Previous Page Table of Contents Next Page


APPENDIX 11: COUNTRY CASE STUDY - WATER POLICY REFORM IN YEMEN


Abdulla Mohamed Al Thary
National Water Resources Authority
Sana’a

ACRONYMS USED

DMS

Decentralized Management Study

GAREWS

General Authority for Rural Electricity and Water Supply

IMS

Implementation and Monitoring Sector

MAI

Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation

MDG

Multi-Donor Group on Yemen Water

MEW

Ministry of Electricity and Water

MOPD

Ministry of Planning and Development

NWASA

National Water and Sanitation Agency

NWRA

National Water Resources Authority

O&M

operation and maintenance

PPS

Policy and Programming Sector

SIS

Studies and Information Sector

SWRMC

Strengthening of Water Resources Management Capabilities

1. INTRODUCTION

The Republic of Yemen, hereafter referred to as Yemen, is located on the southwestern edge of the Arabian Peninsula, between latitudes 12° and 19°N and longitudes 42° and 53°E. It is a young country when viewed within the context of modern technological societies; yet it is very old in history, with a ancient tradition of harnessing water for agricultural uses. Archaeologically, the signs of hydrological and hydraulic structures from thousand of years ago are monumental. They reflect the concern of past civilizations throughout history that water is the principal, economic and social sustaining element of civilization; a principle now long forgotten. One of the earliest irrigation civilizations was established in the Kingdom of Sheba, in what is now the country of Yemen. This civilization was made possible by developing various rainwater harvesting techniques, including the construction of dams such as the Mareb Dam, and associated irrigation works, as far back as about 1000 BC, and it reached a peak during the reign of the Queen of Sheba. This era was known as ‘The Yemeni Famous Hydraulic Civilization’. Additional water harvesting works were constructed in the region around AD 100 to augment the system. However, the Mareb Dam was breached in AD 575, and the local civilization rapidly declined. The mareb Dam was not rebuilt until recently. In 1980, a new storage dam with capacity of400 000 m3 was constructed just below the location of the old Mareb dam. In the last decades, the pressing need to increase agricultural output and provide for the needs of a population growing at the very high rate of 3.8%/year, has been componded by a national policy that had promoted expansion rather than efficient use and sustainable management.

Physiographically, the country can be divided roughly along the 45°E line of longitude line into an eastern part and a western part: the Arabian Sea and the Red Sea zones, respectively. These two regions are characterized by significantly different geological, physiographic, climatic, hydrologic and demographic conditions. In sharp contrast to the predominantly flat, sparsely populated Arabian Sea zone in the east, which is practically an extension of the vast desert of Rub’ Al Khali (the Empty Quarter), the western part of Yemen bordering the Red Sea has the following characteristics:

As a result, a high demand for water has developed in the western part of Yemen, not only for drinking purposes but also for agricultural and industrial uses. Since the early 1980s, a growing imbalance between supply and demand in the water sector has become a major cause of depletion of the available water resources. In its pursuit of a growth-oriented strategy to achieve national economic development objectives, the government found itself in a vicious circle that in effect precluded the application of any effective measures to regulate groundwater abstraction. On the one hand, more food had to be produced locally for the growing population to avoid the heavy burdens of food imports and improve the balance of trade position, while, on the other, the agricultural sector needed incentives to grow more food, with use of introduced varieties, but it was already a principal user of groundwater and any further expansion in this sector would undoubtedly aggravate the water problem.

Since 1984, the year officially designated in Yemen as the Year of Agriculture, a number of economic incentives have been channelled to the agriculture sector by the Government without any parallel actions for removing the existing uncertainties about water rights or improving the weakness of institutions for controlling the rate of groundwater exploitation. In essence, therefore, the government provided incentives for the excessive use of water, which eventually led the country into the existing water crisis.

This paper is presented for the purpose of highlighting the reform measures that have been taken recently to deal with the current water crisis in Yemen. A general review of the situation is given before describing detailed policy issues in the water sector. The strategic options for pulling the country out of the crisis are then discussed. Finally, the specific water policy measures suggested for addressing the critical issues are emphasized.

2. REVIEW OF THE CURRENT SITUATION

2.1. DOMINANT FEATURES OF THE WATER SECTOR

2.1.1. Critical shortage of water resources

Yemen is favourably located within the Indian Summer Monsoon. Moist SW winds rising from the Indian Ocean and travelling across the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden bring heavy rains, which normally fall between March and September. The sharp escarpments dominating the western part of the country, where mean annual precipitation is generally of the order of 400 to 700 mm, intercept most of this rain. An estimated 2 100×106m3 of water is annually renewed in Yemen, 60% of which, some 1 300×106m3, becomes available through recharge processes to groundwater aquifers.

With a current population of over 15 million, the volume of water available to each individual in Yemen on an annual basis is only 130 m3. This amounts to a mere 12% of the average in the Middle East and North African countries (1 250 m3/person) and 2% of the worldwide average of 7 500 m3. In fact, 90% of the population receive under 90 m3 annually, which, according to international norms, is barely adequate for domestic use requirements alone (considered to be a minimum of 100 m3 person/year). Hence the country is already overdrawing its resources of 2 100×106m3/year by almost 30%, with a current estimated water use of 2 800×106m3/year.

