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9. GRAPE PRODUCTION IN THAILAND

Surasak Nilnond*

*Associate Professor, Department of Horticulture, Faculty of Agriculture, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand.
1. INTRODUCTION

Before 1960, table grapes were imported from the United States and Australia to Thailand, incurring high costs. At that time more than one hundred varieties were also introduced for testing from the United States and other countries. It was found that grapes can be adapted and grown well in the country. In 1956, Professor Pavin Punsri and his colleagues of the Department of Horticulture, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, tried to study and solve the problems of grape culture. The grape industry in Thailand has been a success since this time. The initial commercial table grape production areas were located in the Central Plain region at Nakhon Pathom, Ratchaburi, Samut Sakhon and Samut Songkhram provinces, which are near Bangkok. At present, the grape industry has expanded to the Northern, Northeastern and the Western regions.

The climatic and soil features of the grape growing areas are described below. In the Central Plain area the range of temperature, average rainfall/year, range of relative humidity and altitude are 25-30o C, 1300-1450 mm, 60-90 percent and 2-3 m, respectively. The soil is of a clayey type and drainage is often very poor in this region. It is, therefore, necessary to improve the drainage system by using the ‘ditch and dyke system’ which involves constructing raised beds alternating with ditches. The soil pH is about 5-5.5. Lime and manure are also needed to improve chemical and physical properties of these soils. The water sources in the Central Plain come from rivers and canals. In the Northern region the range of temperature, average annual rainfall, range of relative humidity and altitude are 10-20o C, 1400-1500 mm, 60-90 percent and 1200 m, respectively. The soil is a clay loam type and well drained with a soil pH of about 4-5. The water source comes from reservoirs that have been constructed for irrigation. In the Northeastern part of the country the range of temperature, average rainfall/year, range of relative humidity and altitude are 19-30o C, 1200-1300 mm, 60-90 percent and 450 m., respectively. The soil is a clay loam type with a pH of about 3.5-5, while the water sources also come from reservoirs.

2. PRESENT STATUS OF GRAPE CULTIVATION IN THE COUNTRY

The production status of grapes in Thailand in 1998 is shown in Table 1.

At present, there are about 2,717 hectares producing 31,677 tonnes/year with an average yield of about 15 t/ha. The main areas of grape production are located in the Central Plain area at Ratchaburi, Samut Sakhon and Nakhon Pathom, which mainly produce table grapes. However, some private firms use these table grapes for wine making. In the Northeastern region, growers grow both table and wine grapes. There are two wineries at Loei and Nakhon Ratchasima provinces. In the Northern region, the growers produce table grapes in Chiang Mai and Nan provinces and wine grapes in Phichit province. In these northern parts of Thailand, grape varieties were introduced into the highlands under the auspices of the Royal Project in 1981. Research work aims to improve the living conditions of hill tribes and use grape as a substitute crop for opium poppy. Results indicated that the varieties Beauty Seedless, Ruby Seedless and Early Muscat gave good growth, production and quality. Extension activities are currently being continued.

Data on the production of table and wine grapes are presented in Table 2. The main varieties for table grapes are white Malaga and Cardinal, which produced about 27,556.7 and 4,043.9 tonnes, respectively. These two varieties are mainly used for table grapes as well as for wine making. Other less important varieties are Kyoho, Beauty Seedless, Early Muscat and Carolina Black Rose. The major varieties of wine grapes are Chenin blanc and Shiraz, which produced a premium, table white wine and a red wine, respectively.

3. PRODUCTION OF PLANTING MATERIAL

There are no Government nurseries to produce grape planting materials. However, the growers can buy the planting material from private nurseries, which are situated in the grape growing areas.

Grapes are commercially propagated by asexual methods. The common practices of propagating are by marcotting (air layering), marcotting followed by budding, or raising cuttings and subsequently budding onto these rooted cuttings. The methods of marcotting - budding and cutting - budding techniques are accepted by nurserymen and growers.

Solonis x othello 1613 is the only rootstock which is used for table and wine grape varieties. It is vigorous, nematode and phylloxera resistant, drought and waterlogging resistant, less resistant to lime, while at the same time it roots and grafts easily.

