Miombo woodlands in Mozambique occur in the north of the Limpopo river and occupy approximately two-thirds of the natural forest area, followed by mopane (MINED, 1986; Bandeira et al., 1994) (Figure 2). The geographical location of Mozambique, about 10 to 26o south of the equator, provides a diversity of climates that determine structural and physiognomic differences in vegetation types. MINED (1986) classified miombo in seven different types, based on their leaf shed pattern (phenology) and altitude of occurrence.
The richest woodlands in terms of wood products and biodiversity in Mozambique are the mosaics of semi-deciduous wet forest with miombo woodlands that occur in the coastal region of central Mozambique, south and north of the Zambezi delta (Wild and Fernandes, 1968; MINED, 1986; Saket, 1994). Other rich areas can also be found in the slopes of high mountains mostly in the Chimoio plateau and Gurue (MINED, 1986; Saket, 1994; Wild and Fernandes, 1968) (see Figure 1). In the coastal region of Inhambane and Gaza and a large part of Cabo Delgado and Niassa provinces, miombo woodlands are relatively simple formations with short tree and low tree density. Structurally these are sometimes called wooded savannas because of their association with grasses, with low density and small-sized trees (Wild and Fernandes, 1968), and classified tall or short scrub (Saket, 1994).
Miombo occurs exclusively in the Zambezian Centre of Endemism (Banbeira et al., 1994; White, 1981). Within this region there are other associated vegetation types such as mopane woodland and montane (Afromontane) also dominated by species of the legume family (Fabaceae). These vegetation types as well as the combretum-acacia of southern Limpopo present similarity in physiognomy and function. It was on the basis of this similarity that the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) defined all this area as "miombo in the wider context". The concept of miombo woodland used throughout this paper is the strict definition of miombo woodlands, which include only the areas dominated by Brachystegia spp. and Julbernardia.
Figure 1
Map showing the provinces of Mozambique
Miombo woodlands occur in a diversity of climates, the most common being in the tropical moist region, through dry climates, to climates modified by altitude. Rainfall ranges from 400 in the dry lowlands to 2000 mm.yr1 in the wet slopes of the high mountains, and mean average temperatures from 18 to 25oC (MINED, 1986). The Mozambican climate is in general tropical with two well-defined seasons, wet summer and dry winter. According to its geographical distribution miombo does seem not to tolerate arid climates with large dry periods as it is replaced by other types of vegetation in drier regions of the country, mostly mopane and acacia savannas.
A great correlation is found when comparing the map of miombo distribution with rainfall: in regions of high rainfall, denser and high forests are found, while in regions of low precipitation wooded savanna is found, and in dryer regions it does not occur (MINED, 1986).
Miombo occurs in a variety of soils, from sandy soils with low fertility and low water retention through loamy-sandy-clayey to red clay deep (MINED, 1986). Comparing the distribution of the soils and miombo woodlands it is observed that only alluvial soils are avoided by this type of vegetation and other types of soils do not constitute a limitation on its occurrence. It is in the presence of red clay soils of low fertility and low retention of water that high forest and dense miombo woodland take place.
According to the variety of climates, soils and altitudes where miombo occurs it is natural to imagine that all species composition and combinations will differ from one region to another. In some areas it will be simple and almost composed of the basic species such as Brachystegia spiciformis and Julbernardia globiflora while others will be more complex that will not be recognized as miombo woodlands and would be nominated as undifferentiated woodlands. This would be the case of the forests of the southern Manica province and the coastal mosaic of Zanzibar-Inhambane.
|
Distribution of forest types in Mozambique (adapted from Saket, 1994).
