ABSTRACT
This paper describes the research activity on the economic aspects of organic livestock production in Italy: production, processing and distribution. The research projects are related to development factors in organic livestock production, participation in the EU organic farming project and CAP: European comparison of the economic aspects of organic dairy models (fresh milk) and sustainable animal production analysis.
DEVELOPMENT FACTORS IN ORGANIC LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION IN NORTHERN ITALY
The research objectives are the determination of production costs and income of some organic milk farms of northern Italy and analysis of the dairy milk chain (production, processing, distribution and the role of institutions).
In 1997 a study of ninety-nine organic animal breeders was carried out on farms located in the regions of Veneto, Emilia-Romagna, Tuscany and Le Marche to gather technical and economic data.
In 1996 we began collecting technical and financial data from some organic dairy farms which produce fresh milk for the retail market. Data was collected from three family-run farms: Berti, Franchi and Neri all situated in the hill country (600 m) in Monzuno in the province of Bologna. The use of financial monitoring is also increasing in neighbouring family farms. In addition, financial auditing has become an essential part of the organization of a large cooperative farm of the plain area in the province of Modena (FertilCoop).
EU-PROJECT ‘ORGANIC FARMING AND THE CAP’: EUROPEAN COMPARISON OF THE ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF ORGANIC DAIRY MODELS (FRESH MILK)
The research objective is to create a European network of organic farm models which represent different regional productive situations to compare their level of competitiveness.
The method consists of defining dairy farm models that adopt an organic method of production and the subsequent gathering of technical and economic data of the farm group. In the case in question, we have three family-run farms located in the hill country in the province of Bologna. This database will calculate the production cost, income, yields for 1996, in addition to preparing forecasts for the next ten years. Furthermore, we intend to study the reactions of the producers to agricultural policy and technical innovations.
The methodology proposed is from the International Farm Comparison Network (IFCN) Analysis of the FAL of Braunschweig TIPI-CAL 2.0 Questionnaire on Northern Italian Organic Dairy Farms (Torsten Hemme, Claus Deblitz).
The European research activity on organic milk has been submitted to Ann Haring (Institut für Landwirtschaftliche Betriebslehre (410A), University of Hohenheim, D-70593 Stuttgart ([email protected]); the Italian research activity was assigned to Raffaele Zanoli (University of Ancona, Faculty of Agriculture).
The researchers actually engaged are Danio Sarti (Centro di Studio sulla Gestione dei Sistemi Agricoli e Territoriali, Via Filippo Re 10, 40128 Bologna, Dept. of Economia ed Ingegneria Agrarie, University of Bologna [email protected]) and Francesco Ansaloni.
SUSTAINABLE ANIMAL PRODUCTION ANALYSIS
The research objectives are the definition of the concepts of sustainable animal production and the identification of the evaluation criteria for agricultural production and animal systems (use of resources, economic analysis and social responsibility of producers), with particular reference to organic livestock rearing.
Sustainable production is a real problem. Policy makers must face this problem and decide which productive farm model should be favoured. In general, the concept of sustainability should be included in the profit production system based on a solid ecological approach. This includes cropping needs, water conservation, erosion prevention, landscape preservation, energy efficiency along with animal well-being, the quality of life of the producers and of the society in which they live. Development support for sustainable production models consists of improving the professional level of the agricultural worker, organization and/or technological applications to make it possible to increase profitability and at the same time increase ecological efficiency (Quality System, breeding techniques, differentiated livestock categories, create educational programmes and promote healthy nutrition, management of animal waste, establish consulting programmes for new animal breeders and develop farmer associations and environmental education agencies).
REFERENCES
ANSALONI, F. (1997): “Factors in the application of organic farming methods to Parmigiano-Reggiano cheese production: A research case”, Newsletter of The European Network for Scientific Research Coordination in Organic Farming (ENOF), No.6, December.
ANSALONI, F. (1998): “Rapporti commerciali delle imprese zootecniche biologiche”, Mediterraneo, Settembre.
ANSALONI, F. and DE ROEST, K. (1997): “Use of resources and development of organic livestock farming in Italy: first results of an ongoing study”, Proceedings of the 3rd European (ENOF) Workshop “Resource Use in Organic Farming”, Ancona, 5-6 June 1997.
ANSALONI, F. and SALGHETTI, A. (1996): “Latte biologico e derivati: l’organizzazione della filiera”, in Economia Agro-Alimentare, Anno I, n.1, Novembre (vedi anche “La filiera del latte biologico e derivati” in Le filiere del biologico a cura di F.M. Santucci, Gruppo di Ricerca in Agricoltura Biologica GRAB-IT, Istituto di Economia e Politica Agraria, Università degli Studi di Perugia).
ANSALONI, F. and SARTI, D. (1996): “Aspetti economici della produzione di latte con il sistema dell’agricoltura biologica”, L’Informatore Agrario n.13.
ANSALONI F. and SARTI, D. (1998): “Fattori di sviluppo della zootecnia biologica”, Seminario di Studio Ce.Se.T dedicato al tema “Contabilità ambientale in agricoltura e selvicoltura, Cansiglio, 29 Maggio 1998”.
Bio-Dynamic, bio-Organic and Conventional (integrated) agricultural systems have been compared in a randomized plot experiment (DOC-trial) in Therwil (Switzerland) since 1978. The systems differ mainly with respect to the fertilization and plant protection strategy. One additional conventional system was unfertilized in the first crop rotation period but since then it has been exclusively fertilized with mineral nutrients. Crop rotation (potatoes, winter wheat, beetroots, winter wheat and three years of grass-clover) and soil tillage are identical in all systems.
Soil microbial biomass can be regarded as a sink and a source of plant nutrients. Organic systems supported a higher microbial biomass level than conventional and unmanured systems. Accordingly, soil enzyme activities (dehydrogenase, protease, phosphatase) were distinctly higher in the organic systems. The amount of carbon dioxide respired per unit microbial biomass indicates the efficiency of resource utilization. Soil microbes from organic farming systems utilize the available resources more efficiently in terms of microbial growth rather than for maintenance.
The variety of substrates utilized by soil micro-organisms serves as an indicator of microbial functional diversity, which was higher in bio-dynamic than in conventional soils. Concomitantly, microbes in the bio-dynamic soil decomposed added plant material to a higher extent than in conventional soil with a higher proportion of the plant material being used for microbial biomass build-up.
The role of micro-organisms in P-turnover and P-availability was found to be more important in the organic systems. Additionally, mycorrhizal colonization of roots of wheat and grass clover was higher in organic than in conventional systems. Earthworm biomass, which indicates soil fertility, as well as the diversity and activity of carabids was enhanced in the organic systems.
In conclusion, soil quality as indicated by the abundance and diversity of soil organisms as well as by their activity tends to be improved under organic agriculture.
REFERENCES
BRUNNER T., FLIEßBACH A. and WÜTHRICH C. (1998): “Net N-mineralisation and N in soil organic matter fractions under organic and conventional farming”, ed. ISSS, World Congress of Soil Science, Montpellier.
FLIEßBACH A. and MÄDER P. (1997): “Carbon source utilization by microbial communities in soils under organic and conventional farming practice” In: Microbial Communities - Functional versus Structural Approaches, eds. H. Insam, A. Rangger, 109-120 pp, Springer, Berlin, Germany.
FLIEßBACH A., MÄDER P. and NIGGLI U. (1998): “Carbon and nitrogen pools in microbial biomass and density fractions of soil organic matter from soils of biological and conventional agricultural systems”, ed. ISSS, World Congress of Soil Science, Montpellier.
FLIEßBACH A. and MÄDER P. (1998, accepted) Microbial biomass and size-density separates in soils of organic and conventional agricultural systems. Soil Biol. Biochem.
MÄDER P., PFIFFNER L., FLIEßBACH A. and NIGGLI U. (1995): “Biodiversity of soil biota in biodynamic, organic and conventional farming systems” eds. J. Isart, J. J. Llerena, Biodiversity and Land Use: The Role of Organic Farming, Bonn, 45-57 pp.
MÄDER P., PFIFFNER L., FLIEßBACH A., VON LÜTZOW M. and MUNCH J. C. (1996): “Soil ecology - The impact of organic and conventional agriculture on soil biota and its significance for soil fertility”. In: Fundamentals of Organic Agriculture. Proceedings of the 11th IFOAM Scientific Conference, Vol. 1, eds. T. V. Østergaard, 1, 24-46 pp, Copenhagen.
OBERSON A., BESSON J.-M., MAIRE N. and STICHER H. (1996): “Microbiological processes in soil organic phosphorus transformations in conventional and biological cropping systems”, Biology and Fertility of Soils 21, 138-148.
