095	4,298	4,298	4,298	4,367
Rakhine	45	265	247	247	122
Yangon	1,579	3,551	6,523	6,731	6,772
Shan					66
Ayeyarwady	207	851	1,257	1,290	2,353
Magway	5	5
Total	9193	14,597	18,822	19,1287	21,009

Source: Department of Land Records and Settlements, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, Union of Myanmar

The agro-climatological data of cashew growing regions is presented in Table 2. The best climatic regime for cashew production is found in the Southern part of the country in Kawthong and Myeik regions. The high productivity level of 477 kg per ha in Taninthayi Division supports this observation (Table 3). A well distributed rainfall of 3864 - 3982 mm ensures stable moisture availability throughout the year. Ambient temperatures during the flowering and fruiting season in January - April do not go below 21° C and the relative humidity is well within the range of 50 - 80 % during this period (Table 2). The Dawai region has the highest rainfall of 5337 mm distributed over 149 days in the year. With proper selection of planting material and adoption of appropriate production practices, Dawei region could also have good potential for cashew production.

Table 2. Agro-Climatological Data for Cashew Growing Areas in Myanmar (Average of 10 Years, 1981-1990).

State/Division	Latitude	Annual Rainfall (mm)	Rainy Days	Maximum temperature				Minimum Temperature				Relative Humidity
				Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr
Kachin
Bhamaw	24.2	1866	11	25.2	27.7	30.8	32.5	9.5	12	15.4	19.4	82	74	64	86
Kavin
Hpa-an	17.1	3989	14	33.1	35.1	36.6	37.4	18	19.7	22.2	24.9	73	72	69	66
Sagaing
Monywa	22.1	692	46	23.3	31.8	35.8	38.4	13.6	15.4	18.9	23.1	72	62	49	51
Taninthayi
Dawei	14.4	5337	149	32.9	33.3	33.9	34.3	18.3	20.2	21.4	23.7	71	74	70	71
Myeik	12.5	3864	148	31.9	32.6	33.4	33.5	21.5	22.4	23	24.7	67	73	73	75
Kawthong	9.6	3982	136	31.4	32.4	33.4	33.3	21	22.1	22.6	23.5	71	70	68	73
Bago
Taungoo	19	1929	114	30.5	33.9	36.6	38.3	14.9	16.4	20.4	24	73	62	60	62
Bago	17.4	3180	134	31.6	33.9	36.3	37.6	16.5	17.1	20.4	23.7	70	77	74	70
Pyay	18.8	1184	86	31.1	34.2	37.5	38.2	16.2	18	20.8	24.6	68	60	57	58
Mon
Mawlamyine	16.6	4628	140	33.1	34.9	35.4	35.8	18.2	19.2	22	24.4	66	65	63	66
Ye	15.2	4851	146	32.2	33.2	34	34.3	15.7	16.3	17.6	20.1	69	68	64	66
Thahton	17	5195	150	32.2	34.1	35.2	35.7	17.9	20.2	22.9	24.9	63	65	85	65
Bilin	17.3	4860	140	32.1	34.2	35.5	36,2	16.3	17.4	19.6	22.6	63	64	64	62
Rakhine
Sillway	20.1	4526	126	28.3	29.4	31.6	32.8	15.2	16.7	20.2	24	70	65	66	67
Thandwe	18.2	5113	137	30.8	32	33.4	34.8	11	12.5	16.6	22	74	69	68	65
Mrauk U	17.2	3327	115	20.9	32	34.9	35.7	11.7	13	18.1	21.8	76	71	62	71
Yangon
Hmawbi		2395	126	32	34.8	37	38.1	15.8	17	19.7	23.6	63	62	64	63
Shan	22.5
Hsipaw	20.5	1298	91	26.6	29.2	33.1	34.3	9	9.3	12.1	17.8	95	81	64	60
Monghsai		1443	107	27.7	30.4	33	34.8	10	9.7	12.1	17.8	95	81	64	60
Ayeyarwady	16.8
Pathein		2988	126	31.3	33.4	34.9	36.6	17.1	19	21.3	24	72	71	67	65

Table 3. Area of Production and Productivity of Cashew in Myanmar (1995 - 96)

