FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS (FAO)

GOVERNMENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF TUNISIA

FAO-NETHERLANDS PARTNERSHIP PROGRAMME SUPPORT TO
SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT IN LOW FOREST COVER COUNTRIES

By
Salah Rouchiche and
Habib Abid
Rome, August 2002

FOREWORD

According to FRA 2000²⁵, 71 countries, most developing, have a forest cover of less than 10 % of their land area. The open-ended International Expert Meeting on Special Needs and Requirements of Developing Low Forest Cover Countries (LFCCs) and Unique Types of Forests, held in Teheran in October 1999, agreed to prepare proposals to secure international support to sustainable forest management in LFCCs. The Netherlands approved support to targeted outputs and activities as a follow up to the “Teheran Process”. Country studies for Africa and the Near East regions were selected to outline the causes and effects of deforestation and degradation together with lessons learned and priority needs to enhance the role of planted trees. The Republic of Tunisia, as one of the country case studies selected, is detailed in this report.

OVERVIEW AND COUNTRY CONTEXT

Geography

Tunisia is a North African country located in the centre of the Mediterranean basin. It covers an area of 162,155 km², limited to the north and the east by the Mediterranean Sea for a stretch of 1,250 km, to the west by a 1,050 km border with Algeria and to the south by a 450 km border with Libya.

Population

Sixty-two percent of Tunisia’s population is urban, where the growth rate is stabilized at 1.15 percent, reaching 9.4 million inhabitants in 1999. The rural population seems to have reached its maximum and should progressively decrease, representing no more than 24 percent of the total population by 2025.

Gender issues

Basic rights for women have been achieved since Independence and have been reinforced during the Seventh and Ninth Plans (1992-2001).

Employment

The labour force is 3.3 million people and the unemployment rate is 15 percent. Agriculture employs 22 percent of the working population, while the commerce and service sector employs 44.1 percent.

Economic data

According to its economic plan, Tunisia has noted a progress in the average rate of sustained growth of GNP of 5.4 percent, leading to a 2.7 percent inflation and observed a progression in investment at the rate of 13.5 percent. The agricultural and fisheries sector contributes to between 11 and 16 percent of the GNP.

Policy and Planning Frameworks

Tunisia was declared an Independent State in 1957 and its first Constitution was adopted in 1959. It chose the planning approach to carrying out its development work, which is characterized by it adopting a liberal political economy, dominated by the concerns of reducing the regional disparities and to developing private investment.

Geology

Tunisia has a folded structure to the North and a monocline structure in the South with generally sedimentary lands.

Physiography

There are three large national regions:

• Northern Tunisia, composed of mountain chains (400–1200m) and forests in the northwest; agricultural low valleys in the northeast; and High Tell more toward the south, which is composed of medium altitude plateaux (500-800 m);
• Central Tunisia with a mountain range of medium altitudes (Dorsale) to the north, and vast spaces in the south that include low steppes of the east, high steppes in the west and the agricultural Sahel; and
• Southern Tunisia, which is a transitional region towards the Sahara.

Climate and soil

The Mediterranean and mild climate covers five bioclimatic stages, going from humid to arid, according to the north-south cross-gradient of aridity. The pedological cover also shows a succession of soils that represent this gradient, going from brown soil to regosols and lithosoils.

Biological resources

The dense and rich forests of the north give way to open and low formations to the centre, and rare, fragile and scattered forests in the south. There are 5 500 species and sub-species of flora, 20 of which are endemic, 240 rare and 103 very rare. Fauna includes 75 species of reptiles, batrachians and fish, 45 of which are endangered (26 mammals, 10 reptiles and 9 amphibians).

Land and water resources

Natural resources uses are limited, fragile and unevenly distributed. The main land use categories of Tunisia are:

• Territory [16.5 million ha, including 2.9 million fertile lands - 570,000 ha irrigable];
• Weak-medium potential land rangelands [6.5 million ha]; and
• Wasteland [71 million ha, of which 3.2 million ha are of sandy accumulations].

With approximately 36 Mm³ of rainfall per year, Tunisian potential water resources are 4,540 Mm³, of which 3,844 Mm³ can be used. These are divided into 2,700 Mm³ (60 percent) of surface water and 1,840 Mm³, of subsurface water (40 percent). The volume of water liable to be used without restriction represents just 50 percent of the available resources.

