Rice-based production systems for food security and poverty alleviation in the Near East and North Africa

A.T. Badawi
Vice-President and Head of National Rice Research Program Agricultural Research Center, Giza, Egypt

INTRODUCTION - A BRIEF BACKGROUND

The importance of rice

Rice is the staple food for more than half the world's population. It is the most rapidly growing food source in Africa and is consequential to the food security of an increasing number of low-income food-deficit countries (LIFDCs). In 2002, 575 million tonnes of rice were produced in 113 countries. This figure was, nevertheless, less than that for consumption, with the result that large quantities of rice had to be drawn from the buffer stock to meet demand. Today, there are still about 800 million people suffering from malnourishment and hunger: achieving a sustainable increase in rice production can improve global food security and contribute to poverty alleviation.

Increasing demand

There is growing concern that current levels of rice production will not meet future demand. Production technology from the green revolution has been exhibiting diminishing returns, and the 1990s saw a marked decline in yield growth rate. Since 2000, annual withdrawals from rice stocks have been necessary to bridge the gap between rice production and demand. The world population is projected to increase from 6.13 billion in 2001 to 7.21 billion in 2015 and 8.27 billion in 2030, indicating a corresponding increase in rice demand from 680 million tonnes in 2015 to 771 million tonnes in 2030.

Constraints

The intensive nature of the rice cultivation process can impact the environment. Negative effects include reduced soil fertility, water pollution and the emission of greenhouse gases. The intensive use of a limited number of high-yielding rice varieties over a wide-ranging area and prolonged period of time has reduced genetic diversity. Inefficient use of agrochemicals and pesticides results in pollution and directly harms farmers' health. In addition, the current demands on land and water for urban and industrial use render the expansion of irrigated rice production unfeasible, especially in Asia, where more than 90 percent of the world's rice is produced every year.

Water for irrigation is one of the most serious constraints to rice production in the Near East. The reduced storage capacity of reservoirs, increased demand (>50 percent), national policy and the uncertainty of monsoon rainfall and snowfall are all constraints to irrigation and, as a consequence, to rice production. In order to rise to this challenge, it is necessary to use more productive varieties, improve the conservation of natural resources and develop more efficient technologies.

Opportunities for increased production

Opportunities for a sustainable increase in rice production should be exploited. There is a sizeable yield gap between actual and achievable yield in all Near East countries except Egypt, revealing an opportunity to increase the yield of both improved and traditional varieties through efficient production methods. Narrowing the yield gap would also lead to increased income for rice farmers.

Increased efficiency in rice production is possible through varietal technology, advances in yield enhancement, and the successful development of hybrid technology. In Egypt, actual yield (national average) has almost reached potential yield; this achievement is possible throughout the Near East region. Countries with extensive scientific expertise (e.g. the Islamic Republic of Iran and Pakistan) may extend their use of hybrid rice technology to improve rice yield. Similarly, new rice varieties, hybrid rice and the recent development of NERICA (New Rice for Africa) will all help farmers achieve higher yields. It should be stressed that sustainable improvement in rice production for food security must be achieved with increased efficiency, reduced use of natural resources and minimized environmental impact.

Facing the challenges

To overcome hunger, poverty and malnutrition in rice-consuming countries while maintaining productivity and protecting the environment, a coordinated effort is required. Increased awareness - as well as national, regional and global efforts to secure sustainable rice production - is essential. In addition, rice research will play a major role in the efficient utilization of cultivated area, improved rice varieties and the minimization of loss during milling. The major focus of rice research in the next decade must be the development of high-yielding and early-maturing varieties in order to ensure the conservation and efficient use of natural resources.

In order to achieve these goals, the National Rice Research Program in the Near East region should focus its research on the potential for improvement through hybrid rice, technology and biotechnology. Improved utilization of more advanced research techniques would make a significant impact on rice production. For example, in a region where the potential yield is 13 tonnes/ha but national yield averages only 4.73 tonnes/ha, improved production techniques in areas of high salinity would have immense significance.

