India

Ananthagir II R.F. Block of Visakhapatnam District

Severe soil erosion in many degraded forests in Andra Pradesh led the government to adopt a new conservation strategy to rehabilitate and protect the forests, through people's participation. The focus is on the welfare of forest-dwelling communities and involving them in the planning, implementation, execution, development and management of degraded forests. Local communities are organized into forest protection committees trained in silvicultural and social aspects of forest management. Ananthagir II Forest Block in Visakhapatnam District provides an outstanding example of success. Previously, communities over-exploited the forest, cutting fuelwood for their livelihoods, but now they are mainly working on forest restoration. Integral to this change has been:

• environmental education;

• identification and reforestation of degraded patches;

• building awareness and capacity; and

• training on technical and economic aspects.

Badataila Reserve Forest

The Badataila Reserve Forest highlights a unique forest management initiative by women from a small homogenous tribal community (Baghamunda village), who are protecting and regenerating a degraded forest in the face of tremendous odds. The women organized an independent forest protection and management committee after the efforts of local men had failed. Women were concerned with loss of forest cover, as well as the growing scarcity of fuelwood, timber, kendu (Diospyros melanoxylon) leaves and mahua (Madhuca indica) flowers, which provided villagers with cash income during difficult periods. The committee devised elaborate regulations and a schedule of fines. To keep a regular vigil over the forest and restrict access, five women patrol the forest every day on a rotational basis. Forest protection initiatives have resulted in at least two tangible benefits:

• secure supplies of fuelwood; and

• provision of mahua fruits and kendu leaves.

As the forest has grown healthier, the committee has gradually raised the allowable harvest of various forest products, while taking care to ensure that these uses are sustainable.

Bakku Village Forest

The local community manages Bakku Village Forest with modest support from the Forest Department. The main emphasis is on protecting forests from fires and meeting the livelihood needs of the community. A particular focus has been on reducing the drudgery of women in the collection of forest products. The local community appoints guards to maintain the forest and holds open meetings to make decisions. Strong action is taken against those who violate forest regulations. The forest is divided into compartments, and harvesting of forest products is strictly regulated. Neighbouring villagers are also allowed to collect forest produce in exchange for a collection levy, and some very poor villagers are allowed to collect forest products free of charge.

Banki Forest Block

The Banki Forest Block has been regenerated through the active participation of local people. The villagers have implemented extensive soil and water conservation measures, biodiversity conservation practices and wildlife habitat improvements. Village development and natural resource use are viewed in a holistic manner that attempts to integrate people's needs into management of the environment. Improved management of the forest has enabled the local community to become economically self-sufficient.

Bhal Reserved Forest (Compartments 6B, 7, 7B)

Bhal Reserved Forest contributes more than 50 percent of local villagers' basic needs for fuelwood, fodder, leaf litter, dry grass and water on a sustainable basis - and its share of production is increasing. Wildlife populations have increased significantly in recent years. The local community managed this forest without any funds from external sources, until two years ago when a Joint Forest Management agreement was signed with the Forest Department. Villagers decide on rules and regulations for access through consensus at open village meetings. A sense of social responsibility and motivation for conservation pervades the entire community; this is demonstrated in a willingness to bear short-run economic hardships in protecting the forest and managing it sustainably.

Corbett Tiger Reserve

The Corbett Tiger Reserve was established in 1936 as India's first National Park. The forest area is the main source of water for a major hydro-electric power plant and irrigation system that greatly benefits farmers and towns in Uttaranchal. In addition to recharging aquifers, the forest helps prevent the widening of streams and the severity of downstream flooding. The buffer zone of the reserve provides for a multitude of uses and rights - timber, irrigation from water canals and grasses are explicitly allocated to local people. Project Tiger, launched at the Corbett Tiger Reserve in 1973, has led to a significant increase in the park's tiger population. Management plans for the reserve incorporate ways for people to enjoy and learn about the protected area, as well as providing for income generation for local people working as guides and other jobs related to habitat protection.

Coringa Mangrove Forests

The Coringa mangrove forests are managed not only to preserve a unique mangrove ecosystem and its rare biodiversity, but also to support the livelihoods of local coastal communities. Mangrove forests consist of a highly specialized and delicate community of plant species and associated fauna. The mangrove ecosystem has been an important economic resource for coastal people for centuries, providing a breeding ground and habitat for fish, prawns and crabs. The forests protect thousands of people and their property from the fury of cyclones and storm waves. Management activities include afforestation, assisted natural regeneration, maintenance, protection from grazing, encroachment and illegal felling, and draining and dredging. The local communities participate actively in the management of the forests.

