Although the controversy on the merits and use of coastal lands for aquaculture continues, data reported to FAO on the global pattern of environments used for culture suggest that aquaculture output from brackishwater environments has only increased by an APR¹ of 2.6 between 1990 and 1995, compared with APRs of 10.8 and 10.6 from freshwater and marine environments, respectively.

Figure 1.1.2.1
In 1995, the brackishwater environments accounted for only 5.4% and 16.6% of total aquatic production by quantity and value, respectively, compared with around 47% by quantity and 41-42% by value from freshwater and marine environments (Figure 1.1.2.1).

Moreover, if aquatic plants are excluded from total aquaculture production, the contribution of finfish and shellfish from freshwater environments continues to dominate output and in 1995 accounted for around 63% of the total tonnage of cultured finfish and shellfish. Culture from brackishwater and marine environments contributed 7% and 30%, respectively.

Figure 1.1.2.2

Figure 1.1.2.3
Brackishwaters have been used to produce a diverse range of aquatic products (Figure 1.1.2.3A ). The main group are the crustaceans, mostly prawns, which accounted for 55% of the production from brackishwaters in 1995, and 44% was made up of finfish such as tilapias and various diadromous fishes (e.g. milkfish), and molluscs. Freshwater bodies were used predominantly to produce finfish such as carp, catfish, tilapia and trout (Figure 1.1.2.3B).

Figure 1.1.2.4

Major cultured groups of aquatic organisms

As in previous years, freshwater finfishes, in particular the Chinese and Indian carps, accounted for the greatest share (45.6%) of total aquaculture production. Although higher in value, the diadromous and marine finfishes collectively accounted for only 7% of total weight. Aquatic plants, which were valued at nearly US$6 thousand million, contributed a quarter of total production. As in 1994, crustaceans, whilst only accounting for 4.1% of total tonnage, were the second most important cultured group in monetary terms, accounting for 17.3% of total value (Figure 1.1.2.4 ).

The overall trend of increasing the number of cultured species while raising the production of more 'traditional' species continued in 1995. The rate of expansion of the latter increased in countries having appropriate technical skills and resources, although the reported production of several species and species groups was lower than in the recent past. The number of species used for aquaculture may in fact be considerably higher than reported. This is evident from the rapidly growing and undesirable practice of reporting incompletely classified species to FAO.

Figure 1.1.2.5

Figure 1.1.2.6A
Apart from the unknown trophic levels of the unclassified finfishes, all the above species for 1995 and those of the top 10 over the last decade are organisms low in the food chain, i.e. they are either filter feeders, herbivores/omnivores or plants (Figure 1.1.2.6A and Figure 1.1.2.6B ).

Figure 1.1.2.6B

The ranking of the top eight species/groups in 1995 showed little change over the last decade and the ranking of the top four remained has unchanged over the last five years (Figure 1.1.2.6A and Figure 1.1.2.6B).

Although highest in value, the quantity of shrimps and prawns produced does not place them amongst the top dozen or so farmed aquatic species. The major species of cultured prawn, Penaeus monodon, was ranked 14th in 1995; P. vannamei and P. chinensis, predominantly cultured in Ecuador and China, respectively, were ranked 39th and 42nd (Table 1.1.2.2).

A few notable major changes can be discerned between 1994 and 1995 from the data on aquaculture production collated by ISSCAAP¹ groups. These include an increase of 250% in the total production of turtles (ISSCAAP group No. 72) from 5,400 mt in 1994 to more than 19,000 mt. Similarly, the total production of sea spiders and crabs and the miscellaneous marine molluscs groups reported in 1995 increased by 97% and 196%, respectively, over that in 1994. Nearly all these increases were attributable to Chinese aquaculture. Chinese production of freshwater turtles (Trionyx spp.) rose from 4,400 to 17,500 mt, and the reported culture of unclassified marine crabs and unclassified marine molluscs rose from 10,000 mt to 48,000 mt and from 188,000 mt to 559,000 mt, respectively.

The overall global production of total finfish and shellfish, and carps increased between 1994 and 1995 by 13.6% and 15%, respectively. However, these increases were not uniform over time. Thailand’s aquaculture output, for example, declined from 514,000 mt in 1994 to 464,000 mt in 1995, an overall decrease of 9.7%, mainly of freshwater species: an 80-90% reduction in reported production of Cyprinus carpio (common carp) and Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (silver carp), a 68% drop in Labeo rohita (rohu), a 40-50% decline in Puntius gonionotus (silver barb), Pangasius pangasius (pangas catfish), Macrobrachium rosenbergii (giant river prawn), and Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia). These large decreases, however, were somewhat offset by an modest estimated rise of 13,000 mt (5%) in Penaeus monodon. Other countries reporting noticeable declines in production of finfish and shellfish in the same period included the Faeroe Islands, Japan, Netherlands, Philippines and Spain.