This critical shortage of water is most clearly demonstrated by the rapid depletion of groundwater reserves, extreme water supply shortages in the major cities, and limited access to safe, drinking water for the population. The gravity of the water problem in Yemen is perhaps best described by a recent World Bank publication:

“Yemen, however stands out among countries in water crisis, first because of the gravity of the problem - in no country in the World is the rate of exhaustion of aquifers proceeding so fast, in no country in the world is the capital city of the nation literally going to run out of water in a decade.”

2.1.2. Fragmented water management

Table 1 Water sector agencies in Yemen

AGENCY

WATER-RELATED RESPONSIBILITIES

National Water Resources Authority (NWRA)

Sector planning, legislation, regulation and enforcement

Ministry of Electricity and Water (MEW)

Oversight of NWSA and GAREWS


- National Water and Sanitation Authority (NWSA)

Potable water supply and sewerage in urban areas (population >30 000)


- General Authority for Rural Electricity and Water Supply (GAREWS)

Potable water supply and sewerage in rural areas (population <30 000)

Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation (MAI)



- Irrigation sector

Development and management of larger scale irrigation schemes and small dams; research and extension on water management for farmers

Source: World Bank, 1996.

Water management is fragmented among sectors and institutions. Within the water sector alone, and in addition to the National Water Resources Authority (NWRA), there are a number of agencies for different purposes, as shown in Table 1. Interactions between these agencies, as well as with other institutions, such as the Ministry of Health, for example, are usually ignored. This happens even within the same agency, such as in the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation (MAI) where, for instance, decisions regarding the construction of small dams may be taken for socio-political reasons without the consensus of the other water-related groups or organizations and ignoring integrated regional water resources management issues. Hence, not only issues of water quantity and quality and concerns about health and the environment, but also issues of basin management, are treated in isolation. The result too often is excessive and unproductive investment, with different agencies developing the same water source for different uses, as well as increasing competition over the water resources, with very weak coordination.

2.1.3. Centralized administration

The agencies charged with water management (development and use) are severely overextended and have limited technical capacity to provide services of the necessary quality. These government authorities are overburdened with too many employees in their head offices in the capital city and in regional offices in other majority cities across the country. This is because there is a heavy dependence on centralized administration to develop, operate and maintain water systems. There is little stakeholder or private sector involvement in water activities, as users are rarely consulted or otherwise involved in planning and managing water resources. The result has been unreliable projects that produce services that do not meet consumers needs and for which they unwilling are to pay (because of dissatisfaction with the services) or to maintain (because they do not feel part of such projects and may even consider them as impositions that should be resisted and refused). Eventually, many of these projects and services gradually decline to the point where they become a heavy financial burden on the nation’s economy.

2.1.4. Water as a “God-given” commodity

In Yemen, as in other Moslem societies, water is considered a “God-given” natural resource, and one that should not be sold or bought. Hence, water cannot be treated as an economic good and, as a result, low-value users (especially in the agriculture sector) are allowed to consume large quantities of this resource without paying for it. The growing of water-intensive cash crops, particularly kat (Catha edulis), has also tremendously expanded in recent years since farmers have no incentives to refrain from this new practice or conserve such a God-given commodity; after all, if water is given by God then it must be abundant! Unfortunately, the government has not been taking enough action to make the public understand that even if this were the case, there must be another wisdom behind this God’s gift, other than wasting it. Prophet Mohammed (salla allah alayhi wasalem) said “Do not waste water, even if you are on a river.”

2.1.5. Inadequate water management systems

Essential data for adequate water resources management systems are still incomplete. Further studies are required into important issues such as the geographical temporal variations in the availability and quality of water, variability in rates of replenishment and depletion, regional variations in composition of economic activity, varied sectoral demand, etc. It must be recognized that project-oriented reports serve a specific purpose; they are not what is needed for comprehensive planning and management. Existing water quality management is restricted to a narrow, public health perspective, and there is poor recognition of the water quality problem due to the absence of environmental management and control in sectoral policies and economic development plans. The institutional situation at the national level has been outlined by Johnson and Merabet, who have also given recommendations concerning the coordination of the activities of the various agencies involved.

2.2. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

2.2.1. Prioritization of sustainable water resources management in the National Development Plan and formulation of water policy objectives

The present water crisis is essentially the result of more than 30 years of ad hoc water policies, which encouraged development projects, particularly in the agriculture sector, as Yemen was struggling to emerge as a modern state. It was only in the late 1980s and early 1990s that the government became aware of the adverse effects of the economic incentives given to the agricultural sector without the parallel introduction of effective measures to control and regulate the use of the water resources. This increasing government awareness of the water problem has been reflected in the current Five-Year Development Plan (1996-2000), in which the need for an efficient management of water resources has been recognized as a national development priority. In this plan, for the water sector, the government has outlined the following main objectives towards the ultimate goal of attaining sustainable development of the available water resources:

2.2.2. Coordination of donor’s technical and financial assistance

Over the last 25 years or so, donors have been providing technical and financial assistance to the water sector in Yemen. Donor’s planned or ongoing assistance to the water sector for the period extending to 1998 amounts to about $US 426 million, distributed among the various subsectoral programmes (Table 2). Until recently, there was little effective coordination among donors. IDA, the largest donor - accounting for almost 49% of the total assistance - concentrated on sectoral water use in urban areas and irrigation, and promoted the Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources (MAWR; now MAI) as the agency for integrated water resources management. The Government of the Netherlands, the second largest donor, providing currently 17% of total external assistance, supported water resources assessment through the General Department of Hydrogeology in the Ministry of Oil and Mineral Resources, without any link to integrated management. UNDP also struggled for over ten years (1982-1992) to create the High Water Council, an effort that ultimately produced only slim technical results, as the Council never met.