Main production systems

Agricultural production

There are five agricultural crop production systems:

• Cereal growing: The average annual sown surface is 1,598 million ha. This system generates a great deal of erosion due to mechanized labour on a gradient and to the destruction of the forest vegetation;
• Foraging crops: These cover 270 000 ha and produce 900 million Forage Units (FU) per year, which are 14 percent of the livestock needs. The rest comes from concentrated foods (13.5 percent) and from natural grazing (72.5 percent);
• Industrial crops: sugar beet and tobacco make up 5,730 and 4,072 ha, respectively;
• Tree Cultivation: The area reserved for tree cultivation covers 50 percent of cultivated areas: it is greater than 2 million ha, with olive trees as the chief crop (1.5 million ha); and
• Market gardening crops: They account for 148,300 ha (of which 13,000 is rain-fed), contributing to up to 15 percent of the value of total agricultural production.

Farm breeding management

• Intensive breeding of animals associated with intensive foraging crops; and
• Extensive breeding: This is more common among small- and medium-sized farms that use the local breed of sheep and goals and make use, above all, of the natural vegetation formations without any form of management.

The role of the agricultural sector in the economy

Despite a gradual lowering of agriculture’s role in the GNP, the agricultural sector receives significant public investments and continues to have a substantial place in the national economy, contributing 9 percent of exports in 2000.

The role of forestry in the national economy

National forestry production is estimated at 150 million dry tonnes. Non-Wood Forest Products make up 30 percent of users’ annual income. Woodlands continue to play a decisive role in satisfying domestic energy needs, particularly in rural areas.

CURRENT STATUS AND MANAGEMENT OF FORESTS AND RANGELANDS

National forest and rangeland inventory

Tunisia uses a mapping base of information and planning system, which contributed to improving forest and pastoral land management. It allowed for the creation of the first national forest and rangeland inventory (1995). According to this, the area of vegetation cover in Tunisia is 5,744,000 ha, of which 743,000 ha are esparto grass formations, and 4,031,000 ha of natural rangelands. A programme to update the inventory is currently underway.

Characteristics of the Tunisian national forest

The national forest estate: The country has 970,000 ha of natural and planted forests, of which 51.8 percent are productive, 33.8 percent form maquis and garrigue, and 14.40 percent are made up of fire-breaks and clearings. The rate of vegetation cover of the northern, centre and south of the country are 15 percent, 10 percent and 1 percent, respectively. The national inventory of natural forests did not make the distinction between natural and planted forests, which total 457,000 ha of coniferous trees, 179,000 ha of deciduous wood and 194,000 ha of maquis-garrigues.

The estates of planted forests: Before 1990, the plantations were estimated at 285,000 ha²⁶, while those between 1990 and 2000 cover 123,000 ha. In 1999, 94 forest nurseries produced 51 million of different plant species, of which 42 percent were forest lands, 36 percent pastoral, 15 percent windbreak, 6.5 percent ornamental and only 0.5 percent of agroforestry species. The multiple-use species category has been strongly developed since 1995, with the production of olive, fig, carob and nut trees. Off-soil plant production was adapted successfully. Annually, 70 million plants are produced in the framework of the new reforestation strategy.

Evolution of the national forest cover: From 1920 to 1964, the forest decreased 1.1 million ha to 690,500 ha and spart grass formations from 1.8 million ha to 743,000 ha. This trend has been compensated for by reforestation and the development of natural resources. There is no systematic follow-up of modifications of forest cover; however, on the 1997 database, it appears to have a positive annual balance amounting to 30,000 ha. The loss due to forest fires (1,280 ha), clearing and changes of land-use (210 ha) equal 1,490 ha, while the forest plantations carried out during the same year reached 31,513 ha, of which 16,974 ha are pastoral plantations.

Global estate of trees outside forests (TOF): The new concept of TOF is not taken into consideration in rural management strategies. The Tunisian TOF estate essentially consists of urban and peri-urban plantations, wind-break plantations, multiple-use trees, rangelands, soil and water conservation plantations, roads. The national forest inventory did not make an inventory of the forest and pastoral population of areas less than 0.5 ha, but many TOF categories (pastoral plantations, CES (Conservation des Eaux et du Sol) plantations) are included in the rate of forest cover in the country. The lack of inventory of TOF, the confusion and the problems of definition, as well as undervaluation of their role, production and their economic importance has made them a hidden resource, meriting discussion within the workshop that should conclude this case study.