Dhani Reserved Forest

Biodiversity and crown density have been restored at Dhani reserved forest, with the active involvement of five villages. A key to forest rehabilitation was agreeing on mutually acceptable and well-defined rights and responsibilities between the owner (Orissa Forestry Department) and forest users (local communities). Management plans are based on participatory rural appraisals and focus on several key dimensions including:

• meeting fuelwood needs;

• conserving soil and water with check dams;

• building a forest nursery;

• establishing a 20-hectare plantation; and

• harvesting of non-timber forest products.

Forests of Bankura District

Participatory management in the peninsular sal (Shorea robusta) forests of Bankura has led to the rehabilitation of large areas of forests. Initially, people's participation was spontaneous, but in recent years participation has become institutionalized and management practices more clearly defined. The forests are managed for multiple purposes based on scientific principles. The combination of scientific forestry and people's participation has provided tangible and sustainable benefits. Forest protection committees, with assistance from the Forest Department, prepare micro plans for forest management through participatory rural appraisals. Such plans include afforestation, harvesting of non-timber forest products, tending operations, and soil and water conservation measures. Revenues generated from marketing forest products are used for village development once financial commitments, such as government revenue targets and payments to forest protection committees, have been met.

Gadabanikilo Village Forest

Villagers in Gadabanikilo have established a well-structured and democratically elected forest protection committee that has formulated strict rules and regulations for forest management. The forest has been demarcated into "restricted" and "unrestricted" areas for utilization of forest products. Fuelwood harvesting is limited to a single period each year. Similarly, the collection of mahua (Madhuca indica) fruit, a locally important non-timber forest product, is carried out through an organized and collective effort such that each household receives an equal share of the harvest.

Gir Sanctuary and National Park

Despite major external threats, the Gir Sanctuary and National Park has survived as one of the largest, undisturbed natural forests in India. Early demarcation of Gir Sanctuary as a protected area in 1964 and subsequent strengthening of legislative and on-the-ground protection have helped its survival. The flora and fauna, particularly the Asiatic lion (an endangered species), is well protected and wildlife populations have reached optimal levels. The environmental services of the forest help the agrarian economy in surrounding villages to prosper. People's cooperation is solicited by means of education and extension programmes such as regularly conducted nature education camps and the implementation of eco-development activities in adjoining villages.

Jameri Forest Block

Jameri Forest has been regenerated by local communities, which have planted trees and adopted soil and water conservation practices. The local community organization has a holistic development perspective that encourages participation by women and youth. The Forest partment encourages community participation and utilizes funds generated from the forest for village development. Community members collect fuelwood from dead or dying trees and also harvest non-timber forest products such as grasses, medicinal herbs and bamboo. The community is also actively involved in forest protection.

Janagarh Forest Block

In this region, local people are highly committed to rehabilitating the degraded teak forest and have replanted 520 hectares with local species. Local people now manage the forest with nominal assistance from the Forest Department. The village forest protection committee receives benefits from the forests and manages a village development fund, which is used for the improvement of crops and for developing village infrastructure. The village forest management institution has become a driver for social change and an advocate against various social evils. The efforts of local villagers to improve their biophysical and social environments have been so successful that they were awarded the Amrita Devi Award in 1997.

Kanhan-Jobandera Forest Block

Prior to the introduction of Joint Forest Management in 1992, there was little community participation in the management of the Kanhan-Jobandera forest block. The management focus was geared mainly towards timber production. With the advent of Joint Forest Management, the area is now managed for multiple uses and protected more effectively. The Forest Department manages the forest in collaboration with a forest protection committee representing 145 stakeholder families. The forest protection committee protects the valuable teak forest from illicit felling, fire and grazing, while facilitating the regeneration of secondary tree species, grasses, and medicinal and other plants. Committee members harvest non-timber forest products, grasses and medicinal plants.