THE CURRENT SITUATION IN THE NEAR EAST REGION

Rice is the most rapidly growing food source in several Near East countries (Egypt, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Iraq, Mauritania, Morocco, Pakistan, Sudan and Turkey). Rice is second to wheat, the region's most important staple. Rice is the third largest crop in the Near East (after wheat and cotton) in terms of area sown. However, these nations currently account for only a fraction of the global rice area (2.6 percent) and global rice production (2.7 percent). Cultivation area occupies about 3.5 million ha, producing about 2.7 million tonnes of rice, with a regional production average of 4.7 tonnes/ha per year. The region's rice demand generally exceeds production and - with the exception of Pakistan and Egypt, which have an export surplus of 0.5 and 1.8 million tonnes, respectively -Near East nations are net rice importers. Based on projected population growth and increasing per caput consumption, the increase in production required to meet the demand in a decade is estimated at 30 percent over the present production of 15.7 million tonnes. Achievement of such a high target would require the growth rate of annual production to remain at approximately 3 percent, despite the limited water supply and limited possibilities for the expansion of production area.

Despite the current low production in the Near East, the agro-ecology of the region is quite favourable for high yield. The ecology and climate are ideal for rice agriculture. Nevertheless, production remains stagnant at low levels, with the exception of Egypt. Low yield in many rice-producing countries of this region appears to be caused by poor crop management techniques, lack of research and extension systems, and limited utilization of productive varieties.

High variability between Near East countries exists in rice yield (see Table 1). The average national yield in Egypt is 9.4 tonnes/ha, compared to 1.30 tonnes/ha in Sudan. This type of yield gap is due to differences in: biophysical factors (climate, length of growing season, soil, water, pest pressure etc.); socio-economic factors; crop management; and access to and use of technology. Domestic milled rice production and consumption also vary from one country to another in the Near East region (Table 2). Annual per caput rice consumption ranges from 2 kg per person in Morocco (perhaps the lowest in the world) to 43 kg per person in Egypt (one of the highest in the world).

TABLE 1
Rice area, production and yield in Near East countries, 2002

THE TREND OF PRODUCTION, YIELD AND CONSUMPTION IN THE 1990s

In general, the domestic total of milled rice does not meet the demand of consumption. Once again, the exceptions are Pakistan and Egypt; both produce a surplus and export to other countries in this region and throughout the world. Overall, however, domestic rice production is not sufficient for local consumption needs and approximately half of the total consumption in many Near East countries must be imported every year.

The rice production area in the Near East region is dependent on: availability of water for irrigation; rice ecology; production costs; and market prices. These factors have a tremendous effect on total rice production and yield in the region, and indirectly affect imports and exports.

The figures in Table 2 indicate that, overall, the region exports more rice than it imports, but this is, of course, due to the export of rice from Egypt and Pakistan alone. Outside these two countries, rice production does not meet the demand.

Turkey

In Turkey, for example, domestic milled rice production varies between 200 000 and 286 000 tonnes per year and total domestic milled rice consumption is between 450 000 and 536 000 tonnes. The rice production area was more than 70 000 ha in the early 1980s, reaching as high as 77 000 ha in 1982, but then decreasing drastically afterwards. The average rice yield stands at 5 tonnes/ha (Table 3).

Two factors are responsible for the decrease in area allocated for rice:

• Shortage of irrigation water subsequent to the period of drought which prevailed between 1985 and 1994.

• Policy restrictions on rice importation and cultivation. Restrictions were made on rice importation before 1984 through the imposition of taxes on rice imports. These restrictions were lifted or their amounts were reduced in 1984, lowering the cost of rice imports. Production costs were often higher for locally produced rice than for imported rice, and a number of farmers abandoned rice cultivation as a result. Moreover, in some areas, rice cultivation was forbidden during periods of drought, so that the available water could be used for irrigating other crops such as cotton, maize and vegetables. However, rice area started to increase again from 41 000 ha in 1994 to 58 000 ha in 1995, reaching over 60 000 ha in 1996. The increases in 1995 and 1996 were due to increases in rainfall which provided more available water for irrigation.

In the last decade, rice imports increased in Turkey due to the sharp decline in domestic rice production. In 1993, for example, imports reached their highest level (309 000 tonnes) and at times more rice was imported than necessary.

Egypt

In Egypt, the rice-growing area averaged 396 000 ha during 1984-89 and climbed to 563 600 ha in 2002. This was mainly due to expansion in the irrigated area allocated for rice. Total milled rice production increased from 2.4 million tonnes in 1984-89 to 6.04 million tonnes in 2002 (more than meeting the local consumption demand). Rice exports averaged 87 000 tonnes during 1984-89 and reached 500 000 tonnes in 2002.