Table 1. Production Status of Grape in Thailand in 1998

Province

Total 1/Planted Area (ha)

Total Production (tonnes)

Average Yield (t/ha)

Table Grape (ha)

Wine Grape (ha)

Whole Kingdom

2,717.9

31,677.1

15.2

2,377.5 (87.4%)

340.4 (12.6%)

Northern Region






Chiang Mai

8.0

0

0

8.0

-

Nan

11.5

22.5

9.4

11.5

-

Phichit

6.4

0

0

-

6.4

Total

25.9

22.5

-

19.5

6.4

Northeastern Region






Nakhon Phanom

2.4

0

0

2.4

-

Nakhon Ratchasima

90.2

1,045.0

14.5

18.2

72

Buriram

13.3

52.2

16.3

13.3

-

Loei

224.0

2,800.0

12.5

112.0

112.0

Si Sa Ket

2.4

0

0

2.4

-

Surin

2.2

0

0

2.2

-

Ubon Ratchathani

3.7

0

0

3.7

-

Total

338.2

3,897.2

-

154.4

184.0

Central and Western Regions






Saraburi

39.7

49.0

17.0

39.7

-

Ang Thong

5.1

108.0

25.0

5.1

-

Ratchaburi

1,427.8

16,894.5

17.0

1,339.8

88.0*

Samut Songkhram

3.2

20.0

6.3

3.2

-

Samut Sakhon

647.7

9,525.5

15.7

587.7

60.0*

Nakhon Pathom

92.2

1,160.4

23.7

90.2

2.0*

Suphan Buri

12.2

0

0

12.2

-

Kanchanaburi

125.9

0

0

125.9

-

Total

2,353.8

27,757.0

-

2,203.8

150.0


Source:

Department of Agriculture Extension

Remark:

1/Nonbearing, includes planting

*

Estimated planted area by amount of processing used.


Table 2. Production Statistics for Table Grape and Processing Varieties in 1998

Varieties

Total Production (tonnes)

Table Grape (tonnes)

Wine Grape (tonnes)

Wine Cooler (tonnes)

Others1/ (tonnes)

Main Varieties






White Malaga

27,556.7

25,956.7

100*

1,500*

<1

Cardinal

4,043.9

3,293.9

50*

700*

<1

Kyuho

22.5

22.5

-

-

-

Beauty Seedless

53.0*

53.0

-

-

-

Chenin blanc

150.0*

-

150*

-

-

Shiraz

100.0*

-

100*

-

-

Other Varieties






Eary Muscat

8.0*

8.0

-

-

-

Carolina Black Rose

10.0*

10.0

-

-

-

Total

31,944.1

29,344.1

400

2,200

<1


Source:

Department of Agriculture Extension

Remark:

*Personal communication


1/Fruit salad, Juice


4. ESTABLISHMENT OF VINEYARDS

In the Central Plain vines are grown on raised beds (about 6 m wide) in areas that have a high watertable or are waterlogged. The beds alternate with the ditches (about 1 m wide and 1 m deep) which provide for irrigation as well as for drainage. The water is also used for mixing with fungicide and insecticide for spraying. The vines are usually grown at the centre of the bed, about 2 m apart or at the two edges of the raised beds. The number of vines per hectare varies from 550 to 1,100 vines.

In the upland areas where a high watertable does not pose a problem raised beds are not necessary. Land preparation and digging planting holes should be done after the rainy season. The size of the hole is usually 0.5 x 0.5 x 0.5 m (width x length x depth). The spacing is about 1.5 - 2 x 3.5 - 4 m with the number of vines planted at 1,250-1,875 density per hectare. Soil in the planting holes is allowed to dry for one month before planting. Manure or compost should be mixed with the soil and filled up in each hole. The suitable schedule for planting is in January or February.

5. CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF VINEYARDS

Support

Grapevines cannot be grown satisfactorily without some support. There were many kinds of training systems during the early years of grape culture in Thailand. At the present, the arbor system is preferred to a trellis. The height of the arbor is about 1.5 m above the ground level. The top is about 2-3 m wide. However, the training systems are dependent on the varieties of grapes, climate, and objectives of the growers.

Training and Pruning

In training a vine, the canes are spread out evenly to cover the area of the arbor, with no definite or regular training design. When the vine is 10 to 12 months old, the mature canes are pruned in order to force out the buds.