OBERSON A., FARDEAU J.-C., BESSON J.-M. and STICHER H. (1993): “Soil phosphorus dynamics in cropping systems managed according to conventional and biological methods”, Biology and Fertility of Soils 16, 111-117 pp.
OEHL F., OBERSON A., FROSSARD E., FLIEßBACH A. and PROBST M. (1998): “Phosphorus in soil microbial biomass - influence of conventional and biological farming”, ed. ISSS, World Congress of Soil Science, Montpellier.
PFIFFNER L. and NIGGLI U. (1996): “Effects of bio-dynamic, organic and conventional farming on ground beetles (Col. Carabidae) and other epigaeic arthropods in winter wheat”, Biol. Agric. Hortic. 12, 353-364 pp.
PFIFFNER L. and MÄDER P. (1997): “Effects of Biodynamic, Organic and Conventional Production Systems on Earthworm Populations”, Biological Agriculture and Horticulture -Entomological Research in Organic Agriculture.
ABSTRACT
Two examples of planned research and development projects for Norwegian organic farming are given below. The first deals with the use of outlying fields (Outlying Field Project). The second deals mainly with the role of soil fauna in cultivated land in Norwegian organic farming (Soil Fauna Project). The biodiversity aspect is a functional link between those two projects.
OUTLYING FIELD PROJECT
Only 3 percent of the Norwegian area is cultivated land and most animal farms are small. This is the background for the outlying field project. Earlier this was compensated with extensive use of outlying fields for grazing animals. With the industrialization of Norwegian agriculture the use of outlying fields was replaced with purchased concentrates. The outlying fields must once again be extensively used if the purchased fodder is to be replaced with local resources. However, much of the outlying fields are now overgrown and are inhabited by wild animals, both grazers and carnivores.
The objective of this project is to enhance sustainable utilization of outlying fields, taking the requirements of organic farmers, wildlife and the public into consideration.
Methods
|
Phase 1. |
Data are collected from on-going projects, farm surveys, literature, etc. Criteria for sustainable utilization of outlying fields are defined. |
| |
|
|
Phase 2. |
The information is systematically analysed and the main obstacles for enhanced and sustainable utilization of outlying fields are exposed. |
| |
|
|
Phase 3. |
Development projects and research needed to overcome the main obstacles are conducted. The techniques to be used depend on the obstacles. Case studies and pilot projects on existing farms are important. |
SOIL FAUNA PROJECT
The main objective of the soil fauna project is to increase the knowledge about the role of soil fauna in Norwegian organic farming. In organic farming the supply of plant nutrients is mainly based on release of plant nutrients from soil organic matter. The soil fauna is likely to play an important role in this. In general the soil fauna cause 30-40 percent of the nitrogen mineralisation, but when nutrients are lacking the portion can be more than 80 percent (Brussaard, et al. 1996).
Little knowledge is available in Norway on soil fauna in agricultural fields. We want to study how the existing soil fauna, interacting with plant roots and micro-organisms, affects the breakdown of organic matter in different cultivation systems under Norwegian conditions. The aim of this is to find out whether we can enhance the decomposition and mineralisation of amended organic matter by improving conditions for soil fauna.
Methods
|
Phase 1. |
Data are collected from on-going projects, farm investigations, literature, etc. The main objective of this phase is to get a broad overview of the soil organisms present on organic farms in Norway. |
| |
|
|
Phase 2. |
This information is systematically analysed and used for the planning of a more detailed study. This study will concentrate on organisms that play a key role in transformation of organic matter. Case studies will be done on existing farms to study the effect of different agricultural practises on soil organisms. The main emphasis will be put on soil fauna. Different agricultural practices mean comparison between conventional and organic farms and between different farming practices within an organic farming system, such as crop rotation, soil cultivation and manuring strategies. |
| |
|
|
Phase 3. |
The findings together with literature data will be discussed with farmers, advisers and scientists. The main topics are: Can knowledge about soil organisms be used to improve agricultural practises in Norwegian organic farming systems? Is soil fauna management an important tool to increase the decomposition and the utilization of added organic matter? Are there better ways of increasing the utilization of added organic matter? If we conclude that improving the conditions for the soil organisms in Norwegian organic agriculture is important for increased turnover of organic matter, how should we, in a holistic and sustainable approach, create farming systems that improve the conditions for turnover of organic matter by soil organisms? |
| |
|
|
Phase 4. |
Field and laboratory investigations should be done to test if the suggestions generated in Phase 2 can improve the utilization of added organic matter and thus improve plant growth in organic farming systems. |
| |
|
|
Phase 5. |
The consequences of obtained results are analysed and discussed with selected farmers, advisers and scientists. |
| |
|
|
Phase 6. |
Improvement of cultivation practices within Norwegian organic farming systems are suggested and discussed with farmers through the organic advisory circles in Norway. |
BRIEF ASSESSMENT OF THE POTENTIALS OF THE METHODS PROPOSED
To answer the question raised in the proposed projects, many different methods are needed. The methodological challenges working with complex issues like these are large as discussed by Hansen and Ruissen (1998). This proposal is in a very early stage and we would be pleased to receive suggestions on methodology and to make contact with other groups working within these fields. We would be very interested in collaborating in studies such as these.
REFERENCES
BRUSSAARD, L., BAKKER, J.P. and H. OLFF (1996): “Biodiversity of soil biota and plants in abandoned arable fields and grasslands under restoration management”, Biodivers. Conserv. 5, 211-221 pp.
HANSEN, S. and T. RUISSEN (1998): “Thoughts on research approaches within organic farming”, Handout, European Workshop on “Research Methodologies in Organic Farming”, Frick (CH): 30 September-3 October 1998.
Since organic farming systems are based on the functional dynamic interaction between soil, plants, animals, humans, ecosystems and environment (IFOAM, 1996), an important premise for research in organic farming is to develop approaches that are as holistic as possible. By holistic we mean that the whole is more than the sum of its parts. An objective is to avoid dealing only with symptoms of problems, without analysing what causes them and without sufficiently taking into account the consequences of a subsequent problem solving action. Although we are aiming for completely holistic research, it is hardly realizable because of human and resource limitations.
What can we do to improve organic farming systems as much as possible in a holistic way? Research projects should be part of a development strategy that has its main goal to further develop the organic farming systems and starts at a high level of integration. This work analyses the need for additional research at lower levels of integration. Many different techniques can and should be used in the research work within organic farming. The questions asked by the investigators determine the techniques to a very large degree. These techniques may be based on two main research approaches. One approach explores the organic farming systems and is mainly descriptive. The other is analytic and includes experimental work. However, the two are very closely related. Descriptive research is needed to define problems and experimental work to test hypotheses. The results of the research should be implemented together with existing knowledge into the development projects.
Each scientist has his or her own cultural background, which determines to a certain extent the questions asked and the hypotheses tested in the investigations. In general, scientists work according to the dominating paradigm cf. Wynen (1996). Therefore, we have to realize that our science driven objectives are not independent of our value driven objectives. In organic farming we have chosen a set of values reflected by the IFOAM standards (IFOAM, 1996). However, a wide range of objectives on farm level can fulfil the requirements of these standards. That means it is very important for us as scientists to define the research objectives together with those involved (farmers, advisers, public, etc).
In addition to quantitative data, qualitative information and scarcely documented indigenous knowledge are of importance both in the initial and final phase of the research process. They play an eminent role in respectively defining the research hypotheses and the interpretation and application of the results. Examples of qualitative information that can be taken into account are for instance, the appearance of a landscape, the shape of a carrot or the farmers’ emotions fearing that their sheep may suffer from an attack of carnivores.
At the Norwegian Centre for Ecological Agriculture we are aiming at developing a research strategy starting the work at higher levels of integration. Work at a lower level of integration will be elaborated in cooperation with specialized scientists, mainly at other research institutes. These research results will be validated and implemented together with existing knowledge, into the process of developing Norwegian organic farming. Major areas of interest for our Institute are soil, plant, animals and nutrient issues. Case studies and field experiments have so far been the dominating research methods.
There is a large methodological challenge in working with complex issues. One is to have a perspective that is broad enough to incorporate all necessary elements at a higher level of integration. At the same time, it should be narrow enough to get sufficiently deep into the elements with significant impact to be able to gain required new knowledge and improve the system. Thus, the approach is first to achieve a broad perspective through systematic gathering and analysis of information. This can be done through such means as literature review, systems analysis and preliminary investigations and then use this to choose areas of special interest. These areas might be quite narrow, but are put into a broad context. In order to achieve results that are relevant to practice, close interaction between farmers, advisers and researchers is essential.