Table 2 Donor’s planned and ongoing assistance to the water sector in the period extending to 1998 (in $US millions)

DONOR

PURPOSE(1)

TOTAL

WS & S

AGR

SIL

TA

Other

IDA

71.58

67.70

40.00

20.32

20.00

219.60

The Netherlands

56.36

14.50

-.-

2.03

-.-

72.89

Arab Funds

41.9

10.00

-.-

-.-

-.-

51.90

Germany

40.28

-.-

-.-

5.07

-.-

45.35

EU

-.-

10.00

-.-

-.-

-.-

10.00

OPEC Fund

10.00

-.-

-.-

-.-

-.-

10.00

UNDP

5.86

-.-

-.-

2.03

-.-

7.89

Japan

5.26

-.-

-.-

-.-

-.-

5.26

Switzerland

3.00

-.-

-.-

-.-

-.-

3.00

TOTAL

234.24

102.20

40.00

29.45

20.00

425.89

Note: WS&S = Water Supply and Sanitation; AGR = Agriculture; TA = Technical Assistance.

With the government’s decision to create NWRA, an agreement was reached among donors that this institution deserved full support if it was to become the instrument of an integrated approach to water sector management. The main donors have grouped themselves into a Multi-Donor Group on Yemen Water (MDG) in order to work together more effectively in support of an integrated approach. Currently MDG, inter alia, is assisting the government in the preparation of a water strategy. In parallel, technical assistance to NWRA is being provided through the Strengthening of Water Resources Management Capabilities (SWRMC) project, as a concluding phase of support to the sector by two donors (UNDP and the Government of the Netherlands) for the enhancement of integrated water resources management in Yemen.

It should be noted that, as complementary assistance to the water sector in Yemen, and in further support of NWRA capacity building, as well as support to subsectoral and regional administration, the World Bank joined the MDG through a Program Support Document (PSD). The programme aims to build full managerial and technical capacity within NWRA to ensure sustainable development of Yemen’s water resources in the immediate future. The programme is also aimed at strengthening the capacity building efforts of users’ agencies, such as the National Water and Sanitation Agency (NWASA) and the General Authority for Rural Electricity and Water Supply (GAREWS) - both under the Ministry of Electricity and Water (MEW) - and the General Department of Irrigation of MAI, towards efficient water resources management.

2.2.3. Establishment of the National Water Resources Authority (NWRA)

Through a concentrated effort of donor assistance to Yemen for the water sector, as discussed below, consensus was reached that a drastic charge in the government’s role would be required if the objective of institutionalizing an integrated approach to water sector management was to be realized. The government must have an effective role in coordinating sectoral activities in an integrated manner and, to this effect, NWRA was established by Presidential Decree in October 1995. As the sole governmental agency and a central planning institution for the nation’s water resources, NWRA has responsibility not only for strategic planning of water resources but also for various other activities related to the national use of these resources: economic evaluation, legislation, licensing and monitoring, and public awareness. These responsibilities are expected to be met through the principal tasks assigned to the three main technical divisions of NWRA. NWRA has been provided with some of the best national water resources staff, who previously worked with the various water sector agencies. In effect, the Technical Secretariat of the High Water Council and all the hydrogeological departments in the various ministries related to the water sector have been merged into NWRA. However, most of the technical staff being transferred from these agencies are trained in water resources assessment, and so NWRA will have a clear lack in areas like policy analysis, public awareness, socio-economics, and legal aspects.

Organizational structure of NWRA

NWRA is the sole national agency responsible for the formulation of water resources policies and development strategies, and for the study, planning and management of water resources at a national level. With the issuance of the present Decree, the High Water Council, the General Department of the Mineral Exploration Board, the MAWR (later MAI) General Department of Water Resources, and the MEW Hydrogeology Department were all merged to form NWRA. The organizational structure of NWRA has three sectors: the Policy and Programming Sector (PPS); the Studies and Information Sector (SIS); and the Implementation and Monitoring Sector (IMS).

The following description is relevant to the PPS, which is responsible for all policy issues in the water sector.

PPS consists of two autonomous functional General Departments (GDs): Strategic Planning and Water Policies; and Technical Cooperation and Human Resources Development. Each GD has two departments.