No.	State/ Division	Total Area	Productive Area (ha)	Productivity (kg/ha)	Production (kg)	Remarks
1	Kachin	61	61	33.8	2,062
2	Kayin	516	42	294	12,348
3	Sagaing	7	7	198.71	1,391
4	Taninthayi	4,187	1,904	477.33	908,836
5	Bago	2,558	368	11.18	4,116
6	Mon	4,367	2,571	67.08	172,425
7	Rakhine	122	39	83.92	3,273
8	Yangon	6,772	1,087	40.42	43,944
9	Shan	66	44	70	3,080
10	Ayeyarwady	2,353	2,221	433.39	962,561
	Grand Total	21,009	8,344	253.36	2,114,036

Source: Department of Land Records and Settlements, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, The Union of Myanmar.

In Yangon Division, 6,772 ha are planted with cashew. Large plantations are encouraged in this Division. The rainfall pattern is somewhat different with much less precipitation and fewer rainy days. High velocity winds in the summer months also increase the dry nature of the climate which causes severe water stress, especially during the critical flowering and fruit setting periods. This is evident from the low productivity of about 40.42 kg per ha in Yangon Division. Many farmers resort to moisture conservation measures and use of fast growing tree species such as Casuarina for wind breaks which help to improve yields of many orchards.

In the Bago region too, with an area of about 2558 ha planted with cashew, commercial plantations are encouraged. Total rainfall and its distribution is also less than the high rainfall regions of the country, especially in Taungoo and Pyay areas. Low temperatures in January - February also affect the reproductive phase. With proper soil and moisture conservation measures, productivity of plantations can be improved in the Bago region.

About 516 ha are planted with cashew in Kayin State. Due to its close proximity to Mon State, agro-climatic conditions are somewhat similar except the fact that minimum temperatures rarely go down below the critical level of 18° C. Consequently, yields as high as 294 kg per ha are realized in Kayin State.

In Rakhine State, rainfall is high but the region experiences a long dry period. Temperatures in the cold months of January - February drop well below the optimum. This causes poor fruit set in Kachin State, Shan State and Sagaing Division where temperatures are as low as 9°C in addition to drought conditions. Fog and frequent misty conditions also contribute to the low productivity observed in these regions.

Large-scale plantations can also be observed in Ayeyarwady Division which has a total extent of 2,353 ha. In this region too, lesser rainfall with poor distribution is experienced and minimum temperatures go down below 17°C. With proper selection of adapted varieties and appropriate management practices, productivity can be improved in this region.

In summary, it may be mentioned that the high potential areas for cashew production are in Taninthayi Division followed by Mon State. With proper management, plantations can be developed to produce satisfactorily in Ayeyarwady, Yangon, Bago and Kayin State. Production of cashew in Sagaing, Rakhine, Kachine and Shan States may be restricted to homesteads along with other tree species to supplement small - farmer incomes.

2.3 Varietal Situation

Almost all cashew plantations in Myanmar have been raised from unselected seedling progenies. Low production and productivity is mainly attributed to this reason and is considered to be the primary constraint in cashew development. Vegetatively propagated planting material of proven germplasm sources would be the logical alternative if available. With the prevailing situation however, this is not the case and for the time being, use of seedling material may have to continue.

3. PROPAGATION AND PRODUCTION OF PLANTING MATERIAL

In tree crops, it is essential to establish plantations with planting material of known progenies which can respond to improved management technologies. Such proven material adapted to the different soil and climatic conditions is not available at present in Myanmar. Consequently, neither the government nor the private sector is able to establish cashew nurseries of superior quality planting material for distribution to growers.

4. ESTABLISHMENT OF CASHEW ORCHARDS

4.1 Land Preparation

From 1982-1992 the government was responsible for the establishment of cashew plantations in the different States and Divisions of the country. With the change of policies in recent times, the private sector is being encouraged to develop plantations of cashew and other perennial crops. During the period of government control, land preparation was carried out on a systematic basis except the production of planting material which was used to establish orchards. When farmers plant cashew orchards, land clearing is confined to crop rows where clearing and de-stumping is carried out in strips of 3-4m width leaving the rest of the vegetation intact in order to minimize expenditure. Only a few farmers clear the land completely and use the land for inter-cropping with crops such as sweet potato, sesame, maize and peanut. This cropping system is continued for the first 5 years during the life of the young cashew plantations.