The most common type of miombo in Mozambique has a structure of a "open forest" with two strata: the upper storey composed of woody vegetation of Brachystegia, Julbernardia and Isoberlinia with others, and the lower storey composed of herbaceous with Themeda triandra, Panicum, Hyparrhenia and Andropogon. Wild and Fernandes (1968) describe in detail the specific composition and the location of about ten different types of miombo occurring in Mozambique. MINED (1986) in its simplified map of Mozambique (1:6 000 000) distinguished seven different types of miombo based in its physiognomy and structure. Common species occurring in the miombo woodland may be scattered in the field such as Pteleopsis myrtifolia, Pterocarpus angolensis, Parinari curatellifolia (in Manica and Sofala provinces) or Diplorrhinchus condilocarpon, Pseudolachnostylis maprouneifolia, Uapaca kirkiana, U. zanzibarica - the last two may form an understorey layer of woody vegetation - in the Manica, Niassa and Cabo Delgado provinces. Some species may be aggregated and form colonies in small or bigger spots inside miombo woodlands, such as Millettia stuhlmannii - in Manica and Sofala, Androstachys johnsonii - in Nampula and Inhambane, Afzelia quanzensis and Syderoxylon inerme in the coastal zone of Inhambane (Hatton et al., 1994; Madebras, 1984; Sitoe, 1999; Gomes e Sousa, 1968). In the northern region there are many different combinations with special reference to the association B. spiciformis with Adansonia digitata in Nampula and Cabo Delgado while in the central province of Zambezia the most widespread type of forest is exclusive of Brachystegia spiciformis or associated with Julbernardia globiflora (Wild and Fernandes, 1968).
In lowland regions where miombo is high and dense other species such as Erythrophleum suaveolens, Pteleopsis myrtifolia, Hyrtella zanguebarica are found, are found miombo associated with Erythrophleum suaveolens, Macaranga capensis, Albizia spp. and Khaya anthoteca, are found in mountains, the last one being more frequent in the water catchments.
The species composition of three Miombo woodlands in Mozambique is presented in Table 1. The example of Manica shows a logged spot of Millettia stuhlmannii of about 10 ha inside a miombo forest with dominance of Brachystegia boehmii, Brachystegia spiciformis and Pericopsis angolensis with dominant height of 15 m (Sitoe, 1999).
Table 1. The most common species found in sample plots within miombo woodlands in Niassa, Manica, Cabo Delgado and Sofala (Silviconsult, 1984; Groenendijk et al., 1989; Hatton et al., 1994; Sitoe, 1999).
Species |
Niassa |
Manica |
Cabo Delgado |
Sofala | |
1. |
Annona senegalensis |
● |
● |
● | |
2. |
Bauhinia thoningii |
● |
● |
● | |
3. |
Brachystegia spp. |
● |
● |
● |
● |
4. |
Crossopterix febrifuga |
● |
● |
● | |
5. |
Diplorhynchus condylocarpon |
● |
● |
● |
● |
6. |
Friesodielsia obovata |
● |
● |
● | |
7. |
Julbernardia globiflora |
● |
● |
● | |
8. |
Millettia stuhlmannii |
● |
● |
● | |
9. |
Pseudolachnostylis maprouneifolia |
● |
● |
● |
● |
10. |
Sterculia africana |
● |
● |
● |
● |
11. |
Terminalia sericea |
● |
● |
● | |
12. |
Terminalia stenostachya |
● |
● |
||
13. |
Uapaca kirkiana |
● |
● |
||
14. |
Uapaca sansibarica |
● |
● |
The most valuable timber species are found in this type of forest. Despite their high abundance and frequency, Julbernardia and Brachystegia spp. (that account for 50 percent of the total harvestable timber volume of the natural forests) are classified commercially as secondary species because of their susceptibility to insect attack (Malleux, 1980; Saket, 1994; Legislaçao Florestal). Technical evaluations, however, show that these species could be used to construct particleboard for several uses (Alberto, 2001), but there is no economic valuation to support its industrial use.
In general terms, the most common species of Mozambican miombo woodlands also occur in other countries and the list of the most valuable species is almost coincident (Wild and Fernandes, 1968; Gomes e Sousa, 1968; Munyanziza, 1994). Endemic species would occur in some specific areas such as the high mountains of Chimanimani and Milange. Bandeira et al. (1994) proposed a red data book of plant species that must be protected mainly because of their high rate of exploitation, which puts them at risk of extinction. The list includes some species of miombo woodland like Dalbergia melanoxylon, Faurea spp. and Protea spp.
There are about 89 6602 km2, covering 11.16 percent of the country, declared as protected areas for flora and fauna. Two of them are destined to protect valuable native tree species from miombo: the forest reserve of Derre, in Zambezia province, to protect Pterocarpus angolensis, and the forest reserve of Inhaminga, in Sofala province, to protect Millettia stuhlmannii (Bandeira et al., 1994). Most of the other forest reserves also are located within miombo woodlands; however, their purpose is to protect water catchments and provide timber for the forest industry.