Urban and peri-urban forestry: Since 1992, The Ministry of Environment and Territorial Management (MEAT) has participated in a National Programme (NP) of urban reforestation in collaboration with partners, notably the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of the Interior. The National Programmes include:

• Monitoring afforestation/reforestation activities and creation of green areas;
• Environmental boulevards;
• Urban parks (management of 100 parks);
• Green itineraries;
• Esplanades;
• Road plantations (afforestation of highways); and
• Hundred-year old trees.

Wind-break plantations: These are estimated at close to 17,000 km to 2000, which only covers 12.5 percent of the needs of irrigational perimeters.

Agroforestry plantations: Relatively recent, they cover weak surfaces in mountain zones and forest clearings. The Tenth Plan formulated a programme of 25,000 ha of public and private plantations.

Pastoral plantations: According to the national forest inventory, pastoral plantations cover 208,000 ha, of which 91,000 ha are in forest and 117,000 outside forest.

Cactus plantations: These have not been included in the national forest inventory but cover 198,000 ha, of which 82,000 ha are in forest and 116,000 outside forest.

Soil and water conservation plantations: The 1990-2000 Soil and Water Conservation Strategy planned for the management of 0.6 million ha of watersheds with 230,000 ha of plantations aimed at strengthening of the structures. The plantations until 2001 include 224,265 ha.

Road plantations: Data on these plantations are almost absent. A national commission of the road plantations in 1993 created their technical specifications.

Riparian environments: The national forestry inventory identified vegetation situated along water courses and rivers, covering 45,788 ha.

Environment and Range of forests

The Tunisian ecosystems are diversified and fragile, and have often-conflicting economic, social and ecological features.

Preservation of biodiversity: The country has appreciable assets in term of biological diversity that it tries to preserve through the protection of many humid zones and management of its 11 national parks, 20 natural reserves and 4 fauna reserves.

Water and soil protection: The importance of the role of forests in water and soil protection is proven by the fact that one always resorts to forest plantations in water and soil conservation.

Management, conservation and extension of forest and pastoral land resources

Criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management: In 1998, Tunisia tested 134 indicators for sustainable forest management, elaborated by the Commission Nationale de Développement Durable (CNDD). The 121 indicators are deemed relevant to the Tunisian context where 21 indicators cover water, fish, soil, natural resources, desertification, pesticides, agricultural education and forestry.

Management of forests and range lands: Roughly 500,000 ha represent 80 percent of manageable natural and artificial forests are in the process of being managed. Three stages characterized management evolution:

• The first generation plans: Forest management: Inspired from the French School of Forestry, these forest management plans started in 1964 and were only partially implemented;
• The second generation plans - Sylvo-Pastoral Management: Considering the social constraints the revised first generation plans identified areas for exclusive pastoral use to compensate for the grazing exclusions implemented to enhance forest protection; and
• The third generation plans - Integrated Management: Based on a more global assessment of the situation, these management plans take advantage of the publication in 1996 of a decree specifying the regulatory instruments of the new forest law; and the creation of the Forestry Groups with Common Interest and the Opération Pilote de Développement Intégré (OPDI) (Pilot Area in Integrated Development) to engage the villages in the negotiation process on integrated agro-sylvo-pastoral management of forestry resources.

Support in participatory approaches: Participatory forest and rangeland resources management by now constitutes a strategic option in forest administration, concerned about involving populations in sustainable resource management that it employs. The Government has begun 10 OPDIs with the aim of perfecting and adapting participatory approaches and ways of communal intervention for sustained management in the field of forestry.

Production of wood and cork

This sector consists of 50 private forest industries companies (400 million m³) and transformation of raw materials, as well as forest uses practising carbonisation. The regulations are poorly adapted to the development of forests and the economic development of their products.

Wood products: The production of industrial timber and sawn timber is weak. The deficit in supply of sawn timber is estimated to be more than 650,000 m^3. Pulpwood experienced a constant progression as did construction (service) wood, whose demand increased significantly particularly in the agricultural sector.

Fuelwood and charcoal: The products supply/demand ratio is well balanced at national level. The supply of renewable of wood energy is 2,626 metric tons (MT) and the demand is stabilized at 2,650 MT (1997). The underlying projection to 2010 foresees a slight improvement in the national balance sheet.

Cork: A quantity of 80,000 to 100,000 quintals, the annual production of cork brings more than 9 million Tunisian Dinars (DT) to the Régie d’Exploitation Forestière (REF).