Fertilizer Application

Grapevines can adapt themselves to a wide range of soil fertility conditions. However, fertilizers are necessary for vigorous growth, high yield and to give better quality fruits. The main areas of grape culture in Thailand have clay soil types and were formerly rice fields. These soils need a large amount of organic matter and, therefore, manure is used a great deal. Complete fertilizers are usually applied to grapevines in the following manner:

- During the early growth phase of young vines obtained by budding, grafting or marcotting or before the first pruning, ammonium sulphate, urea or complete fertilizer (15:15:15) at the rate of 200-300 g/plant are usually applied every month.

- One to two months before the regular pruning period, fertilizer (9:25:25) at the rate of 200-300 g/plant is applied to promote flower bud development.

- Two weeks after fruit set, complete fertilizer (15:15:15) at the rate of 200-300 g/plant is applied to facilitate fruit growth and development.

- During the beginning of fruit softening or during colour change about one month before harvesting, complete fertilizer (13:13:21 or 12:12:17:2 or 9:25:25) at the rate of 200-300 g/plant should be applied to enhance fruit quality.

Weeding

In the Central Plain area, weeds are usually controlled by hand hoeing and application of herbicides. The herbicide used is grammoxone, which destroys the green parts of the weeds as the farmers prefer clean cultivation. In the uplands, weeds are controlled by hand hoeing, ploughing and using herbicides.

Irrigation

Water source and supply are important for the vineyards. Reservoir and groundwater tube wells are suitable for surface irrigation. Pipeline systems and hose irrigation would be practical and more economical for the farmers. However, mulching with rice straw is also very necessary during the dry season. In the Central Plain areas, the vines are grown on raised beds alternating with the ditches, which can provide the water supply needed for the vines.

Insects and Diseases

Insect problems are not that serious but diseases such as downy mildew, powdery mildew, anthracnose, bitter rot and fruit rot are quite harmful.

Insects: There are several kinds of insects that attack leaves, flower and berries e.g. leaf hopper, leaf roller, thrips and mites. The insecticides used for control are carbaryl, methomyl, carbosulfan, and dicofol, etc.

Diseases: The important diseases of grapes are described below:

a) Downy Mildew: The fungus (Plasmopara viticola) thrives best and becomes most destructive during still, cool and moist weather. Although primarily a foliage disease, the fungus also attacks flower clusters. The fungicides used for control of downy mildew are Zineb, Maneb, Captan, Mancozeb and Metalaxyl.

b) Powdery Mildew: The causal fungus (Oidium tuckeri) unlike most other diseases of grapes, which are favoured by moist conditions, thrives best in a dry climate. It attacks during berry growth and these developing berries will crack later. For the control of powdery mildew, the vines are sprayed with wettable sulphur.

c) Anthracnose: The causal fungus (Gloeosporium ampelophagum) attacks all parts of vines. The fungal attack is usually serious during the rainy season. For the control of anthracnose, the vines are sprayed with Mancozeb, carbendazim or benomyl.

d) Dead Arm: The fungus (Melanconium fuligeneum) attacks during fruit maturity, particularly during 2-3 weeks before harvesting. The affected canes will die and the fruit will soften and shrink. For the control of this fungus a spraying of copper fungicide or difenoconazole is given to all parts of the vines.

e) Berry Rots: There are several fungi which will attack the berries and fruit clusters during fruit maturity such as Blue mold (Penicillium spp.), Rhizopus rot (Rhizopus spp.), Ripe rot (Collectotrichum gloeosporioides), Bitter rot (Greeneria uvicola) and Botrytis bunch rot (Botrytis cinerea). The fungal attack is usually serious during the rainy season. The control of these fungi is by spraying common systemic fungicides.

Special Practices for Improving Grape Quality

There are some special practices to improve the yield and quality of grapes such as:

- Improving bud break or bud burst is achieved by treating canes with hydrogen cyanamide.

- Cluster elongation, cluster loosening, berry enlargement and seedlessness are induced by treating with gibberellic acid (GA).

- Increasing fruit colouration can be achieved by ethrel (2-chloroethylphosphonic acid) application.

