| Production must not be the sole objective of rural development, we must also ease suffering and establish justice. (Extract from the statement made by Dr. Edouard Saouma, Director-General of FAO, to the 5th UNCTAD Session, Manila, 14 May 1979). |
The rural development programme in upland watershed management usually always disrupts the habits of the people concerned (closing off of threatened areas, terracing, introduction of more intensive crop and livestock rearing methods, reafforestation, etc.). However, for the people to accept to participate in the programme, these changes must be gradual and minimal at first said must provide substantial improvements in income. This does not suffice, however, especially if the improvements do not occur quickly enough, and if it takes several years before measures such as new plantations, improved crop and livestock techniques bear fruit.
| The programme must not accentuate the differences between socio-economic groups. On the contrary, it should try to ease them. |
In many areas of the world, agricultural land is very badly distributed. Often, 90 percent of the population shares only 10 percent of the arable land. In 1972 it was estimated that in Latin America 85 million people were bordering on the subsistence level.
Development programmes must be geared to the poorest groups in order to obtain a more equitable distribution of income. This is necessary not only for humanitarian reasons and. For social justice but also for economic reasons. While the more wealthy, the landowners, usually tend to invest their surplus outside of the area that provided it, those less well-off may be expected to use their extra income locally, firstly to improve their living conditions, but also to add to their farm equipment and to purchase inputs to increase their crop and domestic animal productivity. This, at least, is the objective that the extension workers will try to reach. When extra income obtained in an area is spent there, this generates a more intense circulation of currency which gives rise to other goods and jobs. It has been noted that when farmers' incomes increase, those of craftsmen and tradesmen also improve automatically.
The difficulty lies in getting the rich, well-to-do, who enjoy traditional privileges and who are likely to claim most of the advantages resulting from the improvements, to acknowledge that it is in the interest of all to accept an equitable distribution of the benefits obtained through development measures. It may be necessary to draw up and pass laws and regulations to protect the farmers and sharecroppers against the greed of the landowners, by fixing reasonable rates for tenant farming and sharecropping and by granting long lease periods.
When land improvement work, such as drainage, land consolidation is carried out in the industrialized countries, the landowners bear the cost, since these are very long-term investments. When land-use is indirect, farm rents or crop distributions are readjusted to allow for the rise in productivity. If the sharecroppers or farmers participate in the improvement work, they receive fair remuneration for their work. This is the fairest way to proceed and it must also become widespread in the developing countries.
If lands are allocated to farmers, care must be taken to ensure that the poorest and those with the largest families are served first. When subsidies or credits are granted, the financial situations of the members of the community must be taken into account in order to avoid monopoly and abuse.
The medium-size farmers must not be neglected however, for it is often among them that we find the elements that are most dynamic and willing to participate in management programmes.
| Development is the responsibility of all members of the community: men, women, young people, adults, the elderly. |
Each member is able to contribute, either through his or her work or ideas, innovate mind, experience or wisdom. Too often the village councils which make the decisions regarding the fate of the community are composed solely of men, particularly old men (councils of the elderly, wise men!).
The rural development programme in upland watershed management may be the opportunity for changing this state of affairs, but action must be taken carefully, gradually, and with adequate motivation in order not to upset the local elite. To try to impose women and young people on the councils could have opposite effects to those expected. One gradual means of procedure consists in handing over certain responsibilities to groups of women and young people. Women or young people could very well head certain village council sub-committees; in this way they would prepare themselves for other responsibilities on the community's committees and councils.
Everyone knows that women's roles are difficult in many countries. In addition to preparing meals, taking care of the children, doing the housework, which are usually their responsibility, a large part of the work in the fields is also done by them, especially food production. Most of the time it is the woman who, aided by the youngest children, often walks long distances to collect water and who provides the household with firewood. Many go to the neighboring market to sell some of the produce of the family farm to obtain money to buy current consumer goods not produced on the farm. Some run small businesses or devote some of their time to handicrafts to earn extra money to meet household expenses.