Non-wood forest products (NWFPs)

There is a diversified range of NWFPs in Tunisia, primarily by traditional users and by semi-industrial exploitation by businesses. NWFPs’ exports earn the equivalent of US$4,250,000 per year. The exported products are:

• Essential oils;
• Food products (game, mushrooms, carob, umbrella pine, honey, capers.) and
• Craft products, mainly of esparto goods and basketwork.

Importance of NWFPs to the administration: Revenues are estimated as follows:

• Fourteen NWFPs provide 209,591 DT of annual revenues coming for the rights of use given to companies; and
• Direct incomes of hunting are about 600,000 DT per year.

Importance of NWFPS at community and family level: NWFPs contribute about 28 percent of the annual revenue for 620 families surveyed (580 DT per family, per year). Excluding forage harvest from forests, the most economically interesting products for users are decreasing in importance. These include Alep and Umbrella Pine seeds, nut roots, tubers, mushrooms, rosemary, honey, capers, snails, bay leaves, oak acorns, mastic tree oil, thyme and carob.

Contributions of forests at the social level

The forest is a source of income for 900,000 neighbouring farmers who live from livestock production, agriculture, forest use and fruit harvesting, as well as work on associated with forest management.

Neighbouring farmer populations of forest zones: These represent almost 10 percent of the Tunisian population where 23 percent of the rural population (150,000 households) are without private property, therefore depend heavily on limited natural resources. Their annual incomes are low in comparison with the national average.

Contribution to generating jobs and income: The forestry sector contributes on average of 7 million working days per year (8.3 million in 1999), which includes 35,000 permanent positions. Roughly 100,000 households benefit from 70 working days per year with an annual income of 340 DT per family.

Forestry and food security: The forest is essential for neighbouring farms, particularly those that are poor and marginal, because it is a main source of energy, food, livestock fodder and income from sales of forest products of all kinds.

TUNISIAN FOREST SECTOR

The institutional framework of Tunisian forestry

Two Ministries share the main responsibilities regarding environmental administration. The Ministry of Agriculture manages the natural resources. The Ministry of Environment and Territorial Management (MEAT) is responsible, with its partners, for national policy formulation and implementation for protection of the environment, natural ecosystems and land management.

Within the Ministry of Agriculture, the organizations active in forest and pastoral domains include:

• The Forestry Head Office (Direction Générale des Forêts [DGF]) is responsible for applying the forest code and the management code for protecting and developing the State forests and the lands under forest management. It is composed of the Offices for Forest Conservation; Sylvo-pastoral development; Socio-economic development of the Forestry Population; and Regulation and Control;
• The “Sylvo-pastoral Development Office for the North West (ODYSEPANO) is responsible for promoting the agro-sylvo-pastoral development in five regions of the North-West;
• The Office of Livestock and Grazing ensures development of livestock production and its contribution to economic development; and
• The Agency of Agricultural Training and Extension implements and applies the national policy of extension and professional training in the sectors of agriculture, forestry and fisheries.

Land statistics

The forestry administration administers 2,793 million ha of land, of which 1,055 million ha is under state ownership, 1,691 million under community rangelands and 47,000 ha as private forests. The situation of the forestry land of the State is not always audited since 188,627 ha are in process of registration, while there still needs a registration of 2,014,746 ha.

Study and work projects

Until 1987, all forest activities planned and organized by the forestry frameworks were implemented by the State. Since then, the tendency has been to encourage private companies to invest in forest developments. Forest management studies are carried out primarily by national and international educational institutes. The General Director of Forestry and the forestry districts supervise inventories, study and approve management plans, carry out tree marking operations prior to forest exploitation, and implement management plans.

Forestry research

Forestry Research comes under the National Institute of Urbanization, Water and Forests (Institut National de Recherches en Génie Rural, Eaux et Forêts) (INRGREF) which is equipped with two laboratories and three research units in:

• Silviculture, protection and development of forestry resources;
• Improvement and development of agro-sylvo-pastoral systems; and
• Agricultural mechanisms.

Since the intervention of the second Projet de Développement Forestier (PDF), the real problems of development have been taken into consideration in terms of human as well as forestry and rangeland aspects. The private sector seems to stand out in terms of improved communication, but there remains much to do to disseminate the research results more effectively.