Opportunities for diversification and culturing new species to exploit new national and international markets were also evident from several first-time reports of species and rapid increase in production of selected species by various countries in 1995. This was most evident in China which reported to the FAO for the first time, the production of 37,500 mt of mandarin fish (Siniperca chuatsi), a carnivorous freshwater perch-like fish widely distributed in Chinese reservoirs. In addition, the reported Chinese production of the river crab (Eriocheir sinensis) has increased 4 -5 fold in the last five years to 42,000 mt in 1995.

Countries in Europe also reported the production of new species in 1995. France reported 197 mt of the Japanese carpet shell (Ruditapes philippinarum) and Germany 1,200 mt of unclassified clams. The UK and Russian Federation reported 120 and 100 mt of Mozambique tilapia (O. mossambicus) and channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus), respectively.

Three finfish species groups, the carps, salmonids and tilapias, dominate finfish production and in 1995 accounted for 82% of total finfish production. For invertebrates, the major groups were mussels, oysters, scallops, clams and cockles, which accounted for 73%, and shrimps and prawns, which provided 15% of total invertebrate production. Overall, there has been a marked increase in production of both high- and low-value species. Notable features between 1984 and 1995 were that in most finfish, shellfish and plant categories, only a few species or genera dominated production, and that the growth of the subsectors was not uniform.

Figure 1.1.2.7

Global carp production. The total world landings of carp from fisheries (culture and capture) have increased at an APR of 11.4 since 1984, reaching 10.9 million mt in 1995; carp represent 10% of total world fishery production (including plants) and 52% of total fisheries production from inland waters. The bulk of carp landings has always been from aquaculture (Figure 1.1.2.7 ), which increased from 2.93 million mt or 90% in 1984 to 10.37 million mt or 95% in 1995.

Figure 1.1.2.8
The carps are by far the largest group of cultured aquatic organisms. More than 26 cyprinid species and species groups have been cultured during the review period, a few of which dominate global culture: the Chinese carps (silver, grass, bighead, crucian, black and mud), common carp, and Indian major carps (rohu (= roho labeo), catla and mrigal) (Figure 1.1.2.8 and Figure 1.1.2.9). In 1984 and 1995 these species accounted for 75% and 80% of all cultured carps, respectively.

The culture of Chinese carp was dominated by three species, the silver, grass and bighead ( Figure 1.1.2.8 ); in 1995 these contributed to 30%, 25% and 15%, respectively, of total Chinese carp production. Common carp made up another 21%. The world production of Chinese and common carps has been predominately by China: from 80% or 1.8 million mt in 1984 to 98% or 8.3 million mt in 1995. Culture of common carp is geographically the most widespread, being cultured in 86 countries. In 1995, the larger producers outside China were India (258,000 mt), Indonesia (136,000 mt), Russian Federation (33,000 mt) and Ukraine (30,000 mt).

Figure 1.1.2.9

Almost all Indian major carp production has come from India, but in recent years a growing, albeit small proportion, is cultured in Myanmar, Thailand and Laos. Rohu is the most widely cultured species outside India and Myanmar is the largest non-Indian producer. In 1995, Myanmar, Thailand and Laos produced 74,000 mt, 950 mt and 1,800 mt, respectively.

Figure 1.1.2.10

Penaeus shrimps nei³, whiteleg shrimp, fleshy prawn and banana prawn from culture to total landing of these species/groups increased from 29.4% in 1984 to 65.2% in 1995.

Figure 1.1.2.11
The increase in contributions from shrimp farming was principally due to the culture of penaeid species, which in 1995 accounted for 96.3% of all cultured shrimp and prawns (Table 1.1.2.2). Penaeid production, notably of giant tiger prawn and unclassified Penaeus species, increased from 31% or 54,000 mt and 12% or 21,000 mt in 1984, respectively, to 54% or 503,000t and 18% or 165,000t in 1995. Although the production of most other major species increased in tonnage, their percentage contribution to total culture has declined since 1984 due to both their lower production base and relatively slower rates of expansion. However, the production of the fleshy prawn, 99.5% of which was produced in China in 1995, has decreased substantially in terms of tonnage since 1993; between 1990 and 1995 production decreased at an APR of -15.7 compared with a rapid APR of 45.7 between 1984 and 1990 ( Figure 1.1.2.11). A decrease in the expansion rate during 1990-1995, reflecting lower production output due to environmental degradation and farming mismanagement and the subsequent disease loses during this period, was evident at the global level for each of the top five Penaeid species and species groups ( Figure 1.1.2.11). For the giant tiger prawn, which accounted for 54% of culture in 1995, the average annual expansion rate during 1990-1995 decreased by 7.6%.