Because of the structural characteristics of the miombo, this type of vegetation constitutes an excellent habitat for a variety of herbivores such as inhacozo (Kobus ellipsiprymus), bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus), eland (Taurotragus oryx), sable (Hippotragus niger), gondonga (A. litchensteini) and, obviously, also for carnivores such as lions (P. leo), leopards (P. pardus) and necrophagous (e.g. hyenas, vultures). About 80 percent of the largest terrestrial mammals of Mozambique would be found in miombo woodland. This may be the reason why almost all the game reserves (reserves of Gilé and Niassa) were established in miombo woodlands. Apart from this there are many other animals such as insects (including edible worms), reptiles, birds and fish associated with miombo (Soto and Sitoe, 1994; Hatton et al., 1994; Bandeira et al., 1994).
Almost the entire forests in central and northern Mozambique are burnt at least once a year. Fire constitutes one of the most powerful working tools for local communities. It is used in agriculture - to clear lands before cultivation; in hunting, to guide wild animals into pre-established traps and to smoke the meat; in bee-keeping, to put bees to flight and extract the honey; in cattle breeding, to activate the leafing of pastures during the dry season. All these activities may have a certain advantage in the short term for the local community, but because of the absence of discipline and controlled burning in the use of fire, large areas are devastated by fire during the dry season.
In many of these areas the structure and composition of the forest community are maintained in a sub-climax stage because of the periodic fires that destroy the young regeneration. There are few studies concerning the effect of fires on miombo woodlands in Mozambique. However, some areas protected from fire showed a better development of the vegetation (Groenendijk, 1988). Hatton et al. (1994) observed that in a secondary forest with periodic incidence of wild fires the most common species were fire resistant (Cussonia arborea, Mussanda sp, Faurea speciosa and Protea sp.) while in an untouched primary forest (protected from fire) these species were rare. Some references indicate that some tree species have evolved with fire in order that the periodic fires benefit them. This is the example of Pterocarpus angolensis whose seeds are stimulated by fire to germinate (Gomes and Sousa, 1968). However, experiments made in Tanzania showed that germination of miombo species seeds (including Pterocarpus angolensis) was inhibited by fire treatment (Munyanziza, 1994).
One of the most important issues of the natural resources policy and land use is land tenure. Land use legislation defines the land as "State property and would be lent to who works on it" (Legislação do Uso de Terra, 1988). So, by definition, there is no private land ownership. However, land could be granted to users based on a contract for commercial purposes and on customary rules for purposes of subsistence of local communities.
From the point of view of forestry uses of land by private or single companies there are two important issues involved: one is the land tenure regime and the other is forest resources ownership. The land tenure by itself does not clarify the use regime. Thus, communities that have acquired a land title are not automatically entitled to exploit the forest resources. The forest and wildlife law requires a management plan to grant the use of forest products for commercial purposes. This requisite is sometimes confusing to some communities willing to make profit out of the forest products. The requirement of a forest management plan came as part of the national strategy of the forest sector to discipline the use of forest resources. The legislation that was in vigour until 1997 facilitated the exploitation of forest products based on a one-year simple licence without long-term commitment to the sustainability of the land or the forest. This proved to be devastating and unsustainable by promoting a log-and-leave practice that led to the exploitation of highly valuable timber species.
The current forest and wildlife law establishes three categories of forest use intensity: (i) areas for intensive forestry, those with high forestry productivity; (ii) areas with medium forestry productivity, for extensive forestry use - areas in this category can be converted for land use other than forestry; (iii) multiple use areas, where forestry is not the main activity and the areas can be used for other purposes.
Generally, areas for intensive forestry are used for forest concessions - designed for companies and individuals which have forestry as the main activity and want to explore large quantities of forest products while those with medium productivity are generally used for simple licence (one-year) - specially designed for rural communities and individuals that are willing to extract small quantities of forest resources (up to 500 m3 of timber per year) during a relatively short period of time. Simple licences may also be located in areas defined for purposes other than forestry, and the trees may be used for commercial purposes especially when there is need to convert land cover from forestry to agriculture or pasture.