Forestry training

Specialized technicians in silviculture and rangelands are trained by the Institut Sylvo-Pastoral de Tabanka (ISPT). High-ranking forestry officers are trained at the Ecole Nationale du Génie Rural, des Eaux et des Forêts (l’ENGREF - France); l’ENFI (Maroc) and the French Institute of Forestry, Agricultural and Environmental Engineering (Institut National d’Agronomie de Tunisie - INAT). Tunisia began a system of continued training to pass to the higher levels in the public office, essentially for the benefit of technicians and forest engineers.

Legislative framework

Forestry legislation: The forestry code (FC) that governs the forest estate remains, despite successive amendments which are strongly biased towards conservation and less oriented to social development. For the first time in 1988, the FC put emphasis on the promotion of forest users by resorting to the creation of Collective Interest Forestry Groups. The state ownership of the forests is not always sufficient to guarantee the preservation of the National State forestry. Private appropriation in certain cases and partnership management of forest and pastoral areas should be seen favourably.

Legislation on the rangelands: This dates from the submission of community and state-owned rangelands in the forest system, which aimed mainly at conserving rangelands through tight State control. There was resistance of communities to the prevalent State ownership, incorporated in legal texts precluding their formal rights and functions in management and administration of rangelands.

Law on the protection of agricultural lands: This deals with the type of agricultural lands that are in prohibited, safeguarding and authoritative zones: the state-owned forests subjected to the forest system are in the prohibitive zones. Olive trees, tree growing, fruit cultivation, the forests not subjected to the forestry regime and the managed rangelands are included in the safeguarded zones.

Environmental code: Tunisia has a diversified legal environmental framework, consisting of, among other, the Law relating to the Conservation of Water and Soil and the Code of Territorial Management and Urbanization.

Law on the Conservation of Water and Soil: This law relating to conservation of water and soil offers a framework of relevant participatory planning. However, at the local level, it meets with resistance from technicians who see difficulties and delays in its application.

Planning framework

The mechanism of centralized planning: Planning at the national level is ensured within the five-year plans of economic and social development, prepared by the regional and national commissions after evaluating the former plan.

Decentralized planning: At the regional level, planning is ensured through forest and range management plans that determine the activities to be undertaken. The administration resorts more and more to programmes prepared in collaboration with local groups following a participatory approach.

Inter-sectoral planning: The Ministry of Economic Development secures inter-sectoral and inter- ministerial coordination. CNDD is responsible for promoting the sustainable development approach. There are inter-ministerial commissions, such as those responsible for follow up campaigns of reforestation, protection of nature.

Technical assistance and cooperation

Projects and programmes providing technical assistance are primarily by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ).

Multilateral international support: The Tunisian Government channels the most important part of the support to the fields of conservation and development of natural and forest resources. Financial cooperation through investments and donations of organizations such as the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), European Community (EC), FAO, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) also exist in-country.

Bilateral support: Cooperative programmes in these sectors are involved with Germany (GTZ and KfW), Canada, Spain, France, United Kingdom, Italy, Japan (JICA), the Netherlands and Sweden.

Other support: Tunisia is also active in the League of Arab States, the Arab Maghreb Union, as well as with Mediterranean countries according to the Barcelona Convention and the Action Plan for the Mediterranean.

International conventions: Tunisia is a signatory to CITES; RAMSAR; United Nations Conventions to Combat Desertification and Conservation of Biological Diversity; and other international conventions.

Policy and strategy of development in the forest sector

Evolution of forestry policy: Since its Independence, the forestry policy in Tunisia went through three significant stages:

• 1956-1970: The priority aimed at erosion control through the implementation of watershed management policy;
• 1971-1987: The community lands were subjected to a forestry system and importance was given to the development of forestry potentials, encouraging employment, creating natural reserves and national parks, forming frameworks of development and of research; and
• 1988-1996: Emphasis was placed on mountain forests, encouraging the promotion of their socio-economic role, and on the formulation of a sand dune stabilization strategy and a National Plan to protect forests against fires.

National strategy of reforestation and the struggle against desertification (1990-2001)

Forestry plantations (320,000 ha), pastoral plantations (600,000 ha) on State lands are considered reliable estimates but pastoral management (2.2 million ha) is considered an over-estimate on private and community managed lands (pastoral management).

National Development Strategy in Forestry Sector (2002-2011)

The new strategy includes forest and pastoral reforestation, improvement of the management of forest ecosystems, conservation of the flora and fauna as well as constitutional, legal and organizational considerations. Taking into account former constraints, the management programme of rangelands and of implemented plantations: 190,000 ha of reforestation, 210,000 ha of fodder and pastoral plantations; 165,000 ha of spineless cactus plantations and 275,000 of rangeland managements.