Figure 1.1.2.12
In 1995, 87% or 720,000 mt of the major cultured shrimp and prawn species and species groups originated in Asia. ( Figure 1.1.2.12). Thailand was the world's largest producer, accounting for more than 55% or 277,000 mt of giant tiger prawns and 5% or 1,800 mt of banana prawns in 1995. The cultured species varied between the major producers. In contrast to Thailand, Philippines and Indonesia, China reported only the production of the fleshy prawn (78,000 mt), whereas Penaeus species were reported in India (10,000 mt), Bangladesh (34,000 mt) and Mexico (16,000 mt). Latin American countries cultured the whiteleg prawn --Ecuador (81,000 mt) and Colombia (8,000 mt)( Figure 1.1.2.12).

Global tilapia production

Figure 1.1.2.13

Figure 1.1.2.14
Four cichlid species or species groups (Nile tilapia, unidentified tilapias, Mozambique tilapia and blue tilapia) dominated production between 1984 and 1995; in 1995, these accounted for 99.5% of cichlid production. Global production was greatly influenced by rapid expansion of Nile and Mozambique tilapia culture in China, the Philippines, Thailand, Indonesia and Egypt. Nile tilapia dominated global tilapia culture and its share of total tilapia production increased dramatically from 33% or 66,000 mt in 1984 to 72% or 474,000 mt in 1995 (Figure 1.1.2.14). In China, the leading producer, production increased from 18,000t in 1984 to 315,000t in 1995. This resulted in China accounting for 48% of total global tilapia culture. The tonnage of incompletely identified tilapia species (tilapia nei) has not changed significantly, but the concurrent expansion of Nile tilapia has resulted in their global decline from 46% or 92,000 mt in 1984 to 18% or 118,000 mt in 1995 (Figure 1.1.2.14). Much of the production in this group in 1995 was attributable to Taiwan Province of China (39%), Philippines (16%), Mexico (13%), and USA (5.8%) where tilapia hybrids of species such as O. niloticus, O. aureus, O. mossambicus, O. hornorum and varieties known as red tilapia, cherry snapper, etc., are cultured.

Figure 1.1.2.15
In common with other major cultured groups, the expansion of tilapia culture between 1984 and 1995 has not been uniform ( Figure 1.1.2.15). For all tilapias, the fastest expansion was recorded during 1984-1990; thereafter, the average rate of expansion decreased. For the Nile tilapia, the expansion of production decreased from an APR of 22.6 during 1984-1990 to 9.6 in 1994-1995 ( Figure 1.1.2.15). Similarly, for the same periods the production of the Mozambique tilapia decreased from an APR of 21.8 to 8.9. The production of the blue tilapia (O. aureus), which was mainly reported by Cuba, has declined sharply ( Figure 1.1.2.15).

Global salmonid production

Figure 1.1.2.16

Global production of salmonids (salmon and trout) from culture and capture expanded at an APR of about 8 from 1984 to 2 million mt in 1995. A large proportion of this increase was due to the rapid expansion of cultured salmon. The share of cultured salmon species to total world salmon landings increased from 5% or 34,000 mt in 1984 to 34% or 542,000 mt in 1995. This, together with the growing contribution of cultured trout to total trout landings from 89% to 98% in the same period, resulted in an increase in the share of cultured salmonids to total global production from 26% in 1984 to 46% in 1995 ( Figure 1.1.2.16 ).

The culture of salmonids has been dominated by four species; the Atlantic (50%), coho (6.2%) and chinook (1.3%) salmon and rainbow trout (39%) accounted for 97% of all cultured salmonids produced in 1995. Atlantic salmon remains the main species of salmon culture and the top three producers in 1995, Norway (268,000 mt), Chile (70,000 mt), and the United Kingdom (54,000 mt) accounted for 83% of world's production by culture. The culture of rainbow trout was geographically more widespread and reported by 48 countries. The top four countries, France (49,000 mt), Chile (43,000 mt), Denmark (41,000 mt) and Italy (40,000 mt) accounted for 48% of all cultured trout in 1995.

Figure 1.1.2.17
The production of rainbow trout has gradually increased at an APR of around 6.2 since 1984 to 385,000 mt in 1995. Salmonid production increased at an APR of 28 between 1984 and 1995: Atlantic salmon from 27,000 mt in 1984 at an APR of 29 to 472,000 mt in 1995; coho salmon from 6,400 mt to 58,000 mt; and chinook salmon, from just 100 mt to over 19,000 mt in 1991 before declining to 112,00 mt in 1995 (Figure 1.1.2.17).

Figure 1.1.2.18