All the members of the community must participate, including the children ...
In the developing countries there are usually as many women as men, if not more, in the "self-help" community work teams constructing access roads, community centres, dispensaries, schools, small dams, etc.
On the other hand, there are few women on the village councils, which is most unfortunate, since they are usually dynamic and favorable to progress and are also concerned about their children's future. Rural development authorities in areas where watershed management work is in progress would be advised to assign them responsibilities. They will however have to keep the local traditions in mind and act with a great deal of diplomacy to obtain lasting results. Sometimes, only women extension workers can conduct training activities for women.
If women are released from boring work, which requires much effort but is not very profitable (transport, daily grinding of grainsusing a mortar and pestle, etc.) and if measures such as the harnessing of springs and the laying of water pipes to the village, the installation of hand pumps and if necessary grain mills, the improvement of homes as well as many others are carried out, they will have the opportunity of participating more actively in the development of their community.
Formerly, women were prepared for their activities in the home, the family garden and for farmyard work. Today, one of the objectives of development programmes is to train women for economic activities other than subsistence activities for participation in social and political activities on the same level as men. It is vital to gear these efforts to actions which help to increase agricultural or handicraft production and improve the standard of living of the community.
The young people must be prepared for an active life. In areas where crop farming, forestry and livestock farming occupy almost the whole population, the youth, and the adults as well, must be trained in these fields. Youth training will begin at school. Many countries have undertaken the reform of their elementary schools, for these are the schools which will prepare future generations for improved living conditions in all sectors through higher returns from physical and intellectual efforts. These reforms are often opposed by the rural people, since for many heads of families, school must give their children the opportunity to leave the ranks of the "exploited" and obtain a higher position on the social scale and better paid jobs.
These modern teaching systems, which are based on knowledge of the environment and rural activities, must be accompanied by more radical reforms aimed at reasserting the value of agricultural work.
It would be useful if the primary school programmes would provide practical training, a sort of apprenticeship, geared to a specialized activity, for the pupils whose schooling ends after five or six years. Guidance in choosing a special field (e.g. an intensive branch of crop or animal farming or forestry, depending on the potential of the area and the aptitude of the pupil; or a handicraft for those who dislike working on the land, etc.) would be provided by primary school teachers or by development authorities.
Indeed, many boys and girls are not attracted by the towns if they can earn some money in their own areas. They are no longer content, however, to have their subsistence ensured, as were their parents and ancestors. They have needs which can only be satisfied with money and they want to earn it. The mountain areas need these young, active, dynamic and qualified people to draw them out of their marginal situation and everything possible must be done to discourage them from emigrating.
The training at the end of their schooling, as suggested above, will be essentially practical and will take the form of an apprenticeship. The experiment was to be tried in Burundi, as part of primary school reform, which also allowed for the primary school teachers' participation in development and the collaboration of the pupils' parents.
It will not be easy to launch such programmes, for they imply fundamental changes in the very notion of the role of the school and the status of youths in societies that are highly respectful of tradition. Those in charge will have to have much courage, patience and perseverance.
Enterprising young people sometimes form groups . on their own initiative, train themselves for a specialized job with the help of extension workers and offer their services to the owners of coffee or other plantations during the periods of intensive work.
Among the non-agricultural activities, those which will have the best chances of developing successfully are those which start on a small scale on the initiative of those concerned. Success, however, will also depend on good training, market studies, efficient organization and adequate equipment. Rural development programmes in upland watershed areas should promote these activities, as far as the inhabitants' aptitude permits. Special youth sections could be set up in adult cooperatives.
The most dynamic young men and women will have to be admitted to the community councils to encourage them to remain in the area.
Every rural development programme in mountain watershed management comprises a seizable section devoted to social aspects: education, elimination of illiteracy, health, basic infrastructure for the provision of water, transport, communications, organization of cultural and leisure activities. There is no need for large-scale or costly activities.