Main Forestry and Rangelands Development Plan: This details the forest sector orientation of development, reorganization of the sector and the definition of new objectives to:

• Increase the economic role by promotion of industrial forest production; and
• Increase participatory planning and job creation.

CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF DEFORESTATION AND DEGRADATION

Indirect causes: Some of the less apparent root causes of deforestation and rangeland degradation:

Competing water and land use: The main cause of the activating of various phenomena of land degradation lies in their excessive demands for other purposes. Anthropogenic pressure exercised on natural environments has been multiplied by a factor of five in one century owing to demographic growth. This has resulted in land occupation and excessive pressure on forest and the natural environment. Despite the attempt at perpetuating forests on mountain zones and rangelands on the steppe areas, their occupation has caused loss and degradation of forests.

Constraints and challenges in water use: The high, growing real needs of water resources by the Government services sector, the maintenance of costs that are lower than real costs, the devalued agricultural infrastructure and the weak efficiency of irrigation techniques are responsible for the waste of 30-40 percent volume of water for agricultural use.

Land ownership rights: Although the settlement procedures have been going on for a long time, 188,627 ha are still being registered for formerly State lands, without the formal land-use rights. Many problems have been registered as being linked to the application of the judgements of courts on the illicit occupation of State Forestry property. There remains a feeling of mistrust with resultant over-exploitation and abuse of natural resources.

Problems linked to forestry policy: The process of sedentarization and development of agriculture at the expense of forest and rangeland was common. The break up of family units and community structures often resulted in encroachment and abuses on natural resources. Farmers often looked for short term benefits for their activities, without concern for the longer term consequences to the land which they did not own.

State incentives and the allotment of land resources: State incentives encourage agricultural development, which continue to expand at the expense of forest and pastoral lands.

Competing land-uses on forest and rangeland: Financial incentives mobilize investors to carry out competing land-use projects in the steppe lands best maintained in forestry and rangeland management. These can have a negative impact, particularly when combined with adverse climatic conditions which cause accelerated, severe and irreversible deforestation and degradation.

Poverty: The struggle against rural poverty is a major national objective. However poverty persists in forest and pastoral zones that are disadvantaged by high population density²⁷, over-exploitation of lands causing deteriorating productive potential; and meagre income and investment potential. The use of forest areas is essential to the majority of people living on the subsistence margin, as well as constituting an opportunity for investment in the form of livestock or a source of speculative activity (such as charcoal making) both of which cause degradation.

Inability to respond to over-exploitation: Although Tunisia has considerable capacity and competence in natural resource management, this does not always result in timely addressing environmental problems. There is a strong dependence on external assistance which does not always address priority needs. The need to achieve minimum investment returns often precludes support to rehabilitation of degraded forest and pastoral lands.

Limited empowerment and participation of people: The evaluation of the first integrated development projects show that forest users respond to their getting direct benefits from their labour (personal gain), but do not respond in a similar manner to the less direct communal or longer term benefits (collective gain). Although a new generation of implemented projects is based on the concept of integrated land-use by adopting participatory approaches, the degree of participation among the people remains insufficient to curb the rate of forest and range degradation.

Direct causes: The more apparent causes of deforestation and degradation are as follows:

Natural Causes

• Adverse climate negatively affects the resilience of vegetal formations and is hostile to the rehabilitation processes;
• Soils introduce edaphic constraints that predispose them to various kinds of degradation;
• Steep topography of forest zones of mountains predispose them to degradation; and
• Natural calamities such as fire, floods, parasites and illnesses.

Causes linked to human activity

• For a long time, the forest and range lands underwent strong human pressure (clearing, overgrazing, illegal use, fires), which still today translates into deforestation and degradation affecting the quantity and quality of vegetation formations;
• Infrastructure development to improve transport, communications, access to markets, commercialization can constitute a serious cause of erosion, landslide and degradation of forest and rangeland resources;
• Reckless fires and land clearing;
• Excessive allocation of forest and range land and overexploitation of forest, pastoral, and water resources; and
• Unsustainable agricultural practices resulting in abandonment of agricultural lands subsequently subject to excessive erosion and desertification.

