Appendix III
Country notes on evaluation of forest plantations

In order to evaluate the successful establishment of plantations some of the countries have carried out plantation surveys/inventories at national, and sub-national or divisional levels through their own agencies or with the help of other national or international organisations. In some cases foreign agencies providing financial assistance to developing countries for raising plantations under multilateral or bilateral co-operation have also evaluated their respective plantations.

Since plantation survey reports have often told the story of failures. Countries have been reluctant to provide/publish such reports because of the fear of criticism. Many countries/institutions were approached at a personal level to furnish plantation inventory-documents. Institutions responsible for financial and technical assistance, such as The World Bank, FAO, SIDA, O.D.A,. and consulting companies, were visited and contacted in particular to provide evaluation reports of plantations available to them. The reports presented below, therefore, cannot be treated as exhaustive. In general there is a paucity of information. Excepting a few countries, which have been provided financial/technical assistance by foreign agencies in order to conduct detailed plantation inventories under certain collaborative projects, countries have not opted for nationwide plantation inventories. This may be due to financial limitations and, to some extent, low priority. Most of the reports available are at sub-national, project or divisional level with detailed inventory reports furnishing information on actual plantation area, species composition, age class and site class distribution, diameter and height growth and mean annual volume increment per unit area. Other plantation survey reports provide information on survival percentage only.

The Inventory results of each country have been placed together, giving subheading of the location/project. For the reports which give information only about survival percentage, the net area has been calculated by reducing the reported area in which the survival study was carried out and has been put under the sub-heading of derived results. In other cases where reported area figure was not available in the survey report and had to be extracted from other source, the sub heading of derived result has been given. If provided in the report, methodology of the survey has been briefly mentioned in order to judge its reliability.

Tropical Asia and Pacific

Bangladesh

Three available survey reports from Bangladesh have been presented. The first two reports form part of the National Forest Inventory carried out in collaboration with the FAO, starting in 1983.

Chittagong: (De Milde; 1985) The purpose of the inventory was to obtain up-to-date figures on the area, stock and growth of the mixed hardwood/teak plantation in the Chittagong district. Aerial photographs of 1:15 000 taken in Jan–Feb 1982 were used to assess the area planted up to the end of 1981. Plantations older than 11 years were stratified according to age class, species composition, site index, and crown density. Sampling units consisting of a cluster of 3 circular subplots with variable size (0.03 to 0.09 ha) were chosen for field work. Young plantations (< 11 years) were treated as single strata in which circular plots of between 0.02 to 0.03 ha along with 3 observation points were laid out. In total 695 sampling units, well distributed over the plantation area, were chosen. The dot grid method was used to calculate the area. For the period 1982 to 1985, plantation area was estimated on the basis of forest department records and annual coupe figures.

Mangrove plantations: (Drigo, et al 1987) The purpose of the inventory was to obtain up-to-date figures on area, stock and growth of maturing mangrove plantations established before 1980 in the four coastal afforestation divisions of Chittagong, Noakhali, Barisal and Patuakhali, which could be delineated on available 1984 aerial photographs. Black and white and colour infrared aerial photographs (scale 1:50,000) from 1983/84 national coverage along with a

Results

Land Accretion and Plantation map (scale 1:10,000), supplied by the Space Research and Remote Sensing Organisation (SPARRSO), were used to assess the plantation area. Stratified Random Sampling design with 113 sampling units each consisting of 3 circular subplots of size 0.01 to 0.02 ha was used for ground truthing and measurement of tree parameters, diameter at breast height, etc. The reported area figure was extracted from the World Bank (1988) report.

Derived Result

Mangrove Afforestation Project: (The World Bank, 1988) An independent monitoring survey of the World Bank financed Mangrove Afforestation Project was carried out by SPARRSO of Bangladesh. This was carried out in order to assess the actual plantation achievement and to compare the area reported by the forest department. The survey was based on 1:10,000 scale plantation area maps compiled from 1:50,000 scale colour infrared photographs supplemented by ground truthing. The very young plantations which were not distinguishable on the aerial photographs, were covered by conventional ground survey.