The principal tasks of PPS reflect its responsibility for the formulation of water resources policies and strategies and the programming of resources and actions to create the necessary enabling environment for their implementation so as to achieve the Authority’s objectives. Four principle tasks of PPS can be distinguished:

Box 1 Matrix of problems and critical issues
Problem type: Groundwater mining

CRITICAL ISSUES

EVIDENCE

SOURCE

Rapid depletion of major regional aquifers

- drying-up of dug wells

- falling water levels in boreholes

- reduced perennial water flow in major wadis

- dropping well yield

- population growth

- expansion of a subsidized agricultural sector

- introduction of modern drilling technology and pumps

Deterioration in groundwater quality

- increased salinity in wells

- soil salinization

- incidence of water-related diseases

- intrusion of saline waters

- poor irrigation practices

- inadequate drainage

- growth of polluting industries

Inefficient use

- performance indicators such as system efficiency, agronomic norms, and economic value of water

- absence of incentives to conserve water

- poor system maintenance

- low public awareness of water situation

- limited access to imported technologies

Growing conflicts among users

- coexistence of surplus and stress among regions and sectors

- growing shortages in particular uses

- competition for limited supplies

- growing environmental stress

- development of water markets and transfers

- rising cost of marginal water supplies

- growing imbalance between supply and demand

- absence of legal means to settle disputes

- lack of water rights legislation

- failures in planning and forecasting

Cost of future abstraction

- unit costs of projected drilling

- pump installation

- current fuel consumption compared with past levels

- exhaustion of easy options in the face of growing demands

- absence of demand management

The role of NWRA in water policy reform

In the two years since NWRA’s creation in October 1995, considerable efforts had been made by NWRA staff - with full support of both government and donors - to organize and consolidate itself and to fulfil its role in water resources management and policy reform, including the establishment of NWRA Head Office in Sana’a and offices in Aden and Ta’iz (as a first phase) and appointing the Board of Directors. However, due to political and administrative obstacles, additional activities related to water resources management, including policy reform activities, have been limited. Achievements so far are considered below.

Water management and water strategy seminars and workshops have been held at various levels, including for Parliament and the High Advisory Council, highlighting the key water resources issues, objectives, sectoral policies and action plans, and the role of NWRA in these respects.

NWRA has participated in or contributed to relevant seminars, workshops, meetings, study tours and training programmes in Yemen and abroad.

Work on preparing draft national water legislation has gone ahead. The NWRA organizational structure - including definition of NWRA’s duties and responsibilities - is under preparation and soon will be submitted to the Cabinet and Parliament for discussion and eventual approval.

Priority regions for urgent Integrated Water Resources Management Action Plans had been specified. These include regions such as Ta’iz, Sana’a, Abyan, and Al-Mukalla. The Ta’iz Pilot Water Resources Management Action Plan is in progress. Such an exercise is challenging to NWRA because the managerial approach concentrates on active public and stakeholder participation in the planning and management process, rather than the centralized management of the past.

Preparation of all the necessary documents, licences, permits, various forms, instructions related to water resources development, use, etc., are in progress. NWRA is already issuing licences and permits for well drilling, water sharing and other water use and development.

NWRA is preparing water-related macro-economic policy to be submitted to the Cabinet for discussion and approval.

Public awareness messages are being prepared and occasionally broadcast through local mass media; distribution of posters on water conservation messages is in progress.

3. WATER SECTOR POLICY ISSUES AND PROBLEMS

If Yemen is to pursue an overall water management programme to alleviate the existing water crisis, then the water-related critical issues in Boxes 1 and 2 have to be addressed. These issues are related to two main problems: groundwater mining and water supply shortage. Obviously, most of the water-related issues are interrelated and therefore it is most important that cause and effect relationships among the issues be fully understood and appreciated before strategies and associated objectives are developed to correct the situation.

3.1. GROUNDWATER MINING

As mentioned above, the country is already overdrawing its renewable water resources of 2 100×106m3/year by at least 700×106m3 annually. All surface water is harnessed and exploited. Similarly, groundwater is being exploited beyond the level of recharge in most areas. The most stressed area is the western portion of the country, where more than 90% of the population live. In 1994, there was a 70% overdraft in this half of the country as groundwater use reached 1 800×106m3/year, compared with annual recharge of 1 100×106m3! Usable reserves in this part are about 35×109m3, so at present rates of extraction the area will be dry within 50 years.

In the densely populated mountain areas, the situation is even worse. In the Sana’a Basin, where 10% of the population live (1.5 million people), there was an overdraft of 433% in 1994, as groundwater use (224×106m3) was far in excess of recharge (42×106m3). Thus, water is literally running out of this basin, in which the national capital is located. In some areas of this basin, the groundwater table is dropping so rapidly that the entire basin is expected to be pumped dry in about ten years or so. For example, in Qa’ Al Boun near Amran, just a few kilometres from the capital, water levels have dropped 60 m in the last twenty years. As mentioned in Box 1, the main problem is groundwater mining.

3.2. WATER SUPPLY SHORTAGE

There are two problems inherent in the shortage in water supply: (1) major cities including the national capital are short of water, and (2) there is a limited access to potable water both in urban settlements and in rural areas. Box 2 indicates that rapid growth in population, shortage of funds and inefficient services are among the major causes behind this shortage. Nationwide, about 60% of urban households are estimated to be connected to mains supply which, often, is inadequate.