Effects of deforestation and forest/rangeland degradation

The effects of deforestation and range degradation are:

• Loss of land fertility and productivity;
• Decline of basic resources through the reduction of biomass and of the diversity of forest and pastoral areas;
• Decline in quantity and quality of surface water and subsurface water;
• Excessive water and wind erosion;
• Salinization of lands;
• Negative social and economic impact on traditionally poor user groups; and
• Reduced air quality.

STATUS OF KNOWLEDGE

Deforestation and degradation of forests and range land formations

There is a recognition that the accuracy and reliability of national forest inventory data needs to be improved to reflect the situation on the ground and trends in forest cover change. The national forest and rangeland cover data and trends do not readily reflect that severe losses due to deforestation and degradation in some areas may be compensated by reforestation in other areas.

Consequences of deforestation and degradation

Degradation of vegetation formations affects the ecosystem, resources, habitats and infrastructures, as well as the economy and well-being of local people. There has not been sufficient recognition of the value of forests and rangelands, and of the uses of traditional wood and NWFPs, to improving the quality of life.

What has been learned in the forestry sector?

Key lessons learned in the sector include:

• Forest and rangeland management techniques developed, demonstrated and documented;
• Need for quality education and training of personnel to impart knowledge and technology;
• Growing awareness on social and environmental issues previously not focused upon;
• Positive disposition towards international assistance; and
• Need for sound and consistent policy, legislation and planning promoting partnerships, participatory and integrated approaches and to encompass wider land-use management issues.

Technical initiatives recognized as being valuable in future forest and rangeland management include:

• Production of improved quality forest plants;
• Development of networks for collection and treatment of data and information for planning of resources and forest and pastoral activities;
• Regeneration of shrubs; and
• Strategic studies on non-wood forest products, wood energy and wood industries sector.

Gaps in knowledge

Deficiencies in the fields of participation and partnerships:

• Weak processes of sustainable integrated management of forest and pastoral ecosystems and weak involvement and organization of populations;
• Weak knowledge of participatory planning, management and monitoring procedures and practices;
• Limited experience in demonstrations and documentation of success stories of various mechanisms of forest and range land use and limited dissemination of information related to these; and
• Limited understanding of the dynamics of forest and rangeland deforestation and degradation with traditional users.

There are acknowledged technical deficiencies in:

• Non-wood forest products;
• Genetic tree improvement;
• Improved techniques for regeneration (nursery and field);
• Management of private lands (and their facilitating factors); and
• Information on the concept of trees outside forests and agroforestry.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Conclusions

Development choices

• The incorporation of the environmental, social and economic dimensions into forest and range land planning, management and monitoring is in its infancy;
• Forestry and rangeland policies, legislation and planning alone can not address sustainable land-use and sustainable livelihoods as these need to be integrated across other sectors including agriculture, industries, transport and communications;
• Problems relating to reforestation of private lands intended for forestry are difficult to resolve in the social, legislative, statutory contexts and current policy incentives;
• The forest and rangeland estate and ownership remains confusing and settlement issues complex, resulting in perpetuating conflicts and conditions of abusive exploitation of resources;
• Forest and steppe environments remain disadvantaged; and
• Foresters remain reticent about the participatory approaches, considering them to increase costs and slow completion of their work without clear benefit to them personally.

Institutional

• Lack of multi-disciplinary and of inter/intra-sectoral coordination of the diverse interventions in the forest and pastoral estate; and
• Insufficient political commitment for implementing the integrated planning and participatory development programmes and ensuring that the facilitating policies, legislation and regulatory framework are in place.

Technical

• Definitions, concepts, data, responsibilities and stakeholders for sustainable management of planted forests, trees outside forests and agroforestry are causing debate and the way ahead is unclear;
• Transfer of knowledge and technology to the main stakeholders remains weak;
• Wood products and non-wood forest products are under-used and poorly developed; and
• Mobilization of water resources (small and medium hydraulics) assisting the forest and pastoral villages remains weak.

Recommendations

Development choices

Recommendations to support participation and partnership in the framework of integrated sustainable management of forest resources:

• Develop and disseminate participatory planning, management and monitoring tools;
• Reform institutional frameworks and strengthen capacity to adopt and apply integrated land-use and participatory approaches;
• Define the key roles of the public and private sectors and of the other stakeholders and ensure that the appropriate policy, legal, regulatory, planning and institutional frameworks are established to ensure that each stakeholder can play their part effectively; and
• Empower and engage traditional land users by addressing their needs and aspirations, allocate appropriate lands, transfer technical knowledge and technologies, provide rural finances and access to markets for sustainable livelihoods, including sustainable forest management.