4.2 Conservation Measures on Sloping Lands

Sloping terrain in some cashew growing areas are prone to soil erosion. Adequate conservation measures such as terracing and bunding need to be carried out. Soil and water conservation activities are an essential part of the production technology followed in such areas where the top soil and surface runoff have to be conserved. Most of the cashew lands in Myanmar come under this category and cashew plantations are generally established on degraded slopes with poor fertility. Although these measures are advocated, most farmers continue to grow the crop without the usual conservation measures such as bunds, terraces, inverted crescent basins, catch pits etc.

4.3 Planting Season

Since cashew planting is done in Myanmar when soil moisture is adequate, the planting season coincides with the onset of rains. The main monsoon season occurs from May to September sometimes extending to October while the rest of the year is relatively dry. The dry season promotes the fruiting cycle and helps to harvest fruits under ideal conditions. In some areas drought conditions prevail, often affecting the development of the cashew tree and adversely affecting the fruiting cycle.

In most orchards in Myanmar when direct seeding or ‘seed-at-stake’ method is followed, seeds are planted during the month of April, prior to the onset of rains. This gives young seedlings sufficient time to develop a strong tap root system before the advent of the dry season from November. If seedlings are used, plantations are established usually in the months of May - June when regular rains are experienced. Most farmers adopt the direct seeding method which is often carried out too late to be able to benefit from the early rains.

4.4 Spacing

In earlier plantations established by the government from 1987, hedge-row planting at a spacing of 12m x 2m was carried out. This enabled the rapid build up of tree canopies and promoted higher production from the early years of the crop. The current practice followed by the private sector uses spacing that may vary from 4m x 4m to 7.5m using the triangular or square planting method which often leads to severe inter-plant competition and mutual shading.

4.5 Opening of Pits and Planting

In the State plantations, pits were dug in a systematic manner after lining out and pegging the planting points. Pits were usually dug to a size of 60cm x 60cm to a depth of 60cm for both ‘seed-at-stake’ as well as polybag seedlings. When farmers plant their cashew orchards, very little attention is given to proper preparation of pits to receive seeds or plants. Very often, seeds/seedlings are placed in shallow pits and sometimes, direct seeding is done by directly dibbling seeds into uncultivated land. Farmers also resort to planting more than one seed at each planting point which often results in more than one tree. This causes severe competition between plants that results in poor yields.

5. CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF CASHEW ORCHARDS

5.1 Training and Pruning of Cashew Trees

Cashew trees require some training and pruning in the initial years in order to develop canopies that will not cause mutual shading. Lower branches, leader shoots and water shoots are pruned to train the plants to the required shape that will give higher productivity. Despite these recommendations, most farmers in Myanmar do not prune or train their cashew.

5.2 Fertilizer and Manure Application

Observations have shown that cashew trees respond well to the application of fertilizers. Farmers in cashew growing areas however, seldom apply fertilizers. If at all, a few farmers may apply organic manures and green manures which are essential in degraded soils to supplement depleted nutrients.

5.3 Weeding

Weeding operations are essential in cashew orchards to minimize competition for water and light. Weeding practices vary from region to region. When orchards are inter-cropped, weeding is assured, in other instances slash weeding is carried out once or twice in a year. In other areas, there is total neglect of cashew orchards, rendering them almost inaccessible and difficult to manage.

5.4 Mulching

This operation is seldom practiced in cashew orchards, unlike in rubber plantations. Since weed growth around cashew tree trunks compete for moisture, some farmers remove weed growth and thatch the soil to provide some mulch. Whilst this practice is beneficial, it is hardly followed by cashew growers.

5.5 Cover Cropping

Although recommendations have been made to establish cover crops, especially on the degraded slopes in many parts of the country, this practice is not yet popular among cashew farmers in Myanmar, with the result that soil erosion is severe in cashew plantations.

5.6 Inter-Cropping

Since inter-cropping has many economic benefits to cashew growers, this system of farming is of significance as it reduces weed competition and helps maintain fertility of orchards. Several inter-crops are taken by some farmers, predominantly, annual crops such as sweet potato, sesame, peanut, maize, cassava, pigeon pea etc. In some areas other tree crops such as Jack fruit, mango and fuelwood trees are grown in association with cashew. Growing leguminous tree crops could add to the fertility of cashew orchards.