- Rain and bird damage can be controlled by using a plastic roof and bagging of bunches.

6. HARVESTING AND YIELDS

Thailand has a tropical climate, which seems to stimulate the growth of grapes immensely. The first crop can be expected only 14 to 16 months after planting. The harvest can be timed at will because planting and pruning can be done at anytime of the year. The buds of the canes can be forced to sprout at any time of the year by pruning and consequently, two to three crops can be harvested from an individual vine in a year. In practice, however, the growers prune their vines twice a year and get two crops, one in the rainy season (May to October) and the other crop in the drought season (November to April). The latter crop is superior due to higher sugar content and better appearance. In the Central Plain area, grapes are grown under the ditch and dyke system. The pruning can also be done at any time of the year. However, in this intensive culture system disadvantages can be expected as the vines have a short life span of only 7 to 10 years. In general, the crop is inferior in quality during the rainy season and vineyard management is also quite intensive.

In White Malaga, which is a late variety, growers can have two harvests a year per vine or five harvests per vine every two years. The average yield is 15-20 kg per harvest. With Cardinal, a very early variety, one can have even three to four harvests a year per vine. The average yield of a vine is 12-15 kg per harvest.

7. MARKETING

Marketing of grapes in Thailand is not organized as there is no organization or association for marketing of this crop. Hence, the sequence of marketing is usually from the growers to middlemen (1 or 2) who transport to markets from which the produce is retailed to consumers. Most of table grapes are for domestic consumption. The export of table grapes is only a small amount (Table 3). The price of table grapes depends on the variety, quality, season and demand. The average farm price of old varieties like white Malaga and Cardinal is about 30-37 baht/kg, while that of the new variety of seedless grapes is about 100-150 baht/kg.

Table 3. Quantity and Value of Grape Exports (1993-1997)

Item


1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

Quantity

Value

Quantity

Value

Quantity

Value

Quantity

Value

Quantity

Value

Grapes Fresh

40

861

34

707

31

545

22

509

38

839


Source:

Office of Agricultural Economics

Remark:

Quantity: metric tonnes

Value:

1,000 baht


The data in Table 4 and 5 show the quantity and value of table grapes and wine imports. The quantity and value of table grapes and wine have increased since 1993 up to the present time.

Table 4. Quantity and Value of Grape Imports (1993-1997)

Items


1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

Quantity

Value

Quantity

Value

Quantity

Value

Quantity

Value

Quantity

Value

Grape Fresh

1,633

131.7

2,326

177.4

2,318

183.4

2,591

191.6

3,640

262.7

Grape Dried

81

4.9

53

2.5

79

3.5

189

6.9

206

9.3

Total

1,714

136.6

2,379

179,9

2,397

186.9

2,780

198.5

3,846

272


Source:

Office of Agricultural Economics

Remark:

Quantity: metric tonnes

Value:

1,000 baht


Table 5. Quantity and Value of Wine Imports (1993-1997)

Items


1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

Quantity

Value

Quantity

Value

Quantity

Value

Quantity

Value

Quantity

Value

Champagne (1000 litres)

157

30.9

189

25.92

396

39.6

89

21.5

76

18.0

Wines (1000 litres)

111

10.1

114

11.8

193

40.7

258

42.8

123

10.3

Other wines (1000 litres)

1,824

141.5

1,907

169.9

3,657

360.8

8,579

784.8

5,734

410.6

Total

2,092

182.5

2,210

207.6

4,246

441.1

8,926

849.1

5,933

438.9


Source:

Office of Agricultural Economics

Remark:

Quantity: 1,000 litres

Value:

1,000 baht


8. POTENTIAL FOR GRAPE PRODUCTION DEVELOPMENT

In the past, table grapes were imported from foreign countries at great cost. Since 1960, grape growers have succeeded in producing grapes locally and even have exported to foreign markets. In 1987, however, new varieties of good quality table grapes continued to be imported in increased quantity and value (Table 4) although the imported table grapes were expensive. Both table and wine grapes have a very good potential as a horticultural fruit crop, although it requires an intensive crop management. Nevertheless, it is a lucrative enterprise for farmers. The data of Table 5 shows the quantity and value of wine imports which is of great interest to the private commercial sector. At the present time, grape growing areas have expanded to many new provinces.