Kepasar Forest

The local village has managed Kepasar forest for more than 22 years, without financial support from the government or non-governmental organizations. The forest is healthy, landslides are contained, and biodiversity and environmental conditions have been improved. Fodder and wood are in adequate supply. The drudgery of women's work has been reduced, and opportunities for better livelihoods have been created. The village has appointed forest guards and makes forest-use decisions through open meetings. Violation of regulations is punished according to established guidelines and regulations. Each year the forest is opened for brief periods to allow women from each household to collect supplies of grasses, leaves and broken branches to support livelihoods.

Malekpur Village Forest

The once degraded and barren hills that once surrounded Malekpur Village now stand regenerated and have good canopy cover. A community group was formed to carry out protection activities and create forest management regulations to ensure that people's needs, such as fodder, non-timber forest products and fuelwood, are met. Specific management plans have been prepared to ensure sustainable utilization of fuelwood and fodder. Water recharge ponds have been constructed to improve the water regime in the forest. The group has also established necessary organizational structures and administrative systems to ensure resources are used in a sustainable manner.

Mangrove Forests in Bhitarkanika

This is the second largest mangrove ecosystem in India, and houses the world's largest rookery for the Oliver Ridley turtle. During the 1950s, there was large-scale destruction due to leasing out to settlers and encroachment. In 1975, the area became a protected area and effective management practices have included: apprehending poachers, using the fishbone method of planting, establishing a nursery for rare mangrove species, seizing illegal fishing vessels, conducting a census of nesting Oliver Ridley turtles, constructing turtle hatcheries in four locations, demolishing illegal prawn gherries, and implementing ecotourism in the sanctuary portion of the forest. Ecodevelopment activities such as basket making, bee keeping and provision of solar cookers have been encouraged.

Mangroves in the Gulf of Kachchh

As late as the 1950s, tidal forests in the Gulf of Kachchh covered extensive areas with luxuriant g rowth. However, geomorphological changes and anthropogenic pressures, particularly the exploitation of the forests for fuelwood and fodder, and land leasing to the salt industry, severely reduced mangrove cover. Since 1980, and particularly in the last decade, management efforts have fostered consistent growth and recovery of the mangrove area, from 35 700 hectares in 1991 to 98 400 hectares in 1999. During the same period there has been severe degradation of mangroves in other parts of India - and around the world. As a result of the awareness and support of both the government and local people, the remaining mangrove areas have been protected and expanded. Much of this recovery has occurred in a marine protected area. The Department has also encouraged people's participation in planning and conservation. To further encourage the recovery of mangroves throughout the state, the Forest Department has moved from strict preservation to allowing sustainable use in selected areas, particularly by allowing collection of leaves for fodder.

Nanda Devi National Park

The Nanda Devi area is reputedly one of the most spectacular wildernesses in the Himalayan region. The wide altitudinal range in the park supports a diversity of flora and a variety of large mammals, including rare and endangered species. The park is uninhabited but, until quite recently, people from nearby villages regularly brought more than 4 000 goats and sheep to the area to graze. Until the early 1980s, when trekking was restricted, mountaineering activities threatened the fragile ecosystems. To protect the park from further degradation, current management includes strict protection of the national park as a core area. A buffer zone that is nine times the size of the core area is allocated for limited-use purposes - with an emphasis on developing income-generating activities for local people as an alternative to overgrazing. Proactive management initiatives include:

• rehabilitation of degraded forests using local species;

• grassland management in the buffer zone;

• distribution of fruit trees to local communities to provide supplementary incomes; and

• provision of wool to poor villagers to make carpets and other items to sell to tourists.

By 1991, a survey showed all open forest areas had been restored to more than 40 percent crown cover. Sightings of some flagship species, such as the snow leopard and black bear, have increased appreciably since the early 1980s.

Nandan Kanan Forest

Nandan Kanan forest is managed for recreational activities with voluntary help from horticulture, forestry and education experts. Local people have the lead in managing the forest through a Community Development Centre. They contribute cash, in-kind resources and labour in managing the forest.

Nistar and Reserved Forests within the boundary of Mendah-Lekha Village

Until 1992, these forests were managed and protected solely by Mendha villagers. Subsequently the forests have been brought under the Maharastra government's Joint Forest Management scheme, but have retained their unique management practices. Commercial exploitation of the forests for timber has been banned and environmental education programmes enhanced. A ban has been placed on felling fruit trees as a practice for collecting fruit. Villagers have also implemented a complete ban on encroachment and lighting of forest fires.