REFERENCES
IFOAM (1996): “Basic standards for organic agriculture and processing”, IFOAM Head office, Ökozentrum Imsbach, D-66636 Tholey-Theley. 44 p.
WYNEN, E. (1996): “Research implications of a paradigm shift in agriculture: The case of organic farming”, Centre for resource and Environmental Studies, Canberry, Australia ANU, 58 p.
INTRODUCTION
Most conventionally managed dairy herds in the UK operate a system of mastitis control that places emphasis on the use of prophylactic treatments at the end of each lactation (dry cow therapy, DCT). In organic systems the routine use of prophylactic antibiotics is prohibited. A survey of organic livestock producers in the UK has revealed that dairy producers adopted a range of treatments, dominated by combinations of the therapeutic use of antibiotics and homeopathic remedies and homeopathic nosodes (Roderick et al.,1996). A detailed study of the incidence, treatment strategies and financial implications of mastitis in organic dairy herds in the UK is presently being conducted. This paper will focus on the methodologies being adopted and will present preliminary findings.
METHODOLOGY
The study has been conducted on a sample of 16 organic and seven conventional herds. The sample of organic herds at the start of the study represented a significant proportion of the national organic herd. The data collection methods can be broadly categorized into the following components:
RESULTS
To date, a limited preliminary analysis of the data has been conducted and the trends can be summarized as follows:
DISCUSSION
This discussion will focus on the methodology adopted and its relevance to the study of animal health on organic farms. Whereas the epidemiological methods applied were similar to those adopted for the study of conventional systems, the informal interview methods proved to be particularly relevant to both the study of organic health control methods and the perception of disease amongst organic producers.
Since all of the conventional farms in the study adopted universal therapy and prophylaxis using antibiotics, the measure of veterinary inputs proved to be a straight forward recording process. Organic producers tend to use a wide range of techniques and applications. Detailing these was only possible through a process of interview, discussion and observation. For example, whereas some producers may see homeopathy as a straight forward substitute for antibiotics, others see this as a more holistic approach. This latter approach, requiring attention to detail and individual knowledge of each animal in the herd, does not lend itself to standard methods of measuring veterinary inputs.
Further to the detailed description of control methods, informal interviews were also important in determining farmer/herdsperson perception of disease. It has become clear that the attitude to the relationship between somatic cell count and milk quality is different between the organic and conventional sector. Whereas low levels of SCC is accepted conventionally, maximum levels amongst organic producers has a greater significance. This perception was also noted at farmers’ meetings designed to disseminate the preliminary findings of the study.
It was concluded that whilst the informal interview techniques, together with mid-term feedback of research results to the participating farmers, may result in “research bias” in future data collection, the enhanced understanding of the system gained from this methodology is extremely valuable. In a situation where mainstream advice differs significantly from the organic approach, the producers themselves have to act as innovators of new technologies. It was suggested that a participatory approach in defining final research goals and in identifying farmer acceptability of potential research recommendations, would be particularly useful in this context. Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) methodologies that have been widely used in other farming systems research in the developing world, might prove to be of equal benefit to organic farming research generally and to animal health and welfare issues specifically.
REFERENCE
RODERICK, S., HOVI, M. and SHORT, N. (1996): “Animal Health and Welfare in Organic Farming: Research Priorities”, AHT Report, University of Reading.
ABSTRACT
Crop production systems of perennials, especially olives and vine, are important in agronomic, ecological, socio-economic and cultural terms for the Mediterranean vicinity. In the present paper, a methodology for designing and disseminating prototypes of ecological production systems for Mediterranean perennial crops is described. The production in these systems fulfils the organic farming standards and principles.
INTRODUCTION
Conventional farming systems face increasing agronomic, ecological and socio-economic problems. These problems are due to the side effects of the current production systems (Kabourakis, 1996). Current production aims at maximum yields and returns ignoring agro-ecosystem principles and processes. Besides, profit maximization goals often lead to an unsustainable knowledge system and ruin local economic growth. Therefore, production systems should be ecologised at farm level as well as regional level for sustainable rural development. Current organic agriculture offers valuable starting points for developing Ecological Production Systems (EPS). The lack of experience, agrotechnology, knowledge and quantitative data are the main barriers for the development of sustainable organic farming.
Designing, developing and disseminating EPS at farm level is a first step towards sustainability of the perennial cropping systems. A prototyping methodology, developed for arable farming systems by a European Union network (Vereijken, 1997) may be adapted and used for Mediterranean perennial cropping systems (Kabourakis, 1996), while an Ecological Knowledge System (EKS) (Rolling, 1998) is essential for establishing and disseminating prototype production systems (Kabourakis, 1996). In the Mediterranean Region, many sustainable practices, rich cultural settings as well as many elements of an EKS may often be found in the traditional production systems. However, these practices and elements should be updated to the current and future needs and technological progress.
METHODOLOGY
The designing process of EPS is done in stages.
Diagnosis of the shortfalls of the current production system is the initial stage. Diagnosis should be done both at farm level as well as at regional level. Furthermore, both qualitative information and quantitative data should be examined.
The next stage is the methodical prototyping of EPS. Prototyping perennial crops may adopt the steps of prototyping ecological arable farming systems (Vereijken, 1997). These steps include: a) the setting and hierarchy of objectives of sustainable systems to be designed; b) the selection of parameters (indicators) for the quantification of objectives and methods to achieve the objectives in practice; c) the design of a theoretical prototype by linking parameters to methods; d) the establishment of the prototype in practice on pilot farms, its test and improvement.
The development of an EKS is important for the development and dissemination of the designed EPS. An EKS may be developed and introduced in three steps by: a) a pilot group of farmers for prototyping; b) an agri-environmental group offering institutional support to ecological production in an area; and c) a network of groups covering a whole region (Kabourakis, 1996).
A final stage is the dissemination of the prototype in accordance with standards of production in order to achieve quantified objectives at regional level. However, dissemination starts earlier as many farmers may adopt and try the farming methods. Methodical prototyping of perennial crops is a cyclic process and its end depends on the strictness of the standards set for the parameters. Real dissemination and adoption of the prototypes requires the development of an EKS that will support the social, institutional and economic operational framework of the prototypes, as well as the production. Dissemination processes may be enhanced by studies that will determine the optimum agronomic and economic structure of the farms that will adopt the prototypes. Besides, such studies at regional level may determine the economic impact of the widespread adoption of the prototypes at regional level as well as the required policies for the adoption of the prototypes and the knowledge system.
Design, development and dissemination of EPS is done in cooperation with pilot farmers. Farmers’ participation and contribution is particularly important in all the stages of the designing process. Their main contribution is in a) determining the shortfalls of existing production systems; b) setting the goals of the new systems to be designed; c) developing farming methods; and finally d) disseminating prototypes and developing and introducing an EKS. However, the development of the required agrotechnology maybe backed-up by experimentation and research on experimental farms.
INITIAL RESULTS
Since 1993 a pilot research project for Ecological Olive Production Systems (EOPS) has been initiated on the island of Crete, Greece (Kabourakis, 1996). Prototypes of EOPS have been developed in cooperation with a pilot group of 12 farmers and the dissemination process has been started. A cooperative with more than 100 small farmer members has been initiated from the pilot group. Work is done for the development of an EKS. Cretan agri-environmental groups facilitate the introduction and development of this EKS. An economic study has been completed which relates to the economic performance of the prototypes, economic impact of regional dissemination of the prototypes and to the optimum farm size for adopting the prototypes (Vassiliou, 1998). An innovative research project is starting for the development of ecological vine production systems in the same area.
DISCUSSION
Designing EPS in the Mediterranean is crucial for the sustainable development of organic farming. Interdisciplinary on-farm research is required for the development of such systems as well as networks. Education is particularly important for the development of EKS. Traditional perennial cropping systems should be integrated with animal husbandry especially at the regional level.
REFERENCES
KABOURAKIS, E. (1996): “Prototyping and dissemination of ecological olive production systems. A methodology for designing and a first step towards validation and dissemination of prototype ecological olive production systems (EOPS) in Crete”, Published Ph.D Thesis. Wageningen Agricultural University, The Netherlands.
ROLLING, N.G. and J. JIGGINS (1998): “The ecological knowledge system”. In: Rolling, N.G. and M.A.E. Wagemakers (1998) Facilitating sustainable agriculture. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
VASSILOU, A. (forthcoming): “Farm structure optimization of and the impact of widespread transition to ecological olive production systems”, Ph.D Thesis.
VEREIJKEN, P. (1997): “A methodical way of prototyping integrated and ecological arable farming systems (I/EAFS) in interaction with pilot farms”, European Journal of Agronomy 7:235-250 pp.