Results

Fiji

In Fiji, forest plantation activity is mainly done by two agencies, the Forest Department responsible for planting all hardwoods (mostly mahogany), and the Fiji Pine Commission for planting softwood (mostly Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis). Plantation inventory results from Fiji Pine (personal communication) reveal yearly stocked stand area since 1950. The total plantation area of Pinus caribaea under Fiji Pine up to end of 1984 was 37,000 ha (National Progress Report to 12th Commonwealth Forestry Conference, 1985), whereas the net area derived from inventory results up to 1984 is 24,097 ha.

Derived result

India

In India, most of the state governments carry out surveys of plantations established in their state mainly to assess the survival percentage (in a few cases diameter and height growth are also measured) through their own monitoring and evaluation unit on peace meal basis. At national level only one survey has been carried out to assess the survival rate covering five representative states (India has 25 states and 7 union territories). The results for some of the available studies are presented below.

Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal & U.P. States: (IIPO 1989)

The purpose of the survey was to provide an estimate of the survival rate of trees planted under different afforestation schemes in India during the last five years (from 1983–84 to 1987–88). National Wastelands Development Board, an organisation under the Ministry of Environment, and Forests of the Government of India entrusted the task to an autonomous body - the Indian Institute of Public Opinion. The survey was based on a sample of 10,000 interviews equally distributed among the five states and using a structured questionnaire designed to collect the necessary information. About 80% of the sample interviews were from individuals involved in agroforestry and 20% were from plantations raised by forest departments. In India about 50% of the plantations currently established are in the agroforestry environment and the remaining 50% were established by forest departments. Therefore, sample distribution was not proportional to the area. A two stage sample design was adopted for selection of respondents in each state. The first stage involved the random selection of nurseries in each of the selected districts or forest divisions. In the second stage recipients of seedlings from nurseries were selected. Based on the cumulative serial numbers of the seedling recipients, sample respondents were drawn at random using random tables. The investigators collected the information through interview of individuals without doing any physical count or measurement in the field.

In order to cover all the four agro-climatic zones in Uttar Pradesh (UP), IIPO selected an additional 6,000 sample interviews (Shukla, R.S. 1991) in phase II spread over 16 districts and carried out the survey exactly in the manner stated above. Average survival percentage in U.P. during the 5 year period (1983–84 to 1987–88) in the farm forestry sector was 68.65% and in non-farm forestry 60–63% bringing the average survival of all plantations close to the figure mentioned in the table below.

Results (survival percentage)

Derived Results

Remark: These five states cover about 37% of the total planted area in India during that period.

Reported plantation area of the states concerned during 1985–86 to 1987–88 was extracted from the National Wasteland Development Board, Government of India report.

U.P. Social Forestry Project (FAO, 1986):

The FAO mission undertook field visits in April 1986 to include economic re-evaluation of World Bank financed 5 year social forestry, completed in 1984. The Forest Department of U.P. has estimated survival percentage of plantations carried out by their own agency on public land by sampling 10 villages spread over the project area. The following data on survival percentage was provided.

Results

Bihar Social Forestry Project: (SIDA 1990)

Survival rate has been determined on the basis of actual seedling count but the method was not indicated. Rehabilitation of Degraded Forest (RDF) and Farm Forestry (FF) were two main components of the Social Forestry Project of Bihar state. The rehabilitation area planted during the 5 year period (1984–89) was 32,500 ha. The survival percentage study was not sufficiently adequate to draw conclusions but reports from two divisions gave 87% and 51% survival. The impression of the evaluation team which visited the plantations during January/February 1990 was that the survival percentage was rather high (guesstimate 70%). Also, 209.1 million seedlings were distributed to individuals during the same 5 year period under FF component which is equivalent to 104,000 ha as per national criteria (2,000 seedlings = 1 ha). The survival count carried out two years after the 1985 planting season was only 15%. On the basis of survival results and estimated areas, the following results have been derived.

Derived Results

Indonesia

The two inventories presented below cover plantations established within Indonesia's forest land. For the plantations established under “regreening” sub-programme outside of forest land and occupying about 5.8 million ha (69% of the total plantation area) the survival rate was reported to vary between 6% and 71% (Indonesia/FAO, 1990).

Inventory of plantation Forest in Java:

More than 95% of the industrial plantations in Indonesia are located in Java and managed by Perum Perhutani, a State Forestry enterprise. As per the personal communication from Perum Perhutani the last inventory of Java plantations was completed during 1990 using systematic line plot sampling with plots of 0.10 ha each, laid out at a regular interval of 200 meters. Sampling intensity was 2.5%. Both net area and stocking were determined by the inventory. The reported plantation area in Java up to 1990 was estimated on the basis of the 1988 reported area (1.364 million ha in total), and annual plantation rate.