Rational use of water resources

Recommendations for rational use of water resources in the future include:

• Implement a policy for sustainable water management for economic costs in the real usage;
• Develop the work of CES and improve the techniques for collecting rainwater;
• Preserve water quality;
• Preserve groundwater by artificial recharge; and
• Promote the re-use of treated sewage effluent.

Poverty reduction

Recommendations relating to reducing poverty include:

• Improve knowledge of poor and vulnerable people and create job opportunities and diversified and sustainable income as well as profitable participation in the management of forest and pastoral resources;
• Increase NGO participation to support local communities and traditional land-users; and
• Resolve issues relating to uncertainty and conflict relating to forest land ownership.

Institutional

Recommendations relating to strengthening institutional frameworks include:

• Adopt inter-sectoral, multi-disciplinary approaches and collaboration to respect and understand the needs and aspirations of the full spectrum of stakeholders including the different authorities of the State, private sector, traditional land-users and NGOs;
• Integrate sustainable forest management to support sustainable land-use and livelihoods;
• Corroborate research studies, enquiries and investigations regarding conservation, valorisation and development of biological reserves and the designation and delineation of forest resources and pastoral ecosystems, as well as the development of activities liable to improve income and the well-being of traditional users;
• Improve training and awareness of land-use and forestry issues, transfer knowledge and techniques through strengthened extension services to traditional users, participatory planning, gender analysis, communications and integrated approaches to natural resources management;
• Simultaneously target, youth, teachers and academics before affecting all the social levels of the rural and urban populations;
• Instil awareness and reform actions in policy and decision makers to sustainably manage the forest and pastoral estate through participatory approaches and inter-sectoral engagement to provide the key facilitating factors for a more clearly defined role of the private sector (corporate and smallholder); and
• Strengthen agricultural and forest training/extension for managers, ensuring application of new scientific research and participatory approaches into field applications on a progressive upgrade training basis.

Resource use and management

Recommendations relating to changes in resource use:

• Monitor and report status and trends in forest cover, deforestation, degradation and desertification; and
• Implement policy and organizational plans to support sustainable forest resource management to cater for continuous supply of wood, fodder, fuelwood and charcoal, non-wood forest products (including cork) and conservation of local woodlands.

Enhancing the role of forests and planted forests

Recommendations to enhance the role of planted forests and trees outside forests include:

• Clarify the concept and definition of planted forests, trees outside forests;
• Evaluate and classify existing planted forests according to their purpose and ownership and derive management plans and implement programmes of work to implement operations to achieve their objectives;
• Target the most suitable ecological zones and priority sites for future development of planted forests and trees outside forests development and encourage investment in suitable areas;
• Define the principal objectives in future reforestation (primarily productive or protective purpose) and encourage appropriate and flexible mechanisms and ownership by documentation of success stories and demonstrations; and
• Provide the necessary technical support systems to increase the quantity and quality of nursery management and reforestation; increase productivity, reduce costs.

Recommendations within the framework of the Teheran Process

Recommendations relating to support to the Tehran Process include:

• Promote exchanges, experiences and knowledge among LFCCs, as well as set up common networks, projects and programmes of development;
• Improve the knowledge of the causes of low forest cover and identify alternative solutions to overcome this situation, taking into account the unique political, social, economic, environmental, cultural and physical characteristics prevailing within the LFCCs;
• Incorporate the objectives and key components of action of the Teheran Process into the forestry policy of LFCCs;
• Incorporate policies, strategies and plans to enhance planted forests and trees outside forests within the overall national forestry programmes in LFCCs;
• Promote exchanges of knowledge and experiences, bilateral and multilateral cooperation among LFCCs;
• Developing collaborative research on LFCC priority issues (social, cultural, economic and environmental aspects);
• Develop demonstrations and document success stories for sharing with other LFCCs;
• Establish a monitoring and reporting system to gauge follow up actions to the Tehran process; and
• Support and strengthen the Secretariat to LFCCs based in Tehran.

²⁵ Forest Resources Assessment.

²⁶ It is difficult to have reliable figures on the reforestation carried out before 1990, whereas one knows precisely what has been done since then.

²⁷ Great human pressure is clearly shown by the fact that the population lives in and off of 900,000 ha of forest land. This population is estimated at between 800,000 and 1million people.