A population that is satisfied with its living conditions will be more willing to participate in management work and to assume responsibility for its own development. In addition, the more dynamic elements will be less likely to emigrate. Without a minimum of fringe social benefits, whole villages often fall into decline and only elderly people and illiterates remain.
The programme should provide specialist services: doctors, nurses or midwives, engineers and technicians, teachers and training staff (trainers, extension workers). Material aid will be restricted to small quantities of simple equipment. Work will be done by the people, using local material; they will provide the land necessary and will participate actively in all new ventures.
| The success of social actions depends first and foremost on economic development. |
Experience has shown that the people who receive the largest donations, participate least. Ventures that last are those which the people have managed to finance themselves.
When changes are closely integrated with traditional social activities, the results are better. Even on the subject of medicine, we must start from what already exists and improve, complete, perfect. Culture and traditional art must be safeguarded.
Some experts, both national and international, consider that the provision of electricity and mechanization are essential factors of development. We cannot disagree completely, as long as the introduction of this technology is the result of gradual evolution and provided that the profitability and maintenance of this equipment is guaranteed. Too many generating sets or tractors are,left abandoned in villages or fields of developing countries because the person in charge forgot to top up the oil or because a mere spare part is unobtainable.
The basic investment (generator, motor, tractor, etc.) is often made possible through foreign aid. The recipient community bears the cost of maintenance and operation. The difficulties begin because there are no regulations for use, no maintenance plans, price schedules do not include all the costs involved, there is no qualified personnel.
Driving force can be obtained from water or wind, using simple technology (there are many falls in upland watershed areas). Animal draught is unknown in many regions. Small generating sets which are not very costly and do not consume much fuel could be used to start small industries.
It is preferable to have a good network of narrow, but busy, roads, which can be used by animal-drawn carts, than few, wide, badly designed, neglected roads, which damage the environment and cause serious erosion.
It sometimes happens that the Man/Resources ratio of a watershed is really too high, for reasons of migration (i.e. when reservoirs are constructed) or simply because of population growth.
Solutions and policy choices which solve the problems for one or two generations only cannot be considered satisfactory.
In spite of the way current technology has progressed, it must be acknowledged that there are limits to the amount of food that can be produced per unit of surface area. Also, long-term planning is necessary. To prevent the imbalance between requirements and the means to meet them from assuming disastrous proportions, demand must be brought into line with supplies. One solution is the transfer of populations. It becomes essential when the construction of reservoirs cause large areas to become submerged. Programme authorities usually resign themselves to this solution only as a last resort, since it always poses serious material and psychological problems, even when the transfer is well prepared, well in advance.
All examples (Kaptai, in Bangladesh; Péligre, in Haiti; Akosombo, in Ghana; Keshvar, in Iran; Alajuela, in Panama; to mention just a few) lead to the conclusion that when dam - reservoirs are constructed, the human problems related to population transfer must be dealt with on a priority basis. Difficulties of a social, economic and ecological nature which are expected to arise, must be assessed and analyzed early. All the social and ecological costs involved will have to be included in the cost-benefit analysis for the whole operation.
The following recommendations have been drawn from different cases of population transfer:
The upland watershed management programmes could use the transfer of populations to introduce many changes in the community:
| For the transfer to be successful, it is vital that all the decisions be made by those concerned and that nothing be forced upon them. |
As a last resort, when all possibilities for ensuring improved living conditions for the local people have been exhausted and when population transfer is not possible, the only alternative is to limit population growth.
This question will be expanded in Part III. (Return)
See Annex II (The Thailand example). (Return)
Other types of training will be dealt with in Part III, in Chapter 10. (Return)
Consult: "The report on the FAO/UNFPA Consultation on Land Resources for populations of the future". FAO, Rome. Nov.-Dec. 1977. (Return)