ABSTRACT
Research to evaluate the performance of organic sheep and beef production in hill and upland areas is described. The project combines an organic system study at three levels of stocking, a programme of replicated experiments and data collection on commercial organic farms. This includes direct comparison of organic and conventional systems at similar stocking rates. A comprehensive range of performance data is collected in a multi-disciplinary approach.
INTRODUCTION
To encourage increased organic production, the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAFF) commissions a programme of research in the U.K. to provide information on the performance and profitability of organic systems. In general, this programme aims to:
METHODOLOGY
At ADAS Redesdale, a research centre in the uplands of northern England, a research project was begun in 1991 to compare the relative performance of organic and conventional farming. Since then the research has evolved to include:
Systems Comparison
The unit consists of 500 hectares of hill and upland supporting 700 breeding ewes (in four flocks) and 35 suckler cows.
At the start of the experiment two directly comparable sub-units were formed, from one discrete area (‘heft’) and the sheep flock it supported. Recognizing the diversity of grazing type on hill pasture, a combination of aerial survey and fixed quadrate analysis was used to assess botanical composition. The area was then split to form two areas of similar stock carrying capacity, supporting two comparable sub-flocks, one managed organically and the other conventionally. Original stocking rates have been maintained since conversion. Comprehensive data are collected on the physical performance of grassland and livestock, animal health and financial performance. This core comparison allows the relative performance or organic and conventional production to be modelled from recorded data. Changes in botanical composition of three pasture types on the unit is being monitored by Newcastle University, referring changes in vegetation cover to National Vegetation Classification (NVC).
Two further flocks were converted to organic production but stocking rates were reduced by 15 and 25 percent, respectively. This provides information on the interaction of stocking rate with individual animal performance, changes in botanical composition and overall profitability.
Replicated Experiments
Specific experiments have been set up to evaluate technical issues and potential constraints to sustainable organic production, addressing topics such as animal nutrition, controlling internal parasites, grassland pests and maintenance of soil fertility.
Linked Farms
Ten commercial farms were recruited to supply additional data, including full farm costings. These broaden the study, particularly of economic performance, aid the interpretation of results from the main project and provide an insight into the performance and problems of commercial organic production. Increasingly, these are being used as sites for further specific investigations e.g. of mineral/trace element status in organic livestock. Economic data are incorporated by the Welsh Institute of Rural Studies (WIRS) into wider economic analysis of organic farming systems.
POTENTIAL OF METHODOLOGY
In a broad outline, this experiment shares a similar format to MAFF funded work on stockless arable systems at ADAS Terrington (1). The research combines the important dimension of direct, overall comparison of organic and conventional systems, with specific investigations into individual aspects of organic production. The use of a multi-disciplinary approach and a combination of research techniques and analysis, allow for the better understanding of the effects of conversion to organic production. One potential limitation is the possibility of results being too site-specific. However, the use of a range of stocking rates and the addition of data from commercial farms, significantly broadens the scope of the study. Given the objective to increase conversion to organic farming, the development of a successful organic ‘whole farm’ system provides a powerful tool for demonstration and increased credibility with conventional producers.
The involvement of commercial producers maintains an important link to the industry. However, there is potential for results to be heavily influenced by farm type and structure, depending on the pool available. In addition, the economic performance of individual farms may be affected by factors such as season, outbreak of disease and market availability. Within the current project, there was some difficulty at first in recruiting sufficient cooperating producers, due to the scarcity of organic farms in upland areas. In recent years, this situation has been much improved as the number of converting farms has increased.
The research is planned to continue at least until 2001 both on the unit and linked farm survey, to evaluate the longer-term sustainability of organic production and to reduce the effect of season and other potential sources of variation.
CONCLUSIONS
There is growing interest in organic farming against conventional hill and upland producers in the U.K., many of whom are financially hard-pressed at the current time. Organic production is particularly relevant given the importance of agri-environmental policy in these areas. A valuable resource has been created for the evaluation of organic farming in the hills and uplands (2). The unit could provide opportunities for further collaborative research in organic methods of production.
REFERENCES
CORMAK, W.F. (1997): Testing the sustainability of a stockless arable rotation on a fertile soil in Eastern England. Resource use in organic farming. Proceedings of the third ENOF Workshop, Ancona, 5-6 June 1997.
KEATINGE, R. (1997): Organic hill farming - does it pay? New Farmer and Grower, 55: 24-25 pp.
(MAFF funding for this work is gratefully acknowledged)
PROTOTYPE AFTER SEVEN YEARS
Current organic farming offers useful starting-points for development of farming systems with quantified objectives in environment, nature and landscape. However, some shortcomings prevent acceptance by and support of wider groups of producers and consumers. Therefore, a prototype consisting of three innovative farming methods was designed and tested in interaction with ten pilot farms.
MULTIFUNCTIONAL CROP ROTATION MODEL (MCR)
To maintain quality production without synthetic pesticides and avoiding use of heavy machinery.
Figure 1. MCR for sandy clay and clay soils balancing strong and weak contribution to soil fertility (maximal frequency crops 1:6, crop groups including green manure crops 1:3, lifted crops 1:2)
ECOLOGICAL NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT (ENM)
To provide crops with nutrients in an economically and ecologically acceptable way without single directly available Fertilizers.
Figure 2. ENM for sandy clay and clay soils, aimed at tuning inputs by legumes (biological N-fixation), green manure crops and manure at P and K reserves of the soil and N needs by crop
INFRASTRUCTURE FOR NATURE AND RECREATION (INR)
To provide a network of landscape elements for flora, fauna and recreation in the agricultural area.
Figure 3. The INR consists of 5 percent of the production area, with ditches and permanent grass strips as main elements and side elements like a reed strip, hedge or haystack
TESTING WITH PILOT FARMS
Prototyping research takes place in interaction with a group of ten pilot farms, to:
Results for quantity and quality of products, environment and nature of the farms are evaluated annually using a set of parameters with quantified innovative norms. Shortcomings are analysed systematically with the pilot farmers in order to improve farming methods and management:
After seven years, the prototype has solved major shortcomings to a wide extent. Remaining shortcomings are analysed to proceed with targeted specialized research.
ACHIEVED OBJECTIVES
REMAINING SHORTFALLS
Legumes and green manure crops are able to supply sufficient N over the crop rotation at reduced manure inputs, but N management by crop needs to be improved. Wheat and potato have too low N supply in 30 percent of the fields.
FURTHER RESEARCH AND DISSEMINATION
Prototyping is adopted by an experimental station and extension service, with consultancy by AB-DLO. They will develop prototypes for the same objectives for five other regions in interaction with 25 pilot farms and more widely disseminate them within farmers’ groups.
A research programme to solve remaining shortfalls was developed by DLO experts in breeding, crop protection, nutrient management and weed ecology; this programme will be closely linked with prototyping in different regions.
Surveys for wider application of prototypes will be carried out by interdisciplinary multiple goal programming for arable farming linked with animal husbandry, flower bulb production and tree nursing.
PLANNED RESEARCH FOR IMPROVING NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT
a. At crop/field level
b. At farm/rotation level
c. At regional/farm-linking level
mixing arable farming, vegetable farming, tree nursing, flower bulb growing, animal husbandry.
REFERENCES
VEREIJKEN, P. and H. KLOEN (1993): “Final report 1992”. In: Ph. Viaux (Ed.), Research into and development of integrated arable farming systems. European network. Final Report (Part 2): 66-82 pp.
VEREIJKEN, P. and H. KLOEN (1994): “Innovative research with ecological pilot farmers”. In: Plant production on the threshold of a new century. Proceedings 75th Anniversary of the Wageningen Agricultural University, Wageningen, held 28 June-1 July 1993. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, NL, 37-56 pp.
VEREIJKEN, P., H. KLOEN and R. VISSER (1995): “Focus on testing an EAFS prototype in pilot project NL2”. Vereijken, P (Ed.). Designing and testing prototypes. Progress Reports of Research Network on Integrated and Ecological Arable Farming Systems for EU and Associated Countries, Concerted Action AIR 3 - CT 920755, AB-DLO (Ed.), Wageningen, The Netherlands, Progress Report 2: 73-86 pp.
KLOEN, H. and P. VEREIJKEN (1997): “Testing and improving ecological nutrient management with pilot farmers”. In: Isart, J. & J.J. Llerena (Eds.), Resource use in organic farming - Proceedings of the ENOF Workshop, Ancona, 5-6 June. LEAAM - Agro-ecologia (CID-CSIC), Barcelona, Spain: 233-242 pp.