The total plantation area in Java published separately by Perum Perhutani (Nr. 02 89 Jakarta, 1989) was 2.0177 million ha up to 1988. This does not tally with the reported figure of the country. If this area is considered more reliable then the percentage of net area planted is further reduced to 42%. Indonesia/FAO (1990) has also affirmed that only 58% of the total plantation under Perum Perhutani in Java up to October 1988 is sufficiently stocked and is fit for keeping under a clear cutting regime.

Derived results

Inventory of Reforestation sub-programme:

The plantation under reforestation sub programme in Indonesia has been established outside Java, mostly in Sumatra and Sulawesi. These plantations were established by concessionaires and State Forestry enterprises, Inhutani I, II and III, prior to the imposition of the DJR (Guarantee Deposit Fund) in 1980, and therefore partly includes areas of timber production besides areas of protection and soil conservation. Successfully established plantations up to 1988, viz. total area planted, has been published in Indonesia/FAO (1990) quoting the source of FAO/Government of Indonesia forestry data base.

Results

Laos

The total forest plantation area in Laos is limited. One national level survey of all forestry plantations was carried out during 1990 under Laos-Swedish Forestry Co-operation Programme (Anon, 1991). Systematic line plot sample design, with a usual plot size of 10 m × 10 m and a sampling intensity of between 2.5% and 6.7%, was used to carry out the inventory. In very small plantation areas (less than 5 ha), a strip survey, with a strip width of 5m, was used as an alternative method. The following result was found.

Result

Reasons for the great deviation between reported and actual figure have been identified as (i) lack of a functional reporting and monitoring system for plantations, (ii) reflected rather than actual planting figures, (iii) the encroachment into plantations of agriculture and other land uses, and (iv) non-maintenance and lack of plantation after care.

Nepal

Only two plantation survey reports project-wise and area-wise were available, which are presented below.

Tarai Community Forestry Development Project:

The project started in 1984 with the financial support of International Development Association and European Economic Community. Joshi et al (1990) evaluated the success of the block plantation area planted during 1984/85 to 1986/87. Systematic sampling design was laid out to achieve at least a 1% sampling intensity. The survival percent ranged between 59% and 65% (mid value 62%). Joshi also mentioned that overall survival in private plantations (farm forestry and institution wood lots) was only 39%, as surveyed by a separate monitoring and evaluation team and published by Evans in 1989. Canalbank plantations, established during 1985/86, were surveyed separately by laying out sample plots of 10 meter length across the entire bank at an interval of 1 km (Thapa, 1990). Survival ranged between 41% and 79% and averaged 57% after 3 years of planting.

Derived Results

Sagarnath Forest Development Project: (Anon, 1990)

The Sagarnath forest development project started in 1980 with the aim of planting 10,000 ha of fast growing species in Bhabar Tarai, Central Nepal, by replacing the natural forests of Shorea robusta. A field inventory was carried out during April–June 1990 using row sampling with 4% intensity. Trees of selected rows were classified by species and diameter. In young plantations (less than 3 years old) systematic sampling with circular plots of 7 m diameter were used. One year old plantations were not measured. Based on the average number of stems per hectare available, 587 trees/ha against 1 250 trees/ha planted, a survival rate of 47% was found.

Derived Result

The Philippines

An independent national inventory of all government reforestation projects in the Philippines was carried out during 1988 under the Philippine-German Forest Resources Inventory Project, Forest Management Bureau (1988). Out of the total 184 reforestation projects, a sample of 37 projects (48% of the total) distributed over all the Philippines were field checked and used to determine plantation area up to the end of 1987. Grid lines of 250m×250m were transferred onto topographical (field) maps (1:20,000 scale) for easy orientation and accurate delineation of the reforestation blocks. Field maps were prepared in the office delineating boundaries of plantations as shown on the project maps along with other geographical features. All the stands and areas of the selected reforestation projects were visited and plantation details such as area, species, year of planting, crown cover and tree heights were recorded on the maps.

Result

Remark: Net area for the whole country has been estimated based on the sample.