Reserved Forest falling within the boundaries of Jarhargaon Village

Overexploitation and acute scarcity of forests near Jarhargaon Village meant that, until about 20 years ago, negative ecological impacts were common. Around 1980, local leaders mobilized the entire village to reverse this trend. New and revived customary regulations were established to ensure forest protection, including employing a forest guard and forming a special committee to deal with offenders. The local people re-established a traditional system of irrigation that ensures equitable distribution of water to every household. The village linked with the Save the Seeds Movement that collects and experiments with traditional seed diversity. The once barren slopes surrounding Jarhargaon are now completely regenerated and wild animals such as bears and leopards have returned. A floristic study conducted by the G.B. Pant Institute indicates that these forests are among the most biologically rich in the Garhwal region. Perhaps the greatest benefit of this community initiative is the social empowerment and strengthening of collective spirit it has engendered. Although local people do not have any legally recognized rights of ownership, control or management, they have exercised de facto control through the forest protection committee and other institutions.

Reserved Forest of the Eastern and Western Ghats

The Reserved Forest of the Eastern and Western Ghats form a catchment for more than 20 000 irrigation reservoirs and 20 river systems. Positive policy changes have been made to ensure these forests are managed to meet the ecological needs of the state and the basic needs of the local poor. All of the 1 000 villages and the associated watersheds are managed under micro plans prepared through a participatory process involving forest protection committees. The Joint Forest Management planning process ensures equal focus on forest conservation, watershed protection and rural development, thereby inducing human-habitat harmony. Women participate in more than 1 800 self-help groups to support village forest committees. Specific poverty alleviation programmes and basic infrastructure development have emphasized intersectoral linkages, particularly to agriculture and animal husbandry. A broad extension network has been established to assist villagers who want to grow trees on their lands.

River and Canal Bank Teak Plantations, Thanjavur

Until the middle of the twentieth century, large tracts of river and canal banks in Tamil Nadu were underutilized. In 1956, initial efforts aimed at planting teak trees in these riparian areas proved successful. Waterway banks were subject to heavy biotic pressures, mainly due to the agricultural activities of local people. The planting of teak trees provided an effective means of better protecting canal banks. Canal banks have proved to be excellent sites for teak growth due to their porous alluvial soils and the ready availability of water. Teak stumps are planted and managed effectively along most waterway banks in Thiruvarur and Nagapattinam districts, in order to meet the timber and fuelwood requirements of local people and industries. The Tamil Nadu Forest Department is the primary manager of these plantings, but other stakeholders such as the Tamil Nadu Public Works Department, non-governmental organizations, local people, industries and timber dealers are also involved in teak plantation management.

Rui Catchment

The forest department employs a unique approach, with three groups of stakeholders - ex-servicemen, forest department staff and local people - developing plantations on the denuded hills of Rui Catchment. These three groups are involved in planning, implementing and managing the plantations. Over the years, an increase in both human and cattle populations exerted pressure on the Rui Catchment resulting in the gradual disappearance of forests. By the mid1990s the catchment was completely denuded. Several attempts to rehabilitate the area by the forest department, working alone, failed. The unique collaborative approach was launched in 1988 and has been successful. The local communities now manage the established plantations and the roles of ex-servicemen and the government have decreased. Collection of fuelwood and non-timber products (especially fodder) by local people is restricted to subsistence needs.

Rukhal Village Forest

The Aga Khan Rural Support Program has assisted Rukhal Village in reforesting local areas. The restored forest areas are now contributing to fuelwood supplies, helping to protect against soil erosion, and increasing areas available for cropping. Villagers have constructed wells for irrigation and drinking water, and also have begun to use biogas. Villagers have organized themselves into a village development committee that attends to repairing bunds throughout the village. They have also established a successful micro-credit programme. Participatory Resource Appraisals have been used to identify and address primary factors contributing to poverty and resource degradation.

Shimla Catchment Forest Area

The Shimla Catchment Forest has been managed to protect the watershed that supplies water to the town of Shimla since 1896. In 1964, the whole forest was organized into a "water catchment and conservation working circle". Much of the forest is planted with deodar cedar (Cedrus deodar) and trees are strictly protected against felling. The only felling allowed is carried out to enhance regeneration. The forest also serves as a recreational facility and wildlife sanctuary, with strong elements of biodiversity conservation included in its management plans.