VEREIJKEN, P., R. VISSER and H. KLOEN (1998): “Focus on improving an EAFS prototype in Flevoland (NL 2)”. in: Vereijken, P.(Ed.), Improving and disseminating prototypes. Progress Reports of Research Network on Integrated and Ecological Arable Farming Systems for EU and Associated Countries, Concerted Action AIR 3 - CT 920755, AB-DLO (Ed.), Wageningen, The Netherlands, Progress Report 4: 24-40 pp.
Organic farming is the new field of activity of the Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Bari (MAI-B). It falls within its programme of promotion and support to the development of agriculture in Mediterranean countries.
The MAI-B is one of the four institutes of CIHEAM, an intergovernmental organization founded in 1962 on the initiative of the OECD and the Council of Europe. Its member countries are: Albania, Algeria, Egypt, France, Greece, Italy, Lebanon, Malta, Morocco, Portugal, Spain, Tunisia, Turkey and Yugoslavia.
From its Headquarters in Paris, the Secretary General coordinates the activity of the four specialized institutes located in Bari (Italy), Montpellier (France), Chania (Greece), Zaragoza (Spain).
Thanks to its activities and to the results so far achieved, the MAI-B represents, for the international scientific community, the crossroad of applied research for the sustainable use of water in agriculture and for the protection of Mediterranean fruit crops from virus and virus-like diseases. The MAI-B coordinates research networks through the participation of universities and scientific institutions based in Europe, North Africa and the Middle East and collaborates with the UNDP and FAO.
Furthermore, the MAI-B is the reference point for international boards and Mediterranean countries for programmes of cooperation for the development of the whole Mediterranean basin since it promotes the post-graduate training of senior staff and coordinates projects of interest to the whole area.
The MAI-B intends to play the same role in the field of organic agriculture. This decision is justified by three basic motivations:
In this perspective, the MAI-B acts through four basic tools: training, research and experimentation, cooperation to development and information.
TRAINING
The organization of high level training courses addressed to technical and scientific officers from Mediterranean countries is aimed at the transfer of knowledge on legislative aspects and production and market techniques for adequate implementation of organic farming. Projects have already been started or are underway for:
- definition of training requirements in the Mediterranean Region;
- production of multi-media tools for distance training;
- organization of specialization post-graduate courses; and
- the setting in motion of short courses on organic farming to be held at the MAI-B or at other national institutions of Mediterranean countries.
RESEARCH AND EXPERIMENTATION
The MAI-B action is aimed at promoting and implementing research programmes with the contribution of international scientists and experts. This activity will be carried out through the:
The setting up of an international research and experimentation network with the participation of public and private institutions has already been started. Within the Biopuglia Project some experimentation lines have been developed on specific technical, agronomic and market aspects. Also, some research lines have been developed on composting and the use of suppressive natural substances. Finally, a network of experimental farms has been established in order to evaluate and compare, together with the organic producers, the results obtained from the theoretical research works with those from the field.
COOPERATION FOR DEVELOPMENT
The analysis of the requirements and the specific needs of the different countries of the Mediterranean has led to the definition of cooperation programmes designed on the basis of the characteristics of the land and aimed at the setting-up of collaboration networks that will orient the entrepreneurial choices of economic operators and the political choices of governments.
Cooperation for the development of organic farming has already taken the first steps through the:
- survey and analysis of non-member Mediterranean countries;
- development of projects to be carried out in different countries of the area; and
- adoption of support measures to stimulate the aggregation of producers and associations for the growth of this sub-sector and its diffusion on the territory.
PROMOTION AND INFORMATION
The dissemination of results of the activity and experimentation research is aimed at stimulating and favouring the circulation and diffusion of scientific knowledge on organic farming, through the:
In this respect, the collaboration with IFOAM, International Federation for Organic Agriculture Movements, was initiated and the MAI-B was chosen to be the Headquarters of AgriBioMediterraneo Secretariat for the IFOAM Regional Group.
The Secretariat will have the opportunity to resort to the MAI-B facilities, organizational experience and international relations for the more efficient coordination of Mediterranean boards and for the better harmonization of actions and objectives.
Two organic and a conventional (integrated) agricultural systems have been compared in a randomized plot experiment (DOC trial) at Therwil (Switzerland) since 1978. DOC stands for bio-Dynamic, bio-Organic and Conventional agriculture. These three systems are performed at two fertilization intensities. The systems differ mainly with respect to fertilization and plant protection strategy. One additional conventional system was unfertilized in the first crop rotation period but since then, it has been exclusively fertilized with mineral nutrients. One system remains unfertilized. Crop rotation (potatoes, winter wheat, beetroots, winter wheat and three years of grass-clover) and soil tillage are identical in all systems. Three different crops are grown in four replicates each year.
Nutrient input to the organic treatments was 40-60 percent lower than to the conventional system, with respect to nitrate, ammonia, phosphorus and potassium.
During the first years, yields of winter wheat did not differ between the systems. Differences between the systems increased in the second rotation period with a new variety and enhanced pesticide management in the conventional systems. Between 1985 and 1995 winter wheat yields in the conventional system were higher than in the two organic systems. In the years 1996 and 1997 winter wheat yields were almost identical in all three systems.
On average, the yield from all crops in both organic systems was 20 percent lower than in the conventional systems, mainly as a result of the lower nutrient input. System effects on crop yield were most obvious with potatoes, mainly due to the high demand for nitrogen and potassium, which are not adequately available in the organic soils during the short vegetation period of potatoes. Differences in grass-clover yield were comparably low during the first two crop rotation periods. In the third crop rotation period, however, grass-clover yield in the organic systems was distinctly lower than in the conventional systems.
Even though yield for all crops was lower in the organic systems, energy use per unit crop yield was 18-33 percent lower than in the conventional system, except for potatoes. This difference was mainly due to indirect components of energy, i.e. the energy used for production of machinery, pesticides and Fertilizers.
REFERENCES
ALFÖLDI T., MÄDER P., BESSON J.-M. and U. NIGGLI (1995): “DOC-trial: Long-term effects of bio-dynamic, bio-organic and conventional farming systems on soil conditions, yield and product quality”, ed. J. Raupp, Main effects of various organic and mineral fertilization on soil organic matter turnover and plant growth, Darmstadt, 3-15 pp.
BESSON J.-M., SPIESS E. and U. NIGGLI (1995): “N uptake in relation to N application during two crop rotations in DOC field trial”, Biol. Agricult. Hortic. 11, 69-75 pp.
MÄDER P., ALFÖLDI T., FLIEßBACH A., PFIFFNER L. AND U. NIGGLI (in press): “Agricultural and Ecological Performance of Cropping Systems Compared in a Long-term Field Trial”. In: Nutrient Cycles and Nutrient Budgets in Global Agro-ecosystems, ed. E. Smaling, CAB, London.
MÄDER P., ALFÖLDI T., NIGGLI U., BESSON J.-M. and D. DUBOIS (1997): Der Wert des DOK-Versuches unter den Aspekten moderner agrarwissenschaftlicher Forschung. Archiv für Acker-, Pflanzenbau und Bodenkunde 42: 279-301 pp.
SIEGRIST S., SCHAUB D., PFIFFNER L. and P. MÄDER (1998): “Does organic agriculture reduce soil erodibility? The results of a long-term field study on loess in Switzerland”, Agric. Ecosys. Environ. 69: 253-264 pp.
INTRODUCTION
The fundamental role played by agriculture in a global social system and the negative environmental aspects of conventional agriculture have oriented the whole system towards new forms of agriculture. During the past few years we observed a constant trend of positive growth trend of organic agriculture. In the last decade organic agriculture has been able to extend its own dimension to become a significant landmark for agriculture.
ORGANIC AGRICULTURE (ITALY)
In Table 1 the amount of farms and organically cultured areas in different Italian regions are reported. The Mediterranean regions are the leaders in Italian organic farming. The first is Sardinia with 135 797 hectares, followed by Sicily with 125 903 hectares; other significant regions are Tuscany with 22 784 hectares, Emilia Romagna with 46 473 hectares, Puglia with 94 875 hectares and Latium with 25 885 hectares.
We must underline the fast development in these regions; Puglia and Calabria, for example, in one year, have doubled the number of farms involved in organic agriculture.