Sri Lanka

The national level inventory of forest plantations in Sri Lanka was initiated in 1982 with the assistance of the UNDP and the FAO for preparing the management planning of selected areas. Subsequently, the Forest Resources Development Planning (FRDP) project came into being with the assistance of the World Bank and FINNIDA, becoming operational in July 1983, for the preparation of the National Forestry Master Plan under which the whole country was covered and all resources (natural & plantation forests as well as non-forest plantations) inventoried, FAO/SL(1986). In the beginning (1982), when aerial photos of adequate scale were unavailable, systematic line plot surveys based on a surveyed road alignment were employed in selected plantations in the upcountry and dryzone. In 1983 when aerial photo coverage at 1:20,000 became available random sampling with circular plots was applied. Areas of forest plantations were estimated using dot grid (1:20 000 scale) directly on the interpreted air photos and partly from maps and ground checks in various stages during 1982–85 (mostly in 1984–85). Approximate area of plantations older than 5 years were estimated at 75,000 ha at the end of 1984. In other words, total net plantation area under the Forest Department (including about 10,000 ha in Wild Life Dept.) in 1979 was about 75,000 ha.

Derived result

Remark: Reported area in 1979 has been estimated from the reported area of 1980 which was 112,000 ha and annual planting was 6,000 ha.

In the 1982–85 inventory, provision was made to set up a computer register for continuous updating of plantation records. The Forestry Master Plan of Sri Lanka subsequently prepared (not seen by the author) quotes total area planted up to the end of 1984 as 104,000 ha which is about 74% of the reported planted area (140,000 ha) up to that year.

Vietnam

The original of the two inventory reports mentioned below has not been seen by the author and is based on personal communication, hence no reference is quoted.

VPPP Project Forest Inventory: In order to study long term wood supply to the Vinh Phu Pulp and Paper mill in Vietnam, a forestry inventory including plantations within the project area was carried out during 1984/85 in collaboration with Swedish government. The actual area of Styrax tonkinensis plantation, the mill's main future source of raw material, completed durïng the five year period 1980–84 in Ha Tuyen Province was found to be remarkably low compared to plantation area reported after the detailed field inventory.

Result

National Inventory:

The national forest inventory of Vietnam was completed during 1986–87 by the Forest Inventory and Planning Institute (FIPI). The existing area of concentrated plantations, established for economic purposes up to 1987, was found as 583,347 ha. The area of concentrated plantation reported in Vietnam is confusing.

The only country document, Forestry Sector Review TFAP (1991), states the progress of concentrated plantations since 1975 and the total area planted up to 1989 as being 1,023,429 ha, although some plantations were established prior to 1975. However, reported plantation area up to 1987, based on the latest document, has been estimated as 774,135 ha.

Derived result

Tropical Africa

Cote d'Ivoire

Almost all plantations in Cote d'Ivoire are established and managed by a unique State Society, Société de Développement des Plantations Forestières (SODEFOR). A survey of the all the plantations established by the society up to 1990 has been recently completed, the results of which are as follows: SODEFOR (1991)

Result

Remark: Gross area means area planted by the society including failures and is analogous to reported area.

Madagascar

The World Bank has financed a good proportion of pine plantations in the Haut Mangoro Valley of Madagascar since 1974/75. Sandwell (1984) made an inventory of all plantations (including pre project ones) established up to 1981–82 to assess the actual area. As was their normal practice, the FANALAMANGA (the society created for planting) determined plantation area from nursery production data using the conversion factor of 1,600 seedlings = 1 ha accordingly preparing 1:25,000 compartment maps. As a result of photo interpretation, rectification, and preparation of plantation cover type maps (using aerial photographs of 1:18 000 scale taken in June 1981), Sandwell estimated total net surface area of existing plantations, the result of which is presented below.

Result

Nigeria

Plantations of Gmelina arborea in the Omo Forest Reserve in Nigeria were created for the production of pulpwood. In order to assess the potential yield and revenue, a survey of melina plantations established up to 1985, was carried out in 1989 by laying out 10 to 15 random circular sample plots, 0.05 ha in size, depending on the area of each year of plantation Pushparajah (1986). The following result was found.