The fertile soil of the Nile Delta, the high intensity of sunlight, the limited presence of diseases and insect pests, the warm weather and the good irrigation system have all contributed to making Egypt's yields among the world's highest at 9.4 tonnes/ha (Table 4) - which is more than three times the world average (3 tonnes/ha).

These high yields were achieved thanks to:

• the release and spread of new short-duration high-yielding varieties (Giza 177, Giza 178, Sakha 101, Sakha 102, Sakha 103, Sakha 104, Giza 182 and Egyptian Yasmine);

• the transfer of appropriate technology to the farming community to improve crop management; and

• the monitoring of production constraints and farmers' problems in the season, and prompt follow-up action by various agencies under the umbrella of the National Rice Campaign.

Pakistan

In Pakistan, the other major rice-exporting country, rice is the second most important crop in terms of export earnings, contributing about 9 percent per year to foreign exchange earnings. Pakistan exports about 1 million tonnes of rice annually, which is about 10 percent of the world rice trade. Annual exports (about 250 000 tonnes) of long-grained, aromatic, fine-quality rice (Basmati) go mainly to the Near East market. About 500 000 tonnes of long-grain rice are exported each year to South and Southeast Asia. The international market price for Basmati rice has been three times that of the modern varieties. In 1995, Pakistan exported 1.6 million tonnes of rice in response to strong demand in the world market.

TABLE 2
Rice consumption in Near East countries, 2001

TABLE 3
Rice production and imports in Turkey

TABLE 4
Trends of area, production and yield increase in Egypt, 1985-2002

TABLE 5
Rice production and export in Pakistan

TABLE 6
Exports of rice (Basmati and other varieties)

^a Estimates.

Source: Federal Bureau of Statistics, Pakistan.

Despite the fairly stable irrigation and water supply, rice yields remain low for both traditional Basmati and modern varieties. The national average yield is 1.9 tonnes/ha. There is potential for about 25 percent higher yield at the present input level, and this could be achieved by advanced rice crop management. Stagnating or declining yields are thought to be due to:

• the increasing incidence of salinity resulting from injudicious use of irrigation water;
• mismanagement of fertilizer use;
• unfit groundwater;
• soil nutrient depletion;
• the development of insect pest and weed complexes peculiar to the rice-wheat system; and
• inadequate economic incentives for long-term investments in land and soil improvements.

CONSTRAINTS IN THE NEAR EAST AND NORTH AFRICA

General constraints affecting rice production in the Near East region

Climatic

• Low temperatures: Low temperature is a major constraint to rice production, especially for late-sowing rice varieties.

• High temperatures: At a certain stage of development, strong heat may cause a high percentage of sterility, potentially reaching 100 percent at temperatures of 39°C in the dry season.

• Hygrometry of air, dry and hot winds: Low air hygrometry and dry hot winds in the dry season affect flowering. Hot winds dry up panicles and can cause the sterility of spikelets.

• Rain: Rain can be a constraint during the grain maturation stage, affecting the moisture of the rice grain. This can significantly affect the final rice yield.

Soil and water

• Salinity of soils: Soil salinity constitutes a significant constraint to rice in many countries of the Near East region. The use of improper irrigation without drainage could encourage waterlogging, resulting in salinity build-up and other mineral toxicities.

• Irrigation water: Limited water supply in the region is a major constraint to rice production, which relies heavily on irrigation water. In addition, irrigation water can cause soil degradation due to high levels of sodium bicarbonates. These can lead to a long-term phenomenon of iodination, which may facilitate the rise of pH levels and result in the destruction of the superficial layer of soil and organic matter.

Biological constraints

• Weeds: Weeds reduce rice yield by competing for space, nutrients, light and water and by serving as hosts for pests and diseases. Under typical conditions, weed growth control is often not properly handled. The spread of weeds is often caused by inadequate land-levelling, improper irrigation methods and inappropriate agricultural techniques, including: seeds mixed with weeds, insufficient soil tilling, inappropriate sowing methods and lack of crop rotation. Various weed control methods, such as complementary practices, hand weeding, mechanical weeding, chemical weeding and integrated approaches, are necessary to improve weed control.

• Birds: In the dry season, many farmers avoid cultivation because of the damage birds cause to the rice crop.