In Sana’a, the capital city, the public utility, NWSA, supplies only 36% of households. Two-thirds of the water consumed in this city does not come from a safe public supply, and much comes from shallow wells tapping contaminated groundwater. Major coastal urban settlements, such as Aden and Hodeidah, are drinking from water of such a poor quality (electrical conductivity >2 500 mS/cm) that it is considered totally unfit for human consumption by any standards. Perhaps the most serious drinking water problem in urban areas in Yemen is in the city of Ta’iz which, in the summer of 1995, received water once every 40 days. This problem is described in Box 3.

Box 2 Matrix of problems and critical issues
Problem type: Water supply shortage
(Shortage of water in major cities and limited access to potable water)

CRITICAL ISSUES

EVIDENCE

SOURCE

Supply-demand imbalance

- by sector and by region

- future trend

- population growth

- improved standard of living (i.e., greater per caput demand)

- overuse of groundwater

- inefficient service

Level and quality of service provision

- proportion of population now and in the future with no, or inadequate, provision of safe water

- sanitation and wastewater disposal facilities

- consumption per caput

- reliability of supplies

- etc.

- shortage of investment funds

- rapid growth of urban settlements

- poor maintenance

- inefficient services

- lack of fairness in allocations

- inadequate sewerage and drainage system

Inadequate water quality

- incidence of water-related diseases

- increased salinity

- lack of funds to construct adequate water-supply schemes

- lack of proper maintenance

- shortage of sources of good quality water

- shortage of funds for proper water treatment

As in many developing countries, the urban poor in Yemen are forced to live on less water than the rich because of the higher prices that they have to pay for it. The rich tend to have better access to NWSA supply, which is cheap (as little as YRls 7/m3 ($US 0.04/m3)) compared to the much higher prices (YRls 50-200/m3 ($US 3.05-14.00/m3)) that the poor have to pay for buying their water from private vendors. As a result, the costs of the poor are much higher and the quantity purchased is very much lower. In Sana’a, for example, those buying from the private sector exclusively (i.e., most of the poor) consume only 28 l/day as compared with 80 l/day for those connected to NWSA. Hence, while NWSA provides only 44% of the WHO recommended minimum per caput consumption (180 l/day) to only one-third of the population in the capital city, the remaining two-thirds consume some 15% of what they should be getting. Even then, this water is far from being safe for human consumption, as can be judged from the widespread occurrence of water-borne diseases (diarrhoea, typhoid, hepatitis A, poliomyelitis, etc.) and water-related diseases (malaria, schistosomiasis) in the country. Thus 60% of the population in Yemen live in areas where malaria is endemic, and the proportion of those with the disease has increased from 4.6% in 1985 to 26.7% in 1995. Also, about 60% of premature child deaths are caused by water-borne and water-related diseases (30% due to diarrhoea and 30% due to malaria and typhoid), with more than 55 000 children dying annually of these diseases.

The negative impact of inadequate water supplies is even more marked in the rural areas, where 81% of the population, and most of the poor, live. Only 49% of rural households have access to safe water, compared to the average for the Middle East and North Africa of 82%. Access to safe sanitation is even more limited, as only 19% of households have such facilities.

4. POLICY REVIEW AND STRATEGY FORMULATION

The gravity of the present water crisis in Yemen and its complexity, as evident from the severity of the existing problems and the related policy issued described above, necessitates a prompt and drastic re-structuring of the water sector. The general principles according to which such problems should be tackled involve a number of steps for carrying out a water policy review and strategy formulation (Box 4). Major steps which have been taken recently towards a water policy reform in Yemen are described below.

Box 3 Ta’iz water - the reality

“Municipal water supply in Ta’iz has reduced from every two weeks (May 1995) to once every 40 days (August 1995). The quality is atrocious: 2 000 µS/cm or more. Nobody will drink it, though some boil it and drink it. Reduced municipal supply has led it to increased business for private supplies. They bring water of reasonable quality from more distant boreholes, treat it and fill plastic jerrycans which are sold in the shops. Water is obtained for washing purposes from tankers. The price has increased noticeably over the last four months by about 15 to 20% due to the tankers having to go further as wells dry up (before which the quality was deteriorating to 3 000 to 4 000 µS/cm). One can only find water in the mornings, the wells being dry by the afternoon. The price also depends on how many storeys there are to your building. The richer members of society live in single storey villas and hence pay less than those living in apartments. Most people cannot afford the tankers, so the children (and some women and even men occasionally) go to the benefactors who have private wells, e.g., rich families and some of the mosques, and fill up several yellow ex-corn oil containers (2 litre) which they drag from the well in makeshift cut-out jerrycan toboggans pulled by string.

“When the mains water finally arrives, all social arrangements are cancelled and the mother and daughters will work from 6 in the morning to midnight for the one or two days that the water is connected. The washing has accumulated into a huge pile; some clothes are being worn a second time over and there are no clean clothes or bedding left in the house. The next day after the water stops is drying day. There is usually not enough room, so clothes are often draped on the roof over any object available - reinforcement bars, water tanks, etc. The next event is ironing. The whole cycle is about 4-5 days of constant water-related activity by all female members of the household.”