5.7 Supplementary Irrigation

This operation is yet to be practiced in Myanmar and there is a need to conduct research on this subject to improve production. It has been observed that a 61 percent increase in yield was obtained when oil palm was irrigated and fertilized in Mon State. Similar positive results may be possible through supplementary irrigation of cashew.

5.8 Plant Protection

As cashew cultivation expands, there is a need to record the population dynamics of various pests and diseases that attack cashew. Although no incidence of serious pest and disease outbreaks have been reported, incidence of root and stem borer is common in all plantations. Phytosanitary measures such as removal of dead wood and swabbing with a 1:4 mixture of coal tar and kerosene up to 1m of trunk have been recommended. Sporadic incidence of shoot tip caterpillar and leaf webber was also noticed but the present level of infestation does not cause economic injury in cashew. This is easily controlled by the application of 0.05 % endosulfan spray.

6. REPLANTING AND/OR REJUVENATING BY TOPWORKING OLD ORCHARDS

Since most of the cashew plantations were established from 1980 onwards, there are only a few orchards that have reached the age of 25-30 years when replacement becomes necessary. Rejuvenation of such trees is also possible by top working with superior clones. In the local context however, these operations are virtually impossible for the following reasons: Firstly, there are no known selections of superior progeny lines that could be recommended for replacing old trees either in the form of seed sources or clones for top working. Secondly, farmers are reluctant to remove old trees as long as they provide some economic benefit. Thirdly, growers have little technical knowledge of rejuvenation techniques such as top working with clonal material. A strong research and extension backstopping is therefore needed to assist cashew farmers.

7. HARVESTING AND PROCESSING

7.1 Harvesting

Farmers prefer to harvest fruits before they drop in order to prevent them from theft. This often results in poor quality as immature nuts are harvested. These harvested nuts are dried and sold to traders who process the nuts into kernels using manual labor. These kernels are then sold in the local market through retail outlets.

7.2 Processing

Local processing is carried out by two methods. The first method consists of roasting about 500 nuts at a time on a 3 ft diameter roasting pan mixed with fine sand for about 15 - 20 minutes. After the roasting process, individual nuts are cracked with a wooden mallet to separate the kernels. After drying the split nuts, the kernels are removed by hand or, if necessary, with the aid of a knife. In some instances, the nuts are roasted in a perforated metal pan.

The second method of processing is similar to that followed in Thailand. The flow chart for the processing is as follows:

Dry Raw Nuts	Þ	Steam Roasting	Þ	(Cooling (1-3 Hours) or
		(30 - 60 Min)		(overnight)
				ß
				Shelling Þ Shells
				(Shelling Machine)
				ß
				Drying
				(50° - 80°C for 4 - 12 hours)
				ß
				Cooling (2 - 3 Hours)
				ß
Cartoning	Ü	Packing in LDPE Bags	Ü	Hand Peeling Þ Testa removal

The recovery of whole dried peel kernel to raw nut is 20 - 25 % and about 3 % broken kernels. No grading is carried out in Myanmar except into whole kernels and broken kernels.

7.3 Production and Productivity

Total production of cashew in 1995 - 96 was 2114 tons at a productivity level of 253.36 kg per ha. This yield is relatively low when compared to that of India and other countries. Statistics on area of production and yields of cashew in Myanmar are presented in Table 3. As can be observed from this data, Taninthayi Division has the highest productivity of 477.33 kg per ha because of the favorable agro-ecological conditions in that area of the country. With better quality planting material and management practices, the productivity level of this area can be further increased.

Ayeyarwady Division appears to have the second highest productivity level with 433.39 kg per ha which may not reflect the true picture, as Yangon and Bago Divisions with similar climatic conditions have much lower productivity.

Kayin State recorded a productivity level of 294 kg per ha. These yields can be considered as low and varietal improvement and better management practices could enhance the yields further.

Low temperatures during the reproductive phase may be the cause for the low yields recorded in Mon State which average around 67.06 kg per ha. Similar conditions in Yangon and Bago Divisions gave yields as low as 40.42 kg ha and 11.18 kg per ha, respectively. In addition to low temperature effects, total rainfall experienced in these areas is generally low and distribution somewhat erratic. If yields are to be increased in these areas, new production technologies need to be introduced.