• Field mice: In some places, field mice can completely devastate farms.

• Disease: Rice can serve as a host to many diseases and pests, including: bacterial blight, bacterial leaf streak and bacterial sheath rot. Many viruses have also been identified.

Socio-economic factors

• Supply of goods: Fertilizer is very expensive and not always available. There is an insufficient quantity of certified seeds; this has led some producers to buy bad quality seeds.

• Agricultural equipment: Lack of agricultural equipment or outdated hydraulic equipment can be a major constraint to rice production. Manual transplantation of the plant population results in fewer plants per hectare. The optimum plant population (approx. 220 000 per ha) is difficult to maintain, and manual transplantation typically results in about 120 000 per ha.

• Rehabilitation of agricultural perimeters: Perimeters are poorly constructed and do not last long because of the absence of construction norms.

• Agricultural credit: UNCACEM (Mauritanian National Credit and Savings Union of Agricultural Cooperatives) agricultural credit faces many problems, such as:

  - late credit grants;
  - poor capacity for financing agricultural campaigns;
  - heaviness of procedures in obtaining loans;
  - difficulties related to credit recovery; and
  - weak credit capacity to purchase agricultural equipment.

POST-HARVESTTECHNOLOGY AND LOSS IN THE NEAR EAST REGION

Harvesting is done manually throughout most of the Near East region. Due to variations in post-harvest techniques and the methodology of harvesting, threshing, storage and milling, varying levels of loss occur in each country.

Between 10 and 37 percent of the product can be lost in post-harvest operations. Current statistics reveal the following breakdown:

• shattering through harvesting (1-3%)
• handling (2-7%)
• threshing (2-6%)
• storage (2-6%)
• transportation (2-10%)
• drying (1-5%)

Throughout rice-producing areas, rough rice is generally dried for some time after harvesting and then stored in sacks. The moisture content of rough rice must be below 14 percent before it can be safely stored. However, rice is normally harvested with a moisture content of 23 percent or more. If the moisture content is not reduced to below 14 percent for storage, grain quality deteriorates through microbial activity and damage from pests.

Farmers dry combine-harvested rice with mechanical dryers. However, mistakes can occur during the drying process: for example, not drying the crop within the appropriate time may result in damage to the crop due to fermentation (high moisture content), while drying the crop at higher-than-recommended temperatures may result in increased breakage of the milled rice.

While mechanical drying between 12 and 24 hours after harvest is recommended, many farmers are still dependent on air-drying. Two sun-drying methods are generally used. The first method is to place harvested rice in loose bundles and leave it to dry in the field for several days. The length of drying time will depend on weather conditions. This traditional method is not commonly used today. The second method is to spread the wet grains on a drying surface immediately after harvesting. Repeated stirring when using this method is necessary in order to obtain uniform drying. Farmers sometimes keep the crop in the sun longer than is required, and the rice crop will then contain more moisture than is recommended; if the stirring is not repeated frequently, this may lead to heterogeneous drying. Any of these problems will result in the decrease of head rice yield and grain quality.

ACHIEVEMENTS IN RESEARCH ANDTECHNOLOGYTRANSFER IN SELECTED COUNTRIES OFTHE NEAR EAST REGION

Egypt

Despite limited land and water resources, increases in yield and productivity have been achieved through a well-organized interdisciplinary team. There has been a significant reduction in the gap between yield potential and the national average. Egypt is now one of the few countries in the world with an average yield of 9.4 tonnes/ha, and demonstration field trails show potential for even higher yields of 13 tonnes/ha (Table 7).

The yield gap reduction was achieved by encouraging farmers (through extension services and national campaigns) to adopt improved production techniques.

TABLE 7
Productivity of the transplanted demonstration fields in Egypt

In an effort to strengthen rice research in Egypt, a Rice Research and Training Center (RRTC) was established in 1987 in Sakha, Kafr El-Sheikh Governorate with the strong support of three important agencies:

• Egyptian Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation.

• IRRI (International Rice Research Institute), which provided technical support.

• USAID (United States Agency for International Development), which funded the Rice Research and Training Project (June 1980 to December 1986), the National Agricultural Research Project (NARP) supervised by IRRI and, recently, the Agricultural Technology Utilization and Transfer (ATUT) Project.