The forest and wildlife law also establishes three categories of protected area including:
1. National parks, designed purely for the protection of nature and managed by the Department of Conservation Areas of the Ministry of Tourism. No resources may be extracted and no settlements are allowed within this category. Examples of these areas are the Gorongosa National Park and the Zinave National Park, established particularly for wildlife protection.
2. National reserves, which include game and forest reserves, managed by the Department of Forestry and Wildlife of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development. Human settlements and resources extraction may be allowed but restricted by the rules set by the conservation plan. Areas under this category may also be co-managed by other organizations including local communities and NGOs. Examples of these areas include the Niassa Reserve, one of the largest areas established for protection of elephants. There are 13 forest reserves classified within this category. The forest reserves were established to provide timber to state agencies either for building purposes or for furniture (e.g. Licuáti, Mecuburi, Derre and Matibane) or for protection of water catchments (e.g. Moribane, Maronga, Zomba and Mpalwe). Most of the forest reserves do not have a formal management plan and some of them have been invaded by local communities for agriculture (e.g. Mecubúri and Moribane) and by poachers to cut valuable timber (e.g. Licuáti) (Sitoe and Enosse, 2003).
3. Community conservation areas with local or cultural interest, managed by local or district authorities. These areas include sacred areas such as the Chirindzene forest, which can also provide medicinal plants and other goods for local communities. Most of these areas are ruled by local beliefs and myths. Traditional leaders may use these areas for agricultural harvesting and rain ceremonies. Access to these areas is granted by the traditional leaders and, in general, rules are strictly followed.
Apart from the conservation and forestry areas established for forestry concessions and logging licences, there are areas, generally those with low forest productivity, where local communities can make free use of forest resources for subsistence and can also convert these areas to agriculture or pasture without a specific management plan. These areas are among the open-access areas with no specific management regime, but may require a simplified management plan if used for commercial purposes by local community associations.
The decade of the 1990s represents a milestone in the forestry sector. It represents the period when the armed conflict came to an end and forest areas previously not accessible were opened. Another important change was in the land and forestry laws and the establishment of the environmental law. The centralized economy of the 1970s and 1980s was changed to a market economy, thus giving an important role to the private sector. Since then, the regulations on land and forest resource use as well as the decentralization regulation have made the forest accessible and increased the role of all stakeholders in the forestry sector including NGOs and local communities.
As a result, there was an increase from one community forestry initiative in 1987 to more than 40 in 2001 (Matakala and Mushove, 2001). The first 24 forest concessions after independence were endorsed in 2001 (Sitoe et al., 2003). This was also accompanied by an increase in the area of forest area under management. The tendency is to increase these areas at the same time that the Forest Service is increasing the revenues collected from the operators (from about USD500 000 in 1999 to USD850 000 in 2002) (DNFFB, 1999, 2002a).
The contribution of the forestry sector to the national economy was about 3-4 percent in the period 1999-2001 (Alberto, 2004, personal communication). This figure includes only the forest products and services that enter the normal circuit of commerce. However, it is known that several products are not accounted for. For example, it is estimated that the town of Beira consumes more than 5 million bags of charcoal (50 kg) per year, but of these fewer than 200 000 bags were licensed (Serra and Zolho, 2003). There are many products used by local communities that do not enter the market circuit including building materials, household utensils, food and medicinal plants, which would increase substantially the real value of the contribution of the forestry sector.
The national strategy for poverty alleviation (PARPA) is the main orientation to development planning in Mozambique. The contribution of the forestry sector is invaluable particularly because most of the population (about 75 percent) live in rural and suburban areas where poverty is high and dependence on forestry resources is also high. Rural communities depend exclusively on firewood for cooking, and some still use firewood for illumination, while in suburban areas charcoal is the major source of energy for cooking, and kerosene and electricity are the sources of energy for illumination. A study carried out in Beira shows that even in the urban area, where electricity and gas are available, a significant number of inhabitants (50 percent) use charcoal for cooking (Serra and Zolho, 2003).
Dependence on natural resources represents an opportunity for markets in wood products. Serra and Zolho (2003), for instance, found that among the charcoal suppliers to Beira there are more than 1000 small operators who transport 2-4 bags of charcoal per day from a distance of about 30 km on a bicycle. This means an average income of about USD70-140 per month for those families involved in the transporting business. On the other hand, there is a group of charcoal makers who also get their own portion of income to maintain their families.