Unfavorable weather conditions also affect yields in Rakhine State (82.92 kg per ha), Kachin State (33.8 kg per ha), Shan State (70 kg per ha) and Sagaing Division (198.71 kg per ha). Only homestead planting of cashew, in association with other tree species, is recommended for such areas to provide a supplementary income for small farmers.

8. MARKETING

By and large, the marketing system for cashew remains undeveloped and unorganized. As in the case of other agricultural commodities, cashew nut is sold by small farmers to local traders who in turn either sell the produce to large-scale processors or process into kernels, often using family labor. Prices are highly variable and, in the absence of any grades or standards, kernels are arbitrarily divided into whole kernels and broken kernels. The relatively good quality whole kernels are marketed in Thailand while the broken kernels are sold in the local market. There are no growers’ organizations or cooperatives to assist farmers in the disposal of their produce. Since trading is freely done within the country, an export/import marketing information system does not exist.

9. POTENTIAL FOR CASHEW NUT PRODUCTION DEVELOPMENT

The government of Myanmar has laid down an ambitious expansion plan for rubber, oil palm and cashew. Of these, the expansion of rubber is progressing satisfactorily with an annual increase of 20,000 ha and cashew has a targeted annual increase of 3,000 ha. The pace of increase for cashew however, is rather slow when compared to rubber. In any event, although some constraints exist, a gradual expansion of cashew can be envisaged, since it has a special ecological niche where rubber cannot thrive. It is also popular among farmers as it requires very little care and provides an appropriate income for much less investment.

10. CONSTRAINTS IN CASHEW NUT PRODUCTION DEVELOPMENT

10.1 Role of Myanmar Perennial Crop Enterprise

Recognizing the importance of tree crops in the economy of the country, the Myanmar Perennial crops Enterprise (MPCE) was formed under the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation (MOAI) for the development of perennial crops, especially in the private sector. A project directed to assist private farmers was implemented with the establishment of the Applied Research Center for Plantation crops (ARCPC). Due to staff shortage and the deficiencies in technology knowhow on cashew production techniques and deploying more resources to rubber, MPCE and its affiliate ARCPC are unable to provide extension and technology support to cashew farmers. These constraints have become a serious setback for the cashew industry. MPCE should therefore organize research and extension services to the cashew industry to assist prospective growers.

10.2 Technical Knowledge of Farmers

The present cultural and processing practices, from land preparation to processing of kernels, need major improvements. This is important because farmers have only a limited knowledge on the techniques of cashew production. These problems can be effectively solved by organizing field demonstrations to popularize new technologies and conducting farmer training classes on cultivation aspects and vegetative propagation methods. The extension services need to develop appropriate extension messages and transfer technologies through visits and information packages to growers. MPCE should be mandated to provide these services to cashew growers.

10.3 Planting Material Supply

Established varieties of proven yield potential and adapted to different regions are not available in Myanmar. All cashew plantations have been raised from unselected bulk seeds. Plantations with inferior genetic material are not cost effective to maintain. Introducing exotic clonal material may also be inadvisable as their adaptability and performance have to be initially tested and verified under local conditions before distribution among farmers.

The best option would be to select mother trees of outstanding local germplasm from different regions. For selection of mother trees, the criteria should be a compact canopy, intensive branching, high flowering intensity per unit area, high ratio of female flowers to male flowers per panicle, a productivity in excess of 500 fruits per tree and an individual nut weight of more than 7 g. In each region at least 10 mother trees should be selected and progeny trials organized to evaluate their performance.

In the short term, scions of the best 10 trees in each region should be collected and 200 grafts prepared. These clonal progenies should be planted in blocks and seeds distributed for establishment of new plantations.. The seeds from such clones would be a better alternative to open pollinated bulk seed. Based on the performance of these clonal blocks, these could be used as future budwood sources for raising grafted plants.

10.4 Cashew as a Potential Crop for Farmers

When judged on the basis of free market prices, the average gross profit margin per ha per year of a cashew crop grown under average production levels, is not competitive with other tree crop enterprises such as rubber or oil palm. In order to make the crop attractive to farmers, all effort should be used to increase productivity of the crop.