The RRTC in Sakha, Kafr El-Sheikh Governorate has a full range of well-equipped research facilities, including laboratories, greenhouses, screen houses, libraries, seed-testing centres, cleaning and storage facilities and mechanical workshops. It has 90 research workers, 25 senior staff members, 35 research assistants and some 50 research technicians. The RRTC also has three testing stations in Gemmiza, Zarzoura and Sirw, and 20 on-farm verification sites in the seven rice-growing governorates (Kafr El-Sheikh, Dakahlia, Beheira, Sharkia, Gharbia, Damietta and Fayoum). The National Rice Research Program employs about 200 rice production advisors scattered across the seven rice-growing governorates to help disseminate the improved technology from the Sakha research facilities to the various districts in Egypt.

Egyptian research programme activities

• Plant breeding, to develop new improved varieties with resistance to diseases and pests, early maturity and short stature.

• Seed production, to put the seeds of the new high-yielding varieties into farmers' hands.

• Agronomy, including plant nutrition, water management and cultural practices, to maximize the yield of the newly released varieties.

• Plant protection against weeds, diseases, insects and other pests.

• Mechanization, seeking small-scale implements that can be locally manufactured and maintained.

• Economics, keeping in mind that successful new technology usually cuts costs.

• Extension, to verify and transfer new technology to the farmers.

Morocco

Research is currently undertaken within the National Institute for Agricultural Research in Morocco (INRA-Maroc). Research is directed towards conservation agriculture. In this respect, different irrigation methods have been tested to take the place of flooding methods. Thus, physiological parameters under Moroccan conditions have been studied in water-deficient environments. With regard to rice-breeding programmes, Morocco depends mainly on imports of rice materials of Italian, French and Egyptian origin. Efforts are being made to release local varieties.

Turkey

The average rice yield 20 years ago was around 4 tonnes/ha. Recently, as a result of the development of new varieties and the adoption of new technologies, the average rice yield has increased to 6 tonnes/ha. However, there is still a large gap between farmers' yields and experimental results: a gap of between 2.5 and 3.0 tonnes/ha. In addition to breeding activities, research in Turkey covers the following areas:

• rice planting and harvesting time;
• the appropriate fertilizer rate and nitrogen form;
• nitrogen application time;
• seed rate per unit area; and
• irrigation studies:

- sprinkler irrigation; and
- minimum water requirements.

An effective certified seed programme has been developed. Certified seeds of commercial varieties are produced every year. The use of these certified seeds has increased both yield and milled rice quality.

Pakistan

Efforts are being made to focus on demand-oriented cultivars and research techniques. For example, the Government is now focusing on the increase in area for fine varieties and the introduction of hybrid rice in areas where coarse varieties are grown. At the same time, knowledge of improved agronomic practices is also disseminated through different sources and electronic media.

Islamic Republic of Iran

The Rice Research Institute of Iran (RRII) was officially established in 1993 to coordinate research activities and projects throughout the country. RRII helps Iranian farmers grow more rice on limited land with less water and fewer inputs. The institute conducts research in 16 rice-growing provinces and has two main centres: in Rasht (RRII headquarters) and in Amol.

RRII has a total of 250 staff members. The institute puts great emphasis on its relations with IRRI in the Philippines. Thanks to this collaboration, the institute has been able to train numerous staff members with short-term and degree courses. The institute also collaborates with IRRI in the International Network for Genetic Evaluation of Rice (INGER). Research activities at RRII are currently conducted in four departments:

• Agronomy and Plant Breeding
• Plant Protection
• Soil and Water
• Agricultural Engineering

The Agronomy and Plant Breeding department works on inbred and hybrid rice varieties using conventional breeding, mutation breeding, tissue culture and biotechnology techniques. The principal objectives are to improve grain quality, yield potential, resistance to pests, disease, drought and lodging, as well as to develop early-maturing varieties.

The Plant Protection department focuses its activities on reducing pesticide use, introducing environmentally friendly pesticides, using alternatives to chemicals, mass production using an artificial diet and finding sources of resistance in rice germplasm to major pests and diseases.

The primary objectives of the Soil and Water department are to: optimize chemical fertilizer input in different soil types; determine the nutrition and water requirements for different varieties; and select low-input varieties.

The Agricultural Engineering department undertakes diverse projects in the areas of food science and technology, machinery and irrigation. These projects seek to optimize the use of machinery, increase water efficiency, decrease yield loss from production to post-production stages and utilize waste from rice production.