Extracted from an informal note of 13 August 1995 by Christ D. Handled

4.1. POLICY REVIEW

Any of the problems in Boxes 1 and 2 might be sufficient to trigger a major review of water policy and re-organization of the water sector in Yemen, to improve its administrative and operational capacity and improve its service and accountability. Four main routes are normally taken as being practicable to achieve such reorganization([2]):

Box 4 Key points in water strategy formulation


CRITICAL ELEMENTS

- development objectives and key water-related policies
- government commitment
- appointment of oversight body (inter-ministerial committee)
- recruitment of expert team
- determination of partners and process


ß ß

Phase 1
WATER RESOURCES ASSESSMENT

- review of objectives and policies
- inventory of resources
- key issues: selection



analysis (projections)



ranking


ß ß

INTERIM

- review progress
- decisions regarding proceeding


ß ß

Phase 2
STRATEGY DEFINITION

- develop possible alternative courses of action
- evaluate alternative courses of action
- recommendations
- choice of preferred course of action


Box 5 The policy review steps in Yemen

1. Establishment of the High Water Council (HWC) in 1982, under the auspices of the Ministry of Electricity and Water (MEW), by the Government of the former Yemen Arab Republic in response to increasing fragmentation and largely uncontrolled or private-user-based water resources management.

2. In 1991, the Government of the newly-unified Republic of Yemen assigned the task of developing a coherent water policy to the Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources (MAWR) as the basis for consensus on legislation and an institutional framework for water resources management. An issue-and-objective-based water policy was developed following a double-track approach.

3. A national interdisciplinary water working group and task force (IWTF) was set up with national experts representing the various water subsectors. IWTF developed draft water policy, reporting continuously to an Advisory Committee chaired by the Vice-Minister, MAWR, and, as members, senior officials at Deputy Minister level from all water-related ministries. A draft National Water Resources Policy Document, including proposals for institutional arrangements for water resources management, was prepared for final review in a National Seminar and consideration and approval by the Council of Ministers. This initiative was supported by FAO project TCP/YEM/2251 in 1992. This is considered to be the first initiative of its kind, where selected national experts sat together and discussed and produced such a draft document.

4. In March 1995, a programme for a National Action Plan for Environment and Development (NAPED) was prepared for the Government by FAO, Rome, as a result of an inter-agency mission from October 1992 to January 1993, in which water policy objectives were set within the context of attaining sustainable environmental resources management.

5. In late 1995, a group of concerned “wise men” came together to form an NGO to promote water conservation.

6. After years of effort to work with the structure of HWC, the Government passed a decree in October 1995 to create NWRA, and, in April 1996, appointed its chairman at a ministerial level.

7. In November 1995, a seminar on the water supply crisis for Sana’a, organized by the IWTF group with their MDG counterparts, was attended by the Prime Minister and attracted attention nationwide.

8. In December 1996, a workshop was held in Sana’a on a National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP), in which water issues received wide coverage.

9. In August 1996, a draft report - Towards a Water Strategy - was prepared for the Government by MDG, based on the findings of a mission of the MDG with Yemeni Counterparts in November 1995 (see also point 6, above) and, by the end of 1996, a national debate/workshop was organized by NWRA on the draft document.

10. In December 1996, a national seminar on Integrated Water Resources Management in Yemen was organized by NWRA and EDI, World Bank, where a draft paper on Water Strategy in Yemen was among issues put forward for nationwide debate among stakeholders and donors.

11. In August 1997, by Presidential Decree, MAWR was re-named the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation (MAI) as a further step toward consolidating the authority of NWRA and detaching the authority and ownership of water resources from the ministry responsible for the sector consuming 90% of the resources for irrigation.

The major steps which have been taken recently by the Government of Yemen towards a policy review in the water sector are summarized in Box 5. It is evident that most of the actions which have been endorsed so far by the government in this regard are aimed at de-centralization and restricting within the existing different water sector agencies so that NWRA may function as the sole national institution responsible for all activities related to the water sector. It is also apparent that some non-governmental stakeholders have begun taking an interest in the policy-making process and the issues involved. However, it is also obvious that Yemen is still far from having a national water policy plan that is satisfactory to all beneficiaries in the water sector. A key factor in the government’s success in this complex task will be a strengthened involvement of the stakeholders, particularly the political leaders, sheiks and other influential persons in the traditional establishment, private sector, and, mostly importantly, the population at large - all of whom are water users to a greater or lesser extent.

4.2. STRATEGY FORMULATION

The stages and the main critical elements in the process of strategy formulation are given in Box 4. By comparing Box 4 with Boxes 1 and 2, it can be seen that actions related to the first four critical elements in water strategy formulation have already been taken by the government through the team of experts in the water sector (i.e., donors) and their efforts to identify partners (among public and private agencies, academic institutions, professional associations and NGOs, including user groups) who will be involved directly in the process of strategy formulation.