Shri Chandgiram Agro Forest

Since 1978, O.P. Agrawal has established and managed this 20-hectare area as a highly successful and innovative agroforest. Initially, the fields at Shri Chandgiram were prone to soil erosion, but by planting tree species on bunds, channels and wastelands, soils have been stabilized. To increase income, improved varieties of mango and lychee are intercropped with soybean and groundnuts. This system provides fruit, fuel, fodder, timber and agricultural crops, all from one small parcel of land. The forest is managed intensively on rotations of up to 30 years, depending on species, and pruning, thinning and other silviculture is applied as necessary. In 1990, O.P. Agrawal received the prestigious Indira Priyadarshini Vriksha Mitra national award for pioneering and exemplary works in the field of afforestation and wasteland development.

State Forests of Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh

The teak, sal and mixed forests that comprise the State Forests of Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh are managed sustainably for conservation of biodiversity, ecological integrity and commercial and livelihood purposes. The forestry departments harvest timber from the forests, while local communities have rights to collect non-timber forest products and fuelwood. The states own the forests, but they are co-managed with communities under Joint Forest Management mechanisms. The implementation of the ITTO-sponsored project, Operational Strategy for Sustainable Forestry Development with Community Participation in India, has further enhanced effective, collaborative management. Dialogue on sustainable forest management, among stakeholders, has facilitated the use of criteria and indicators as a mechanism to monitor sustainability. Criteria and indicators have been developed in a participatory manner that builds on local capacities and indigenous knowledge.

Teliamura Reserve Forest

Khasiamangal is one of the poorest villages in Tripura and local people depend almost entirely on the forest for livelihoods. Increasing human and cattle populations over the past few decades caused severe depletion in the natural resource base. The area was brought under Joint Forest Management as realization grew that involving local people was necessary to protect the remaining forest and to halt degradation. An Eco-Park Committee has been formed, involving a local youth club, to help build trust between the Forest Department and local people. The main objective of the committee is to motivate local people to design and implement innovative activities. Activities include in situ and ex situ conservation of medicinal plants. A forest garden has been established to generate awareness about the importance of medicinal plants and to spread traditional knowledge of their usage. The garden has more than 220 species of medicinal importance. The committee has initiated a bamboo propagation programme to rehabilitate degraded bamboo resources. This activity is particularly important since bamboo is used extensively by tribal groups and by the rural poor for housing, sustenance and household incomes. In Tripura, tribal groups can collect bamboo from the forests, free of cost, for their use and for sale in the nearby market.

Tibna Sand Dunes

The local community has been motivated not only to preserve 10 hectares of forest planted by the Forest Department in 1992, but also to preserve and sustain areas of forest planted since 1998, covering an additional 380 hectares. A beautiful nursery, which was developed by an ex-servicemen's association in 1998, has been managed to provide seedlings for planting on sand dunes near the village. The successful rehabilitation of this area is in part due to the involvement of ex-servicemen, whose sense of dedication, coupled with perseverance, has helped to create, develop and sustain positive environmental and social changes. Key management activities include soil conservation, sand dune stabilization, water harvesting, livestock development and awareness campaigns among local villagers.

Vazhachal Forests

The forests of Vazhachal region are managed for conservation and tourism, offering spectacular natural attractions and an abundance of indigenous flora and fauna. The management of the forests involves local tribal people who are employed as tour guides and who sell handicrafts made from sustainably managed non-timber forest products such as bamboo and reeds. Fees collected from tourists are used to conserve the forests, make the tourism infrastructure more environmentally friendly and to build awareness of conservation issues. Fees are also used to fund social services for villagers, training for guides, handicraft production and to establish medical clinics. The Kerala Forest Department and local forest protection committees jointly formulate management plans for the forests.

Village Commonlands in the Aravalli Hills

The Aravalli Hills contain some of the largest rehabilitated forest areas in India, owned and managed entirely by local communities. Over the last decade, the forest area has increased three-fold while also meeting the multiple needs of communities. The forest is managed mainly under an agroforestry model, which utilizes thinning to prevent canopy closure and thus permitting valuable fodder grasses to grow. Gender-balanced Village Forest Committees provide a link between the community and the Forest Department in implementing activities and resolving conflicts. The Department provides incentive funds to villages that have achieved excellent rehabilitation. These funds are used by the Village Forest Committees for local development projects such as the construction of water tanks and school infrastructure.