9. CONSTRAINTS IN GRAPE PRODUCTION DEVELOPMENT

Thailand is located within the tropical climatic belt characterized by a hot climate, high rainfall and humidity. However, the vines can be adapted to grow well. Although the fruit produced in the dry season is of very good quality, the production, productivity and quality of grapes is far below that of sub-tropical climatic regions. Grape production can be useful for local consumption and export to some countries in the Region. The advantage of grape production in the country is that growers can predict the harvesting time of the year by pruning, and the vines can be harvested two to three times a year.

There are several constraints to be considered that affects the development of the grape industry in Thailand.

- In the Central Plain or lowland areas, the growers have to construct raised beds or dykes alternating with ditches. The growers allow too much over-cropping, often harvesting two-three times a year. The vines, therefore, have a short life-span of about 7-10 years under this intensive cropping system.

- The temperature, rainfall and high humidity are limiting factors that affect produce quality.

- The growers spray a lot of fungicides and insecticides to protect their crops without considering residual effects of the chemicals. The growers learn their grape cultivation from nearby grape growers and they also use these potent chemicals on the advice of the chemical suppliers.

- High initial investment, especially high cost of new good varieties, trellising, constructing reservoirs and irrigation systems, agricultural tools, framework for plastic roofs to protect from the rain, high cost of insecticides, fungicides and fertilizers are constraints to the expansion of the grape industry.

- Lack of knowledge on diseases and pest control measures and quality control technologies.

- Inadequacy of sufficient Government policy support for the grape industry.

10. GOVERNMENT POLICIES AND PLANS FOR RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT OF GRAPES

The priority of the important economic fruit crops are considered by the Committee of the Horticulture Research Institute under the Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives. The grape crop has been given the lowest priority among fruit crops. There are some plans for wine and table grape production development in 1977-2001 and the period of the next ten years beyond 2001. The aim is to study all aspects of production. In the past, there were only a few research papers on grapes. However, the Department of Horticulture, Faculty of Agriculture, Kasetsart University, has tried to study and carry out research on table and wine grapes since 1960 up to the present time.

11. CONCLUDING REMARKS

The grape industry in Thailand has progressed greatly since 1960. The main areas are located in the Central Plain, which is diversifying into the rice growing lands. The major grape varieties are White Malaga and Cardinal, which are used for table grape and wine making. At present, the grape industry has expanded to Northern, Northeastern and the Western regions. The total planted area of 2,717 hectares produces 31,677 tonnes/year and the average yield is about 15 t/ha. Of the total grape production, 87.4 percent is used as table grapes and 12.6 percent for wine production, respectively. Vineyard management is quite intensive and often costly to growers. There are many diseases and insect problems. Grape growing, however, is a highly remunerative enterprise as the crop is easily marketable. The grape industry development should be supported by the Government through the cooperation of the researchers and the growers. Considering the increasing demand and the ingenuity of local farmers, the grape industry has much potential for further expansion in the years to come.

REFERENCES

Nilnond, S. 1981. Grape culture in Thailand. Horticulture Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand. 4 p.

Nilnond, S and S. Subhadrabandhu. 1982. Varieties trial of grape at Doi Inthanon, Chiang Mai province, pp 40-43. In: Research on small fruit production as substitute crops for opium poppy. Final report of phase 1 (October 1979 - September 1982). Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand.

Nilnond, S and C. Sukumalanandana. 1988. The improvement of grape quality and production: Fruiting responses of some grape varieties to gibberellic acid. Kasetsart J. (Nat. Sci.) Vol 22 No3: 229-237.

Nilnond, S., C. Sukumalanandana and P. Punsri. 1988. Viticulture for wine production. Agriculture Science. Vol 21. No 1: 34 - 39.

Nilnond, S., R. Yuwansiri, C. Sukumalanandana and P. Kermanee. 1996. Effects of gibberellic acid on seed and berry development in ‘White Malaga’ grape at Doi Inthanon, Chiang Mai province. Kasetsart. J. (Nat. Sci.) Vol 30 No 2: 157-162.

Winkle, A. J., J. A. cook, W. M. Kliewer and L. A. Lider. 1974. General Viticulture. Univ. of California Press, California. 710 p.


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