Table 1. Italian situation as of 31 September 1998 (data from the Ministry of Agriculture)
|
Regions |
Farms |
OA |
CA |
OA+CA |
OA/CA |
|
Piemonte |
1 016 |
262 |
16 913 |
17.175 |
1.53 |
|
Valle d’Aosta |
6 |
1 |
331 |
332 |
0.34 |
|
Liguria |
105 |
20 |
1 273 |
1 293 |
1.59 |
|
Lombardia |
553 |
97 |
10 151 |
10 248 |
0.95 |
|
Trentino A.A. |
168 |
2 |
997 |
999 |
0.25 |
|
Veneto |
662 |
41 |
5 998 |
6 039 |
0.69 |
|
Friuli V.G. |
116 |
2 |
730 |
732 |
0.29 |
|
Emilia R. |
2 212 |
1 784 |
46 689 |
48 473 |
3.84 |
|
Toscana |
616 |
542 |
22 242 |
22 784 |
2.38 |
|
Marche |
1 254 |
932 |
21 539 |
22 471 |
4.15 |
|
Umbria |
382 |
207 |
8 941 |
9 148 |
2.27 |
|
Lazio |
1 993 |
838 |
25 047 |
25 885 |
3.24 |
|
Abruzzo |
412 |
47 |
4 857 |
4 904 |
0.97 |
|
Molise |
255 |
45 |
3 270 |
3 315 |
1.38 |
|
Campania |
486 |
60 |
6 114 |
6 174 |
0.97 |
|
Puglia |
4 275 |
6 347 |
88 528 |
94 875 |
6.69 |
|
Basilicata |
183 |
46 |
5 178 |
5 224 |
0.89 |
|
Calabria |
1 672 |
990 |
24 151 |
25 141 |
3.94 |
|
Sicilia |
8 270 |
10 324 |
115 579 |
125 903 |
8.20 |
|
Sardegna |
4 754 |
13 620 |
122 177 |
135 797 |
10.03 |
|
Total |
29 390 |
21 636 |
543 277 |
564 913 |
3.83 |
OA= organic agriculture, CA= conventional agriculture in conversion phase
Cereals are the most widespread cultures in Italy, however, economically, horticulture and fruit growing are the most important sectors followed by viticulture and olive culture.
In Italy there are 29 390 organic farms and 820 transformation companies. The total area interested in organic agriculture is 564 913 hectares of which 543 277 is in conversion. On the whole, organic and conversion agriculture areas are 3.83 percent of the total cultured areas in Italy with particular high values in Sardinia (10.03 percent) and Sicily (8.20 percent).
Today the market appears well prepared in this field. A wide variety of foods using products from organic agriculture is available: yoghurt, milk, fruit juices, jam, bakery products, oils, wines, honey, flour, etc. Part of the Italian production is exported to EU countries, particularly Italian pasta.
For these reasons and in order to better characterize organic products and distinguish them from others and in order to satisfy market demand, the Italian Ministry of Agriculture funded the following scientific project.
DEFINITION AND EVALUATION OF ORGANIC PRODUCTS
The research project principally uses two approaches (agronomic and dietary) and is subdivided into four sub-projects. The tested products included for experimental production were:
and for commercial production:
The agronomic approach is used to evaluate how organic agronomic techniques, without use of synthetic chemical compounds, can influence the chemical composition of the products as compared with those from conventional production techniques.
The dietary approach evaluates the influence of a total organic food diet or a partial organic food diet on human nutrition and the relative nutrient contribution.
Sub-project n° 1: Experimental Production for Trade
- Evaluate nitrate availability in the soil throughout the whole year, as a result of different soil management methods.
- Find the more favourable agronomic conditions to maintain and increase soil fertility (nitrate) especially during the major request period for plants.
- Find the more favourable agronomic conditions to increase the organoleptic and nutritional quality of the fruits.
- Check the influence of the cultivation methods on accumulation of elagic acid in two different strawberry cultivars.
Sub-project n°2: Nutritional, Chemical-physic and Sensory Quality in Organic Agriculture Products
- Analyse minerals, nitrite and nitrate content and their bio-availability, related to the nutritional quality evaluation of products (tomato, apple, peach, strawberry) cultured by organic and conventional agriculture.
- Monitor the sensory quality of organic fruits (apple, peach, plum, pear and strawberry) compared with conventionally produced products and evaluation of the sensory profile variations during storage.
- Study the differences in the characteristics of consistency measured by instrumental analysis between organic and conventional fruits (apple, peach, plum, pear and strawberry) from harvest through storage.
- Find chemical markers able to characterize cereal and other organic products (wheat, rice and maize).
- Monitor chemical quality of organic extra virgin olive oils available on the market.
Sub-project n° 3: Safety
- Verify the hygiene and fungal contamination (aflotoxins, ochratoxins, trichothecenes) in experimental organic and conventional products and also in those available on the market.
- Determine pesticide traces in both experimental organic and conventional products.
- Evaluate the immune response in the intestinal tract after introduction of organic and conventional products.
- Evaluate liver protein modifications due to the external stimuli and actions of the detoxifying enzymes of the liver and the intestines, in particular, in physiological conditions such as growth and mild malnutrition.
- Identify mutagenous substances and quantify the possible DNA damages, after the introduction of organic compounds versus conventional compounds into in vitro intestinal cell system and into the animal intestinal tissue.
Sub-project n°4: Nutritional Surveillance and Consumer Choice
- Prepare a model able to evaluate relationships between social and cultural factors and consumption of organic products in order to explain consumer reactions (acceptance or refusal) of those products.
- Prepare a questionnaire with the aim of evaluating costs and health benefits for the consumers. Formulate a hypothesis about the possible economic feasibility rending of organic agriculture in Italy by analysis of available data in literature and from appropriate institutions.
- Design social and nutritional profile of organic food consumers.
Results from the Whole Project
Among others, the following benefits/results are expected from the project:
- Evaluation of the different agricultural methods with respect to the composition and nutritional quality of the products under investigation and with particular attention to the molecules with antioxidant power, so useful to prevent illnesses correlated with free radicals.
- Evaluation of the safety of the organic products under investigation, such as the presence of traces of pesticides, heavy metals, mycotoxins or compounds with antioxidant power.
Follow-up
- From the investigation on experimental fields
a) Agronomic data for evaluating the reliability of the official production methods and if necessary propose their modification.
b) Comparative analysis of economic feasibility of organic agriculture and conventional production to verify the different costs.
c) Evaluation of possible differences in environmental impact, between both conventional and organic agriculture.
- From the nutritional studies and from the consumer surveys:
New and more appropriate knowledge about the consumption of organic products. This is expected to be useful for public operators who are involved in the development of regulations on organic products and for private operators who have to respond to consumer requests in specific social and geographical situations.
REFERENCES
ALTIERI, M.A., LETOURNEAU, D.K.. and DAVIS, J.R. (1983): “Developing sustainable agro-ecosystems”, BioScience, 33: 45 p.
CAMPIGLI, E. and CAPORALI, F. (1995): “Comparison of different soil coverage techniques in special orchards in Alto Lazio”, Rivista di Frutticultura e di Ortofloricoltura, 57: 57 p.
CAMPIGLIA, E. and CAPORALI, F. (1996): “Management of a subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum L) sward to be used as a cover crop in specialist orchards”, Rivista di Agronomia, 30: 43 p.
JIJKLI, M. and LEPOIVRE, P. (1995): “Use of biological pesticides for the protection of apples in storage”, Fruit Belge, 63: 83-88 pp.
STIRZAKER, R.J. and BUNN, D.G. (1996): “Phytotoxicity of ryegrass and clover cover crops and a lucerne alley crop for no-till vegetable production”, Biol. Agric. and Hortic., 13: 83 p.
WALSH, B.D. SALMINS, S., BUSZARD, D.J. and MACKENZIE, A.F. (1996): “Impact of soil management system on organic dwarf apple orchards and soil aggregate stability, bulk density, temperature and water content”, Canadian J. of Soil Science, 76: 203 p.
WANI, S.P., LEE, K.K. and THAMPAN, P.K. (1995): “Microorganisms as biological inputs for sustainable agriculture”, Organic Agriculture, 39: 76 p.
WORSHAM, A.D. (1991): “Allelopathic cover crops to reduce herbicide input”, Proceedings of the 44th Annual Meeting of the Southern Weed Science Society, 58 p.
Anonymous (1998): Bio Fax, 16-30 Settembre 1998, n°17 anno V.
INTRODUCTION
A study aimed at identifying research priorities and the constraints to the maintenance of high standards of animal health and welfare on organic livestock farms in the UK has been conducted over two phases:
|
Phase 1: |
A postal survey of organic producers registered with the UK Soil Association was conducted during 1995-96. |
| |
|
|
Phase 2: |
A follow-up study, using the results of the postal survey and case-studies is currently being undertaken. |
This paper will focus on the methodology adopted. A full description of the results of the first phase has been reported by Roderick et al.(1996).
PHASE 1: A POSTAL SURVEY
Methodology
Postal questionnaires were sent to 270 soil associations registered organic farmers. Closed questions were included covering specific enterprise practices. Producers’ perception of disease was established by scoring a range of common diseases. Open ended questions were included to record producer comments. Descriptive analyses were conducted on the survey data.