Hedge-row planting is one method to achieve this. It has been demonstrated that cashew trees of mature plantations established on the square planting system do not show any differences in yield per unit area even if the spacing varies from 6 to 15 m. A considerable improvement in productivity can, however, be achieved by arranging the planting pattern in hedge-rows at 12m x 2m. The increased yield is due to the increased canopy surface per unit area. To maintain the increased canopy surface, alternate hedge-rows have to be replanted after 12 to 14 years. When these hedge-rows have matured and before their canopies merge with the older planting, the latter crop needs to be removed by the 20^th year. A second approach would be to make a gradual improvement of the quality of planting material supplied to farmers so that in a few years, superior genetic material will be used by most farmers.

11. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

• Of all the areas identified for cashew production, Taninthayi Division has the ideal rainfall and optimum distribution for highest productivity.
• Although Mon State has satisfactory rainfall, it has a few months of dry weather. With proper moisture conservation measures, reasonably good production can be realized.
• In Ayeyarwady, Yangon and Bago Divisions as well as in Kayin State, plantations can be improved through the application of better technologies.
• Cashew production in Sagaing Division, Rakhine, Kachin and Shan States may be confined to homestead-level production only.
• For the time being, it is apparent that only seed can be used for propagation. Vegetative propagation may be resorted to, but this technique can be useful only when clonal material is available to the production system.
• It is recommended that clonal seed gardens be established as soon as possible. Superior selections from these could be used as budwood sources for vegetative propagation.
• Training programs on cultivation techniques and to train farmers in vegetative propagation should be started as soon as possible.
• Agronomic practices pertaining to land development and orchard establishment should be systematically carried out to ensure the best conditions for cashew orchards.
• Conservation measures including terracing and catch pits for soil and moisture conservation on sloping lands should be followed.
• If orchards are to be established directly from seed by the ‘seed at stake’ system, it should be carried out before the advent of the monsoons in April. However, for nursery grown seedlings, the month of May or beginning of June would be ideal for planting.
• Plantations raised prior to 1987 with 7.6 m triangular or square planting methods need thinning of diagonal/alternate rows. De-topping to a height of 3m and light pruning of weak plants should also be carried out.
• Planting pits and staking of young plants should be carried out according to standard practices; growth of plants will be seriously affected or even succumb if seed is directly dibbled without opening planting pits.
• Training and pruning practices need to be followed in the early years of orchard establishment if higher yields are to be realized.
• Since no chemical fertilizers are currently being applied to cashew, it is beneficial to encourage the application of organic manures.
• Regular weeding of cashew orchards is recommended to minimize competition for water and sunlight.
• Cover-cropping of sloping lands is highly recommended since the top soil of these environmentally vulnerable areas can be conserved.
• Inter-cropping of cashew orchards should be encouraged as it indirectly helps the cashew and also provides an additional income to growers.
• Some investigations on the application of supplementary irrigation to cashew should be initiated.
• Plant protection studies to determine the range of pests and diseases that afflict the cashew crop need to be carried out, and effective control measures should be determined, if necessary.
• Current processing techniques, especially at village level, should be refined to improve quality and processing efficiency.
• Based on the mandate given to M.P.C.E, the organization should carry out appropriate research and extension activities on cashew, and there is also an urgent need to improve the technical capabilities of M.P.C.E staff.

There is scope for development of cashew production in Myanmar although the crop is not, at present, so attractive to farmers as compared to other tree crops like oil palm and rubber. To achieve this development, there should be a strong government backing to assist the growers. Financial and technical assistance from donor organizations could be very beneficial to the cashew industry.

REFERENCES

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3. Eijnanten, Van L.L.M, 1985. Development of Cashew (Burmese: Thiho Thayet Si) in Burma, FAO Consultancy Report.

4. Mathew, A.G, 1994. Cashew Processing, FAO Consultancy Report.

5. Ministry of National Planning and Economic Development, The Union of Myanmar, 1996 - 97. Review of the Financial, Economic and Social Conditions for 1996 - 97.

6. Myanmar Plantations, Singapore Pte Limited, Singapore, 1997. Project Report on Development of Cashew Plantations in Myanmar.

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8. Tin Saung, U, 1997. Country Report on Oil Palm Development in Myanmar.