Tasks in this area include identifying partners, i.e.,

Key areas to be considered in the formulation of strategy are:

Obviously the above tasks have to be achieved by NWRA, either within its organization or through arrangements with other agencies, before a national water strategy is formulated as outlined in Box 4 and approved by all parties concerned, for implementation. As such, NWRA would need substantial support, in terms of financial and technical assistance, in order to undertake such tasks. Hence the scope of the SWRMC project (noted in Section 2.2.3), which began in 1994 and was designed to support the development of NWRA, is limited to direct support to these efforts, since the government has vested NWRA with a much broader mandate than the objectives originally envisaged for the SWRMC project, as well as for the programme delineated in the World Bank Program Support Document. The overall objectives of the government in water-related areas encompass:

NWRA would, therefore, need additional technical and financial assistance in order to perform its functions more effectively. Table 3 presents capacity building targets by financial earmarking. The first three sub-programmes in the table aim at capacity building for NWRA. The last two components - dealing with urban and rural water supply - focus on developing strong interfaces between NWRA and the other water sector agencies responsible for public water supplies (NWSA and GAREWS) so as to ensure coordination and implementation of subsectoral activities within the context of the national policy framework set by the NWRA. Table 4 gives a breakdown of financial component allocation of resources to be provided either by the cost-sharing partners or to be made available under the parallel financing.

5. PERSPECTIVES FOR A WATER STRATEGY IN YEMEN

Solutions proposed for the major problems that constitute the existing water crisis are summarized in Table 5, and briefly described below.

5.1. MACRO-SOLUTIONS

Increase the price of water

The Government could remove all the distortions and incentives that have led to over-exploiting groundwater by imposing a higher price for diesel, levying higher tariffs and taxes on pumping equipment, eliminating credit subsidies for pumps and removing import controls on agricultural products that are water intensive, notably kat. The adjustment would have to phased to allow users time to reposition themselves in the economy.

Conduct a national debate

MOPD and NWRA should lead a national debate on water, and reach the nation through a public awareness programme. The objective should be to build on the benefits of change through improved access to potable water, more equitable conditions for rural-urban transfers and sustainability of the resource, and thus create a national consensus for a partnership between all sections of society to tackle the crisis.

Table 3 Programme support - Financial earmarking

CAPACITY BUILDING TARGET

FINANCIAL EARMARKING ($US ‘000)

DESCRIPTION

1. Policies and programming policy


Programming of resources for formulation and implementation of policies. Capacity in policy analysis and investment planning. Extensive staff training in technical capacity building. Continuous organizational analysis to meet the challenge of evolving needs. Sharing information and views with international and regional partners through seminars. Coordinate donor activity in the sector.

1.1 Water-related macro-economic policy

95

1.2 Water policy and legislation

114

1.3 Water resources planning

2 918

1.4 Project investment planning

95

1.5 Donor coordination

75

1.6 Organization development

114

1.7 Human resources development

1 326

1.8 Seminars/conferences

471

Subtotal

5 208

2. Studies and information


Continuous assessment of demand and supply situation as part of continuous water resources management analysis. Installation and O&M of monitoring network for generating information and maintaining database. Establishment of National Water Resources Information Centre.

2.1 Water resources studies

2 726

2.2 Hydrometeorological network

200

2.3 Water resources information centre

702

2.4 Publication dissemination

30

Subtotal

3 658

3. Implementation and monitoring


Raising public awareness about water quality and scarcity issues. Enforce and monitor implementation of water management strategies as part of the national policy.

3.1 Public awareness

1 336

3.2 Rights and permits administration

139

3.3 Implementation of action plans

992

Subtotal

2 467

4. Agricultural water use


Improving irrigation water use efficiency through water management research and extension programmes, including on-farm management measures, better land use planning and watershed management.

4.1 Irrigation policy and planning

284

4.2 On-farm management and land use

364

4.3 Watershed management and conservation

360

Subtotal

1 008

5. Urban water supply

394.5

Improving the management of urban water public supply systems through better understanding of the issues by developing a strong interface between NWRA and NWSA.

6. Rural water supply

364.5

Improving the management of rural water supply systems through community participation and by developing a strong interface between NWRA and GAREWS

Administrative programme costs

150


Evaluation missions

176

Total programme costs

13 408

Sources of funds



A. Cost-sharing financing



· DP/Netherlands YEM/93/010

3 000


· World Bank

700


· Government of Yemen

1 250

B. Parallel financing (Govt of Yemen)



· Ta’iz Project

2 449


· L&WC Project

1 185

Total available resources (A+B)

8 584

Resources still to be identified

4 825

Total programme costs

13 408

Sources: Based on information from the Government of Yemen, the Government of the Netherlands and UNDP

Table 4 Allocation of donor assistance by programme component ($US)