Results
A ‘useful’ response rate of 52 percent was achieved. The survey revealed trends in farm type e.g. by species (Figure 1), altitude, less-favoured area status and period under organic production. Key livestock management and husbandry techniques were described and variations between farms were identified. Generally, the producers did not perceive major animal health problems in their herds/flocks. Producers’ perception of disease was similar to that expected in conventional systems. An example of the health assessment of dairy herds is given in Figure 2. A wide range of health control methods were commonly practised. This is demonstrated in Figure 3, which shows the use of a combination of antibiotics, homeopathy and other methods to control mastitis in dairy herds.
|
Fig 1:Classification of organic livestock systems
|
Fig 2: Farmers perception of disease in dairy herds
1=no problem; 2 = not common; 3 = slight problem; 4 = continuous problem; 5 = serious problem |
|
|
|
|
Open-ended questions drew a large number of wide-ranging and informative comments. In particular producers required advice and extension on animal health control. Concerns about animal welfare were commonly expressed. Some respondents required a degree of flexibility in organic standards. |
Fig 3: Mastitis control in organic dairy herds
|
Discussion
The survey proved to be a useful method to describe the basic health and welfare status and practices within the UK organic livestock sector. Trends and variations between farms and systems have been identified. The survey also provided a very useful first contact with producers.
The type of survey method used has a number of obvious and well documented weaknesses. Although the response rate was high for a survey of this type, it is not possible to assess whether the sample was representative. The method of disease perception scoring satisfied the objective of identifying the relative importance of various health concerns. However, this approach suffers from being a subjective measure providing non-parametric data. The technique is therefore of limited epidemiological value. More detailed studies would be needed to quantify the important health issues. Open-ended questions aimed at establishing the comments of producers revealed important areas of concern not covered by closed questions. Recommendations included the requirement for a follow-up study. This is now in progress as Phase 2.
PHASE 2: A CASE STUDY APPROACH
Objectives
Methodology
Statistical analysis will be conducted on data from Phase 1 to identify the important farm level variables influencing animal health and welfare status and practices. Based on the results of the descriptive (Phase 1) and statistical (Phase 2) analyses, the survey farms will be classified by type and health and welfare characteristics. Case-studies will be implemented on key farms, for each of the characterized farm types, in order to explore in more detail specific influential factors and constraints. It is envisaged that case studies will involve informal (PRA, etc.) and formal (farm records and closed questions) methods.
REFERENCE
RODERICK, S., HOVI, M. and N. SHORT (1996): Animal Health and Welfare in Organic Farming: Research Priorities, AHT Report, University of Reading.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:
Phase 1 of this study was supported by the Animal Health Trust. Phase 2 is being supported by the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAFF), UK.
ABSTRACT
A research proposal is presented to challenging the late blight problem in organic potato production by the better use of resistance present in potato varieties available today. It is based on an attempt to include variety rotation and/or variety mixtures in addition to the established methods of sanitation and prevention. In addition geographic isolation may also contribute to reduction of late blight impact in the Norwegian situation.
INTRODUCTION
Late blight (Phytophthora infestans) is a major constraint in organic potato production and results in large losses of yield and agronomic inputs. The increased variation in the pathogen population in Europe made the situation even worse after introduction of a mating type of the fungus in the early eighties. This variability in the pathogen population may also present possibilities when the sources of resistance in the host population is exploited in a strategic way. This paper puts forward some methodological thoughts to cope with the problem of late blight.
METHODOLOGY
Dealing with late blight in an organic agriculture setting requires first of all a basic knowledge of plant disease epidemiology. It gives an insight into the impact of the various management decisions that influence the development of the disease. Major parameters are initial inoculum and rate of disease development. In addition we have the genetic diversity in both host and pathogen populations. These elements dominate in the development of a strategy to prevent, as much as possible, late blight in organic potato production.
A major problem lies in the fact that an epidemic caused by Phytophthora infestans can develop rapidly under favourable weather conditions. Spores can spread over large distances, although its density will decrease with further distance from the source. It is the reduction of spore density that will delay the onset of an epidemic. This plays a role in areas with a land use pattern with little potato production, as is the situation in a large part of Norwegian agriculture. In these situations a major input in removing and destroying potential sources of inoculum may even result in the further delay of the onset of the disease. In more intensive potato cultivation, a concerted action among growers, both in commercial and home production is required, since one single inoculum source may be sufficient to nullify the efforts of many. This is not easy to establish, but positive results are documented (Førsund, 1970).
A broad range of activities can achieve a reduction of the rate of disease development. Variety choice, plant distance and plant nutrition are just some. The choice of each measure depends largely on the local situation and the consideration of the impact of each possible agricultural measure.
Increasing the host biodiversity in the field may counteract the increased genetic variation in the pathogen population and its subsequent effect on late blight disease. This increase in host biodiversity may be obtained through mixing potato varieties or mixing with other crop species in row cropping systems. This will reduce the epidemic development (Andrivon and Lucas, 1998).
Slowing down the epidemic development does not exclude the appearance of new fungal genotypes and its subsequent building up of their inoculum for the next season. New genotypes will only increase in density when a susceptible potato cultivar is present since Phytophthora is a biotrophic fungus. Since no potato cultivars are completely resistant to late blight a certain late blight development will occur if host and pathogen are present.
Epidemiological studies with fungal genotype analysis (Zwankhuizen et al., 1998) revealed that most epidemics on single field level deal with only one fungal genotype. The genotypes surviving in the field from one growing season to the next season may be dominated by those that were responsible for the late blight development in the previous season. Using another potato cultivar with another type of resistance may delay the onset of the late blight epidemic in a subsequent season. The proposed strategy therefore, includes cultivar rotation in addition to the well-established crop rotation.
POTENTIALS OF THE METHODOLOGY
The choice of the strategy depends largely on the local situation. Since the rate of a late blight epidemic is mainly determined by biotic (the presence of inoculum, susceptibility of the host to certain races of the pathogen) and abiotic factors (moisture and temperature). In the Norwegian situation, late blight comes usually later in the season. In areas with low seasonal temperatures the crop can even escape infection. In our experience we met situations in which potato varieties which are susceptible to late blight could withstand infection almost throughout the season, whilst other varieties became destroyed mid-season. This indicates the potential of the strategy.
POTENTIALS OF DISEASE ESCAPE
A complete escape of the pathogen can only take place in situations with low growing temperatures using healthy seed-tubers. This is mainly restricted to mountain farms. A similar escape takes place in areas with dry summer conditions. In most areas with potato growing the weather is favourable for late blight. Thus the potential of escape is rather limited.
POTENTIALS OF DELAY OF THE LATE BLIGHT EPIDEMIC
As stated before, potato production covers a limited area in Norwegian agriculture: cultivated fields can be far away from each other. This means that individual farmers may profit to a larger extent from the preventive measures laid out on their own farm. A delay of the epidemic at a time that the crop is fully established and that has a maximal interception on sunlight has a large impact on the efficient use of inputs. In this respect, one should also remember the potato growing in home and allotment gardens. Delay of epidemics has a potential in Norwegian conditions.
CONCLUSIONS
It is expected that the proposed strategies have a potential to reduce the destructive effect of late blight in organic potato production. However, a major risk lies in the dependence on the consequent implementation of the strategy.
REFERENCES
ANDRIVON, D. and J.M. LUCAS (1998): Performance of cultivar associations to control the potato late blight pathogen Phytophthora infestans. Book of abstracts 7th International Congress on Plant Pathology, Edinburgh, Scotland. 9-16 August 1998.
FØRSUND, E. (1970): Forsøk med avl av sjukdomsfrie settepoteter i Gjøvdal i Åmli herad, Aust- Agder i åra 1965-69. [Experiments with the cultivation of disease free seed potatoes in Gjøvdal in Åmli, East-Agder in the period 1965-69]. Internal Report Planteforsk.
ZWANKHUIZEN, M.J., F. GOVERS and J.C. ZADOKS (1998): Development of potato late blight epidemics: Disease foci, gradients and infection sources. Phytopathology 88: 754-763 pp.
INTRODUCTION
The project “Participatory Development of Organic Vegetable Farms” began in 1995 was aimed at defining relevant issues in development and research of organic vegetable farming (Seppänen, 1996). However, considering farms as natural scientific and technical units was not sufficient because the multiple perspectives of organic vegetable producers, as well as other actors, made the definition of the relevancy of the issues difficult. This raised the necessity to look at farms as systems including humans. Thus, a study of farms turned out to be a study of farming as a systemic activity. My PhD research, which began in 1997, applies the methodology of developmental work research.