Result

Senegal

Plantations were established in Probovil, under the Village Afforestation Project in Senegal during 1983–88, in different forms: blocks, shelterbelt, shade and protection. Plantation inventories carried out during 1989 revealed the following facts about the success of plantations, Gonzalez, P. (1989)

Ethiopia

Large scale plantation in Ethiopia began in 1985, under the Red Cross Project in southern Wollo, by planting 5 to 10 million seedlings annually in Upper Mille and Cheleka Catchments-Disaster Prevention Programme (UMCC-DPP). Reforestation of eroded hill sides and fuelwood production were the main objectives of the programme. A study to conduct a thorough survey of the actual survival rate of the 1988 plantations, aged 7 to 12 months, within the UMCCDPP area was carried out during 1989, Bendz (1990). Plantation area actually covered was not indicated in the survey, but altogether 1,329 sample plots from 47 plantation sites were analyzed. An average survival rate of 64% was recorded for all the species. Eucalypts (E. globulus + E. camaldulensis) constituted about 76% of the plantations with an average survival rate of 66%.

Results

TROPICAL LATIN AMERICA AND CARIBBEAN

Brazil

A nationwide inventory of plantations in Brazil, especially of those approved under fiscal incentive schemes and planted by private large scale enterprises, was carried out during the early 1980s along with the native forest inventory (Inventario Forestal Nacional 1983). Plantations of araucaria, eucalypts and pines planted up to 1981 in Parana, Santa Catarina, Rio Grande do Sul, Minas Gerais, Spirito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, and Sao Paulo states; and up to 1980 in Goias, Mato grosso do Sul and Distrito Federal only were inventoried. Other species in relatively smaller proportions, like acacias and fruit bearing trees, were excluded. The inventory was carried out by state universities using Landsat images, aerial photographs and ground verification. The young plantations, whose area was small according to the state forestry agency and could not be located on the images, were verified by low flying aircraft or by ground checking. Statewise reported area figures, viz. net area arrived after inventory, are presented in the table below.

Result

Colombia

Forestry plantation records for Colombia are published by Ministerio de Agricultura, Forestal La Florida. In view of the likely discrepancy between plantation area reported by the Ministerio de Agricultura and actual plantation area up to the end of 1983, and inventory was carried out in 1985 mainly in the west of Colombia. Existing plantations were estimated have an area of between 130,000 ha and 150,000 ha, but reported plantation area was 243,000 ha. The success percentage (taking mid value as 140,000 ha) in the instant case was estimated as 57% (ANDI: 1987).

Result

Another discrepancy of similar order (net area equals 64% of reported area) has been noticed in recent reports. In the national report submitted to the 10th World Forestry Congress 1991 and to International Training on Management of Forest and Wood Industries 1991, actual plantation area up to the end of 1988 was a reported 170,000 ha where as Ministerio de Agricultura reported 263,000 ha.

Jamaica

In Jamaica, plantations during the 1970s were established mainly with the assistance of USAID. By 1977, a total plantation area of about 10,000 ha was reported to have been established consisting of 7,100 ha of caribbean pine and 2,900 ha of various hardwood species. An inventory of plantations carried out in 1980 showed that actual plantation areas were much lower than reported (method of inventory not indicated) (Anon, 1986).

Results

Nicaragua

A forest plantation survey in Nicaragua has been recently completed for the preparation of the National Tropical Forestry Action Plan. Of the total planted area (19 617 ha), about 82% is for industrial purposes and rest for protection and research purposes. The results of the survey reveal that about 1,550 ha of plantations have totally failed, about 12,700 ha are partly damaged and only 5,400 ha have been successfully established (Anon, 1991).

Result

Puerto Rico

According to Forest Service records (USDA Forest Service, Annual Reports), about 11,200 ha were planted by public agencies as of 1978, while private interests have planted about 27,000 ha in Puerto Rico. However, the over all success of these plantations and their actual area was not known (Birdsey and Weaver, 1982). In order to assess the actual area of plantation an exercise has been recently completed by Francis (1991). A number of methods were used to acquire the actual data; from published sources, from management files, information furnished by forest managers and in a few cases by mapping the plantation areas based on personal field observation. The survey has revealed the area of existing plantation as 3,992 hectares consisting of 1,170 ha mahogany, 472 ha eucalyptus, 375 ha pines, 130 ha teak and others. It has been further stated that about 20% of the mahogany, mixed, and other plantations may have been destroyed during the hurricane of September 1989. These factors may mean that the current actual area may be even less. The inventory data presented below is from the pre damage period.

Result

Remark: In the absence of any other report on total plantation area in this territory of U.S.A., net area figure has been quoted for this territory in the table of reported area for the year 1990.