PROGRAMME COMPONENT

YEM/93/010

UNDP/Netherlands

Govt of Yemen

World Bank

Ta’iz Project

L&WC(1) Project

Total

1. Policies and programming








1.1 Water-related macro-economic policy

--

--

--

95 000

--

--

950 000

1.2 Water policy and legislation

45 000

69 000

--

--

--

--

114 000

1.3 Water resources planning

838 000

1 100 000

--

--

980 000

--

2 918 000

1.4 Project investment planning

--

--

--

95 000

--

--

95 000

1.5 Donor coordination

--

--

75 000

--

--

--

75 000

1.6 Organization development

45 000

66 000

3 000

--

--

--

114 000

1.7 Human resources development

176 000

1 045 000

75 000

--

--

--

1 326 000

1.8 Seminar/conference

--

256 000

200 000

30 000

--

15 000

471 000

Subtotal

1 104 000

2 536 000

353 000

220 000

980 000

15 000

5 208

2. Studies and information








2.1 Water resources studies

300 000

780 000

178 000

--

1 468 800

--

2 726 800

2.2 Hydrometeorological network

100 000

--

100 000

--

--

--

200 000

2.3 Water resources information centre

530 000

172 000

--

--

--

--

702 000

2.4 Publication dissemination

10 000

--

20 000

--

--

--

30 000

Subtotal

940 000

952 000

298 000

--

1 468 800

--

3 658 800

3. Implementation and monitoring








3.1 Public awareness

150 000

155 900

50 000

--

--

980 100

1 336 000

3.2 Rights and permits administration

--

--

139 000

--

--

--

139 000

3.3 Implementation of action plans

678 000

--

314 000

--

--

--

992 000

Subtotal

828 000

155 900

503 000

--

--

980 100

2 467 000

4. Agricultural water use








4.1 Irrigation policy and planning

--

171 000

18 000

--

--

95 000

284 000

4.2 On-farm management and land use

--

251 000

18 000

--

--

95 000

364 000

4.3 Watershed management and conservation

--

336 000

24 000

--

--

--

360 000

Subtotal

--

758 000

60 000

--

--

190 000

1 008 000

5. Urban water supply

--

141 000

13 500

240 000

--

--

394 500

6. Rural water supply

--

84 000

22 500

240 000

--

--

346 500

Administration and evaluation

128 000

198 000

--

--

--

--

326 000

TOTAL PROGRAMME COST

3 000 000

4 824 900

1 250 000

700 000

2 448 800

1 185 100

13 408 800

Source: Based on Government of Yemen, UNDP and Government of the Netherlands information

Note: (1) Land and Water Conservation Project

Re-orient public expenditures

Act on kat

There should be a widespread, intensive public awareness campaign on the negative associations of kat - natural resource abuse, economic and social harm implicit in kat production and use. In fact, NGOs could take the lead in raising public awareness concerning the implications of kat.

5.2. SECTOR MANAGEMENT SOLUTIONS

5.2.1. Groundwater

Concentrate on regional planning

NWRA’s most useful contribution in the near future would be to develop regional water management plans for particularly vulnerable areas, such as the Ta’iz region and the Sana’a Basin, and bring together all the water resources, economic and social information needed to allow rational choices to be made about water allocation and management. Work has started in Ta’iz and will be followed shortly by Sana’a. The key for success is to make sure the plans are developed and implemented in partnership with all stakeholders, particularly rural water users.

Table 5 Summary of solutions proposed

PROBLEM

MACRO-SOLUTIONS

SECTOR MANAGEMENT SOLUTIONS

LOCAL-LEVEL SOLUTIONS

LONGER-TERM AGENDA

Groundwater mining

- increase the price of water

- national debate

- act on kat

- re-orient public expenditures

- regional planning

- try regulation

- water conservation programmes for agriculture

- community partnership

- capacity building

- policy and strategy

Cities are short of water


- regional planning

- water markets


- water law

Limited access to potable water


- urban water sector re-structuring

- promote local supply

- action plan for rural water supply


- long-term perspective study

Try regulation

The proposed national debate should begin to create a climate in which regulation can have more effective results than in the past, and NWRA should work with the users and communicators to initiate licensing and control of drilling rigs, with close monitoring and evaluation.

Develop a water conservation programme for irrigated agriculture

MAI, with NWRA, should draw up a programme for water concentration in agriculture, with the aim of increasing the return per unit of water. Inter alia, the programme should:

5.2.2. Urban water supply

Develop new sources within an integrated framework

This should be done within the context of the regional water management plans that NWRA will be developing.

Develop water markets

Water markets are already well established, but not officially recognized. Laws and regulations need to catch up with these markets to get some control over essentials to ensure the regulation of transfer of water out of agriculture and into towns.

5.2.3. Access to potable water

Implement the restructuring of NWSA

A study which begin in 1995 recommended restructuring NWSA, which currently fails to supply more than half of the urban population nationwide. Restructuring would include decentralization and introduction of private management (and capital). An action plan should be adopted and implemented.

Promote local private supply

Steps should be taken to promote further development of the already active private supply sector in order to increase coverage and reduce costs. This could comprise:

Prepare an action plan for rural water supply

A review was carried out jointly by the Government, other Yemeni stakeholders and donors, beginning in June 1996, to assess the rural water supply sector and its needs. The principal recommendations of this review were to:

5.3. MEASURES AT THE LOCAL LEVEL

Promote community partnership and self-regulation

The ongoing Ta’iz pilot project is testing a partnership between government and the local community for joint management, allocation and conservation of groundwater, applying a Decentralized Management Study (DMS) approach. This study type should be applied to other pilot projects and the lessons learned from the partnership approach should be developed and adopted within regional management plans for all vulnerable areas.

5.4. LONGER-TERM AGENDA

In the longer term, the following actions should be taken by the government, and implemented through NWRA:


[2.] Based on the methodology proposed in the 1995 FAO/UNDP/World Bank publication: Water sector policy review and strategy formulation. A general framework. FAO Land and Water Bulletin, No. 3.

Previous Page Top of Page Next Page