OVERVIEW OF THE METHODOLOGY
The theoretical roots of developmental work research are in cultural-historical activity theory (Vygotsky 1978, Leont’ev 1977, Engeström 1987). Engeström (1987) expanded the ideas of activity theory to a model of collective activity system (Figure 1), which is used in developmental work research.
Figure 1. Structure of a human activity system (Engeström 1987, p.78)
“In the model, the subject refers to the individual or sub-group whose agency is chosen as the point of view in the analysis. The object refers to the ‘raw material’ or ‘problem space’ at which the activity is directed and which is moulded or transformed into outcomes with the help of physical and symbolic, external and internal tools (mediating instruments and signs). The community comprises multiple individuals and/or sub-groups who share the same general object. The division of labour refers to both the horizontal division of tasks between the members of the community and to the vertical division of power and status. Finally, the rules refer to the explicit and implicit regulations, norms and conventions that constrain actions and interactions within the activity system. Between the components of an activity system, continuous construction is on-going (...)” (Engeström, 1990, p.79). Activity systems are also in interaction with other activity systems. In farming activity, this means for instance farmer colleagues, administrative and marketing systems.
The concept of contradiction is an important tool in the methodology of developmental work research. Internal contradictions of an activity system can be a driving force for its change and development. They manifest themselves within a component or between components of the activity system. The activity is studied in its historical and cultural context and historical analysis is necessary in revealing the contradictions. The change and development of an activity system proceed in cycles through many phases.
The methodology of developmental work research has been used in multiple studies in work activities in the field of health care, industry and teaching, for instance. This study applies the methodology for the first time in agricultural research.
AN EXAMPLE: CROP ROTATION
An important contradiction in organic vegetable farming is the tension between the ecological need for diversity in production and economic factors driving towards specialization. On the one hand, crop rotation is a tool or instrument, for farmers to cope with weeds, nutrient management and soil structure. On the other hand, the rules for organic farming expect farmers to have and follow crop rotation with leys and/or green manures: in this case, crop rotation can be considered a rule constraining farmers’ production activity.
In the study I analyse two Finnish organic vegetable farms with different backgrounds. The two farmers’ perspectives towards crop rotation differ considerably. The role of crop rotation in their activity systems will be analysed and compared to each other. The hypothesis is that on the other farm, the existing problem with couch grass (Elymus repens) is partly due to the rule-like role crop rotation has in their farming system.
Besides crop rotation, there will be other themes embedded in the contradictions of the farming systems in my study. After identifying possible ways of solving the contradictions, new forms of organic vegetable farming for the future will be drafted in dialogue between farmers and the researcher. New tools will be developed to implement the new forms put into practice.
CONCLUSIONS
Being contextual and systemic, the methodology of developmental work research gives an opportunity to study the relations of phenomena beyond the confines of traditional, natural and social scientific disciplines. It also gives tools to develop the activity from the point of view of the farmers and not only describes and analyses it.
REFERENCES
ENGESTRÖM, Y. (1987): Learning by expanding: An activity-theoretical approach to developmental work research. Orienta-Konsultit, Helsinki.
ENGESTRÖM, Y. (1990): Learning, working and imagining. Twelve studies in activity theory. Orienta-Konsultit, Helsinki.
LEONT’EV, A. N. (1978): Activity, consciousness and personality. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.
SEPPÄNEN, L. 1996. In the midst of farming, advising and researching. Forskningsnytt om øekologisk landbruk I Norden, Nr. 7/1996, 4-5 pp.
VYGOTSKY, L.S. 1978. Mind in society. Harvard University Press.
see also www.helsinki.fi/edu/activity
ABSTRACT
While classical research focuses on problem solving, design is a problem-prevention methodology and is suitable for multi- and interdisciplinary research teams with the vision of how to improve agricultural sustainability. Since organic agriculture is based on the holistic approach and is also problem-prevention oriented in that it refrains from certain inputs and practices, design is an interesting methodology that could be applied more often in organic agriculture.
INTRODUCTION, THE NEED TO REDESIGN AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS
The demand for a more careful stewardship of abiotic and biotic resources is central to the philosophy of sustainable development. A widely recognized concept, sustainable development is an essential element in future development. Agriculture plays a vital role in the concept of sustainable development. Without sustainable agriculture, no sustainable development is possible. Agriculture related problems such as environmental pollution of soil, water and air; resource depletion and nature degradation as well as socio-economic problems, are high on the agenda of various communities and interest groups (including those of farmers, environmentalists, nature-conservators, scientists, consumers and policy makers). This has resulted in the serious demand that today’s farming systems be redesigned and transformed into more sustainable ones. However, this is not an easy task, because agriculture is a multifunctional and multiple objective activity (Goewie, 1997; Vereijken, 1995). Agriculture has to supply food in sufficient quantity and quality and the supply itself must be stable, sustainable and accessible. It must provide employment and generate basic income and profit at farm, regional and national levels. In addition, agriculture also has to try and avoid and minimize the pollution of abiotic resources, protect and steward nature and landscape, as well as ensure the overall health and well-being of farm animals and rural and urban people (Vereijken, 1995).
DESIRED IMPROVEMENTS OF FARMING SYSTEMS AND THE MEASUREMENT OF THEIR SUSTAINABILITY
Taking into account agriculture-related problems, the following improvements seem to be desirable in order to make farming systems more sustainable:
A farming system should be designed and function in such a way that complies, as far as possible, with the requirements, criteria and parameters of sustainable agriculture (van Mansvelt and Znaor, forthcoming). However, the above-mentioned functions and objectives of agriculture are not necessarily always compatible. Sometimes they conflict as in the case of economy and nature protection (Goewie, 1997). Besides, each farm is an agro-ecological and socio-economic entity, operating under specific conditions, which makes it impossible to impose a set of uniform sustainability criteria because sustainability is both site-specific and determined by macro institutional and economic settings. Therefore, in practice no farm entirely fulfils all the requirements for sustainable agriculture, even if these have been theoretically determined. The overall sustainability of a farming system can best be expressed by the index (degree) of sustainability reached. This index can be derived from farm balances such as nutrients, soil organic matter, energy, labour, economic return, resource use and biodiversity value and from other relevant farm data (Znaor, 1996).
METHODOLOGY OF DESIGNING SUSTAINABLE FARMING SYSTEMS
Design is not a typical research methodology. In fact it is a process very different from classical research. Classical research investigates a particular problem, phenomena or a set of problems, in order to understand the mechanisms involved. Sometimes it seeks answers to practical problems. In most cases, a research problem or object is segregated into smaller “researchable” units and analysis and experiments are performed to prove causal relations between manipulation and phenomena (Goewie, 1997). Design, however, involves another process entirely. In design one synthesizes the knowledge into the larger units through which the “whole” functions in reality. In other words, in research one “discovers something”, while in designing one “creates something” out of its vision and synthesized knowledge. However, although design takes another route than the one followed in research, it does not exclude the need for classical research, since designing is enriched by each new research discovery. Agro-designing methodology involves several steps (Vereijken, 1995). It starts with an inventory of the needs and objectives of the stakeholders concerned. Objectives are then ordered hierarchical and rated. The most important of these are then transformed into a suitable set of parameters. In other words, in order to quantify selected objectives, a set of measurable key parameters should be developed. The next step is to establish appropriate agricultural methods and techniques serving more than one objective, for example, intensive fertilization in general serves the objective of high yield and is detrimental to other objectives such as the environment and capable of bridging gaps between conflicting objectives. Finally, the set of multi-objective parameters and methods is linked in a general theoretical prototype based on agronomic, agro-ecological and economic considerations. Theoretical prototypes are then tested in practice and their shortcomings are used as the learning points for the next phase, (re)designing of the same or another farming system.
REFERENCES
GOEWIE, E.A. (1997): “Designing methodologies for prototyping ecological production systems” Course reader MSc. Ecological Agriculture (F800-204). Department of Ecological Agriculture, Wageningen Agricultural University, Wageningen.
MANSVELT, VAN J.D. and D. ZNAOR, (forthcoming): “Criteria for the abiotic and biotic realm: environment and ecology”. In: Mansvelt van J.D. and Lubbe M.J (eds.): Checklist for sustainable landscape management: final report of the EU-concerted action (AIR3-CT93-1210), Elsevier, Amsterdam.
VEREIJKEN, P. (1995): “Designing and testing prototypes: Progress reports of the research network on integrated and ecological arable farming systems for EU and associated countries” (Concerted Action AIR 3-CT920755), DLO Research Institute for Agrobiology and Soil Fertility, Wageningen.
ZNAOR, D. (1996): “Ekološka poljoprivreda- poljoprivreda sutrašnjice”, Globus, Zagreb.
){kind=link}