The institute also has a technical services department, which provides support to all projects and strengthens the institute's scientific capabilities. In recent years, the institute has introduced more than ten modern high-yielding varieties, including Fajr, Nemat, Neda, Sazandegi, Churam 1, Churam 2 and Azar. In addition, ten new promising lines are in the final stages of release in the provinces of Guilan, Mazandaran, Khuzestan and Fars.

Mauritania

Agricultural research on rice started in 1972 with IRAT (Institute for Research in Tropical Agriculture and Food Crops).

In 1974, OMVS (Senegal River Development Organization) from UNDP-FAO at CNRADA (National Centre for Agricultural Research and Development) was created to cover irrigated crops, in particular rice. In 1975, a department of rice research was instituted to lead all activities of rice research. Since then, research has greatly evolved, with steady increases in the number of research activities.

The work done in irrigated rice research has dealt mostly with varietal development and agricultural techniques. The results of research activities have made it possible to mark the performance of existing varieties (e.g. short- and medium-duration varieties). The most recently released varieties are all short-duration (eight varieties) with yields ranging from 6 to 8 tonnes/ha.

GERMPLASM AVAILABILITY AND VARIETAL DEVELOPMENT IN SELECTED COUNTRIES OF THE NEAR EAST AND NORTH AFRICA REGION

Research programmes on varietal development are a consistent focus of many research institutions in the Near East and North Africa region. Research institutes are focusing more on market-oriented germplasm. Four types of germplasm are commonly grown: japonica, indica, Basmati and Jasmenium. In the Near East region, the most common is the short-grain japonica type. Aromatic Basmati varieties, however, are found in Pakistan and the Islamic Republic of Iran.

Egypt

Significant improvements to rice yield in Egypt have been achieved through the development of new improved varieties with high yield potential, early maturation and high resistance to blast disease. These varieties are widely accepted by farmers and consumers, and their high yields were achieved through:

• the release and spread of new short-duration high-yielding varieties (Giza 177, Giza 178, Sakha 101, Sakha 102, Sakha 103, Sakha 104, Giza 182 and Egyptian Yasmine);

• the transfer of appropriate technology to the farming community to improve crop management; and

• the monitoring of production constraints and farmers' problems throughout the season, and prompt follow-up action by various agencies under the umbrella of the National Rice Campaign.

Morocco

Table 9 lists the varieties inscribed in the official national catalogue.

TABLE 8
Yield and ancillary traits of the new released rice varieties in Egypt

^aAromatic rice.
^b R = resistant; S = susceptible.
^c Sh = short; L = long.

TABLE 9
Varieties inscribed in the national catalogue in Morocco

^a R= resistant; PR= less resistant; S= susceptible; PS =less susceptible; T= tolerant.
^b Sh = short; M = medium; L = long.

TABLE 10
Some rice varieties in Turkey

Turkey

Many japonica-type rice germplasm varieties have been introduced from Italy, Bulgaria, Spain, France, Hungary and Russia. There are also 500 to 600 lines currently being developed for a crossing programme. The national gene bank of Turkey stores local materials and materials introduced from the European rice-growing community.

Pakistan

Four types of germplasm are commonly grown. The fine types include Basmati super, Basmati 385 and Basmati 2000, while the coarse types include the common variety irri-6. Varietal development is ongoing and research institutions focus increasingly on market-oriented germplasm. Efforts in the public and private sector, with the collaboration of Chinese scientists, are under way to introduce hybrid rice. However, there are several funding constraints. A collaborative approach could help to speed up the ongoing work in the research sector.

Islamic Republic of Iran

The most popularly grown local varieties are Hassan Sarai, Domsiah, Binam, Hassani, Salari, Anbarbo and Sang Tarom (Table 11). Despite the low yield of these local varieties (average 2.5-3.5 tonnes/ha), they have excellent quality traits (aroma and moderate amylose content) popular with consumers. More than 70 percent of the total rice area in the Islamic Republic of Iran still cultivates these varieties. Similar to Basmati types, they are characterized by tall stature (125-135 cm), sensitivity to lodging, long slender grain, 60 to 63 percent head rice recovery (HRR), intermediate amylose content (AC), aroma and elongation qualities, and can be be susceptible to blast and stem borer.