The charcoal market is the largest among the forestry products in Mozambican towns; however, there are other products that appear in relatively small quantities including building materials, medicinal plants and food, which provide a living for several families.
Many tree species of the miombo woodlands have multiple uses (Table 2). Some of them are protected by local communities because of their importance as the basis of traditional beliefs. These trees are normally left in the agriculture fields ("machambas") or simply not cut for firewood because they produce fruits or medicines. Some trees are protected as it is believed that they "produce water" because they grow in the river streams and "because if you cut them the water source will dry out" (Soto and Sitoe, 1994).
Table 2. Woody species (dbh _10cm) identified inside the miombo woodland sample plots at the Barue study site, Manica, Mozambique. Shaded species are the ten most frequent and the number in parenthesis after is the average number of stems per ha (Adapted from Sitoe, 1999).
Scientific name |
Local name |
Family |
Uses |
Life form | |||||
Albizia brevifolia |
Fabaceae |
2 |
D | ||||||
Albizia versicolor |
Tanga-tanga |
Fabaceae |
2 |
D | |||||
Annona senegalensis |
Muronro |
Annonaceae |
F |
M |
U | ||||
Antidesma venosum |
Muchongue |
Euphorbiaceae |
4 |
I | |||||
Bauhinia galpini (7) |
Fabaceae |
F |
O |
U/L | |||||
Bauhinia thonningii (18) |
Mussequesse |
Fabaceae |
3 |
F |
M |
E |
D | ||
Burkea africana (5) |
Mucimbi |
Fabaceae |
2 |
O |
D | ||||
Cassia abbreviata |
Fabaceae |
M |
D | ||||||
Combretum imberbe |
Mulangane |
Combretaceae |
M |
E |
D | ||||
Combretum molle |
Mugongoni |
Combretaceae |
M |
O |
I | ||||
Combretum sp. |
Combretaceae |
I | |||||||
Combretum zeyheri |
Combretaceae |
M |
O |
I | |||||
Crossopterix febrifuga (6) |
Mucombegoa |
Rubiaceae |
M |
O |
E |
I | |||
Diplorhynchus condylocarpon (18) |
Muntoa |
Apocynaceae |
M |
O |
U/I | ||||
Entandrophragma caudatum |
Mbuti |
Meliaceae |
p |
D | |||||
Erythrophleum africanum |
Muavi |
Fabaceae |
3 |
F |
O |
E |
D | ||
Ficus capensis |
Mucuio |
Moraceae |
F |
M |
O |
D | |||
Friesodielsia obovata |
Muchinga |
Annonaceae |
F |
U/L | |||||
Grewia flavescens |
Galupanda |
Tiliaceae |
U | ||||||
Hymenocardia acida |
Euphorbiaceae |
M |
O |
I | |||||
Kigelia africana |
Bignoniaceae |
3 |
M |
D | |||||
Lannea schimperi |
Anacardiaceae |
4 |
I | ||||||
Lonchocarpus capassa |
M'pacassa |
Fabaceae |
M |
O |
D | ||||
Markhamia obtusifolia |
Mufeia |
Bignoniaceae |
I | ||||||
Millettia stuhlmannii (41) |
Panga-panga |
Fabaceae |
1 |
D | |||||
Monodora stenopetala |
Annonaceae |
I | |||||||
Ozoroa reticulata |
Anacardiaceae |
D | |||||||
Parinari curatellifolia |
Nongamunyo |
Crysobalanaceae |
3 |
F |
M |
D | |||
Pericopsis angolensis |
Muanga |
Fabaceae |
3 |
M |
D | ||||
Pseudolachnostylis maprouneifolia (13) |
M'sonzoa |
Euphorbiaceae |
3 |
M |
O |
D | |||
Pteleopsis myrtifolia |
Mungorozi |
Combretaceae |
2 |
D | |||||
Pterocarpus angolensis |
Umbila |
Fabaceae |
1 |
M |
O |
D | |||
Pterocarpus rotundifolius (7) |
Muganu |
Fabaceae |
D | ||||||
Sclerocarya birrea |
Mefula |
Anacardiaceae |
2 |
F |
M |
O |
D | ||
Sterculia africana |
Sterculiaceae |
D | |||||||
Strychnos madagascariensis (5) |
Nyacateme |
Loganiaceae |
F |
I | |||||
Syzygium cordatum |
Myrtaceae |
3 |
F |
D | |||||
Tabernaemontana elegans |
Apocynaceae |
M |
O |
I | |||||
Terminalia sambesiaca (9) |
Curungu |
Combretaceae |
D | ||||||
Terminalia sericea |
Mucoudoni |
Combretaceae |
3 |
M |
O |
D | |||
Vangueria infausta |
Mambziro |
Rubiaceae |
F |
M |
U | ||||
Vitex payos |
Verbenaceae |
F |
U | ||||||
Xeroderris stuhlmannii |
Mulonde |
Fabaceae |
3 |
M |
O |
D | |||
Ziziphus mucronata |
Rhamnaceae |
F |
M |
O |
D | ||||