TABLE 11
Local rice varieties cultivated by Iranian rice farmers

Mauritania

Through collaboration with international research institutions, including WARDA (The Africa Rice Center), researchers have successfully developed new high-yielding varieties adapted to the agro-ecological conditions of the country.

About 1 500 to 2 000 tonnes of certified seeds are required per year. Seed production, however, is between 900 and 1 300 tonnes. The deficit is covered each year by importation from Senegal: 200 tonnes in 1998, 400 tonnes in 1999 and 800 tonnes in 2000.

The following varieties are performing well in Mauritania:

• Short-day varieties: SAHEL 108, IR 1561 and IR 64 (the potential yield of these varieties can reach 10 tonnes/ha in research stations).

• Long-day varieties: Sahel 202 and Sahel 201 (the potential yield of these varieties can be as high as 11 tonnes/ha).

RESEARCH PROGRAMMES

The development of interdisciplinary research programmes for improved production will succeed in narrowing the yield gap and will encourage more farmers to adopt improved production techniques. A successful programme must focus on the following disciplines:

• Plant breeding - to develop improved varieties with resistance to disease and pests, early maturity and short stature.

• Seed production - to ensure that pure seeds of new high-yielding varieties are put into the farmers' hands.

• Agronomy - including plant nutrition, water management and cultural practices to maximize yields of newly released varieties.

• Plant protection - against weeds, disease, insects and other pests.

• Mechanization - seeking small-scale implements which can be locally manufactured and maintained.

• Economics - cutting costs with successful advancement in technology.

• Extension - to verify and transfer new technology to farmers.

• Release and spread of new short-duration high-yielding varieties resistant to disease and pests.

• Transfer of appropriate technology to the farming community to improve crop management.

• Monitoring production constraints throughout the season and following up promptly with appropriate action by various agencies under the umbrella of the National Rice Campaign.

INTEGRATED CROP MANAGEMENT IN THE NEAR EAST AND NORTH AFRICA REGION

Yield stagnation in different regions has led to the development of innovative practices for sustainably maximizing the productivity of rice-based systems. Typically, however, the use of such practices will focus on only one area, such as enhancing productivity, profitability or environmental safety. But what is actually achievable through an integrated crop management (ICM) system would cover the entire production system. This has been the basis for designing and experimenting with various forms of integrated crop management.

Integrated crop management may be defined as: "a site specific crop production strategy, harnessing the synergistic benefits of improved/innovative practices towards sustainable productivity". With the direct involvement of farmers on a location-specific basis, this strategy is an effective way of conserving resources, maximizing efficiency and directly transferring technology to the farming community.

The System of Rice Intensification (SRI) is probably the earliest form of ICM developed. SRI stresses transplantation of very young seedlings at one per hill, adopting wide spacing, frequent weeding and stirring of soil in the early stages and intermittent irrigation. In 1986, the New South Wales Department of Agriculture (Australia) developed a package called "RiceCheck", based on the practices adopted in high-yield farms. The system, with provisions for collaborative learning, encourages farmers themselves to monitor and evaluate crop performance against the level of adoption of the checks. The system -which stresses field layout, timely sowing/transplanting, uniform establishment, application of adequate fertilizer nutrients to ensure between 500 and 1 000 tillers at PI (panicle initiation) stage and top-dressing based on the NIR (nitrogen-infrared) tissue test, N-application before flooding, achieving minimum water depth during early microspore stage and effective post-harvest handling - has been reported to increase yield by 10 percent. Still more refined ICM practices have been developed quite recently in the farms of Indonesia. These practices involve a more systematic and comprehensive approach from seed to harvesting. More recently, a refined ICM package integrating some of the earlier proven skills and practices has been developed and evaluated extensively in research farms and farmers' fields in Indonesia. The system involving all the stakeholders is more comprehensive in its content and systematic in the implementation process. The system comprises core options and location-specific options. Core options are:

• use of quality seed at a low seed rate;

• transplanting of seedlings at about 15 days old; and

• adoption of LCC- (leaf-colour chart) and NOP- (nutrient omission plot) based N and K or P application.

Location-specific options include:

• planting one or two seedlings per hill;
• square or paired row planting adopting wide spacing;
• intermittent (dry-wet) irrigation management;
• harvesting at right grain moisture; and
• proper drying and storage.

Evaluation of a large number of farmer-managed ICM sites revealed a yield advantage of over 1 tonne/ha and overall profits in excess of US$100/ha per season over non-ICM farms. Accelerated research during the last 10 years at IRRI and NARES (National Agricultural Research and Extension Systems) in tropical Asia has led to the development of many efficient alternative technologies in tillage, crop establishment, water and nutrient management, pest-weed management and post-harvest handling.

Recognizing the advantage of ICM packages will prompt the extensive adoption of ICM practices and could have a wide impact in the Near East and North Africa region. Integrated crop management systems involving varieties or hybrids with new yield thresholds will prove a valuable strategy for maximizing productivity on a sustainable basis.

FUTURE PROSPECTS

The average rice yield in the Near East region is about 4.73 tonnes/ha, which is higher than the world average of 3.3 tonnes/ha. The total land area under paddy rice cultivation in the world is 147 million ha. Comparatively, the average is much lower in the Near East region than in other temperate regions (e.g. Australia, California, Spain and Greece). According to FAO statistics, Near East countries currently produce only a limited amount of rice globally (estimated at around 13 million tonnes). This is only about 2.2 percent of total world production (575 million tonnes).

Countries in the region reveal big differences in productivity: the highest level of productivity is in Egypt (9.4 tonnes/ha), the lowest in Sudan (1.3 tonnes/ha).

The potential for improved productivity in the region, however, is high, making development in rice production all the more important. The conditions for rice cultivation are the same as those in countries which record high productivity.

Productivity can be increased with the introduction of improved rice varieties and new growing techniques. Recently, new high-yielding varieties have been developed in the region showing potential of up to 10 tonnes/ha.

Increasing cultivation area - although dependent on irrigation water - will make it possible to increase productivity as well. Therefore, efforts must be made to focus on demand-oriented cultivars and research techniques.

Governments in the region are focusing on an increase in area for the production of fine type rice, and on an introduction of hybrid rice in countries such as Pakistan and Egypt. Further development of policies at national level will continue to be necessary for sustainable rice production.

STRATEGIES FOR SUSTAINABLE RICE PRODUCTION IN THE NEAR EAST REGION

Definitions

Agricultural sustainability has been defined and described in many ways, always pointing to one dynamic concept: the growing need for agricultural production should be catered to without degrading the natural resource base on which agriculture depends. Sustainable agriculture can evolve indefinitely towards greater human utility, greater efficiency of resources and a balance with the environment that is favourable to mankind and other species. Several concerns must be addressed:

• Food production must continue to increase in order to meet the demand of rapidly expanding populations (about 2 percent per year).

• Total agricultural employment as well as individual income from agriculture must expand.

• Efficiency in use of capital, land and production inputs must increase sustainability.

• Production systems must be structured to maintain the lowest possible use of pesticides.

Sustainability factors

A sustainable production system depends on four major areas:

• Government policy
• Improved technology
• External support
• Farmer participation

Government policy

Political stability and commitment (from government ministers through to village leaders) are important for sustainable production, through the establishment of various facilities, the allocation of budget and step-by- step follow-up to the implementation of programmes. A focused national strategy with clear production goals and objectives will further advance sustainable improvements in rice production.

Improved research and technology

Improvement in research related to the social and economic aspects of production technology:

• Breeding high-yielding, early-maturing varieties with resistance to the major diseases and insect pests.

• Crop management to maximize yield of improved varieties and increase efficiency of irrigation water and fertilizers.

• Integrated pest management to control weeds, diseases and insects.

External support

Marketing inputs and outputs has an immense effect on sustainable rice-based systems. The floor and ceiling prices must be determined and announced well before harvesting, and inputs (e.g. seeds and fertilizer) must be made available to farmers at the appropriate time.

Farmer participation

Farmer participation and acceptance of new technologies is of course the most important factor affecting the success of sustainable rice-based systems.

CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES

Constraints in the Near East and North Africa region include: shrinking water resources; deteriorating soil health due to excessive nutrient mining and salinization; low production growth coupled with high population growth; and continued dependence on imports. The development and use of high-yielding varieties and more efficient crop management techniques will increase productivity, cost effectiveness and ecological security. By virtue of agroclimatic advantages, such as intensive sunlight and an arid/semi-arid environment, the Near East is a potentially high-producing region. If efforts to narrow the yield gap are coupled with efficient use of resources, the region can be made truly food secure.