Uses: p, 1,2...4 - classification of the timber species according to Mozambique's Forest Regulation1 (p=precious, 1=1st class; 4=4th class); F=food (fruits, leaves, gums, others); M=medicine (leaves, roots, fruits, flowers, others); O=other uses (building material, ornamental, utensils, traditional ceremonies); E=firewood.
Life form (strata): D=dominant tree (total height>10m); I=intermediate/Subdominant, medium tree (3<total height<10m); U=understorey, small tree (total height < 3m); L = liana.
Examples of species protected by communities are Dolichandrone alba used to make wooden cooking spoons, Sclerocarya birrea and Trichilia emetica for fruit in the southern region of Mozambique. Jansen and Mendes (1984 a,b, 1990) give a detailed description of the traditional use of many medicinal plants. Medicinal plant species from miombo woodlands include Brachystegia spiciformis, Markhamia obtusifolia, Kigelia africana, Annona senegalensis and others. There also other specific uses of the miombo plant species such as Ancylobrotus kirkii for gum, Albizia versicolor for soap, Grewia monticola for toothbrush and Rhoicissus reviolli and Lannea stuhlmannii (Hatton et al., 1994).
The use of a variety of forest products by local communities reduces expenses in the order of billions to the government that might import medicines, energy and other forest-based products (Williams, 1993; Nhantumbo and Soto, 1994).
Villagers, in former times, used the forest resources sustainably, but because of the circumstances - population increase and the consequent need for more agricultural areas, the need for more income, etc. - this has led to a modification of traditional resource uses which are less sustainable. Promotion of other income-generating activities, alternative sources of energy and improvement of the agricultural systems may improve the living standards of rural communities at the same time that they preserve the value of the forest ecosystems.
The commercialization of other products has the particularities of each one. Building materials are commercialized in a scheme closer to that of firewood. Other products such as wild foods (including fruits, leaves, meat and honey) are commercialized in local markets in the cities or close to the roads by rural population, generally by women and children. Medicinal plants are generally given by traditional healers to their clients under prescription or sold in suburban and urban markets (Nhantumbo and Soto, 1994).
Woodcarvings are another important product from miombo woodlands. Woodcarvers are normally people living in rural areas and some of these crafts are household utensils such as wooden spoons and pestles that are necessary equipment for each rural and suburban (and some urban) households. Other woodcrafts are carvings of different kinds of things used as adornment objects for people in the cities. The most famous woodcrafts of Mozambique are made of Dalbergia melanoxylon and Spirostachys africana, and are commercialized all over the world.
1 According to their commercial or scientific value, rarity, use, wood resistance and quality, timber species are classified as precious, first class, second class, third class and fourth class, as listed in Annex 1 of this regulation (DNFFB 2002b. Regulamento da Lei de Florestas e Fauna Bravia. Decreto 12/2002 de 6 de Junho. Maputo, Moçambique. This is the oficial reference to the classification system. In practice, the classification system is highly related to the timber market demand so that highly demanded species are classified precious or first class. The classification is used for timber pricing (to set the logging tax) as follows: precious, USD80; first class, USD20; second class, USD12; third class, USD8 and fourth class USD4. Precious and first class species sell in domestic and international markets while the other classes (also called secondary timber species) sell mostly in domestic markets.
