Appendices

Appendix 1: List of key organizations, traders, companies and experts on benzoin

A. Government organizations and officials:

B. Benzoin tappers, traders and companies:

C. Individual experts who are familiar with benzoin:

Appendix 2. Results of TLC analysis of 15 samples of benzoin^[2]

Thin layer chromatography (TLC) is a means of separating mixtures of compounds into their component parts. A small amount of a solution of the mixture - in this case that of a benzoin sample - is spotted near the bottom of a glass plate coated with a thin layer of silica gel. When immersed in a shallow depth of solvent, the solvent is absorbed and travels up the plate, dragging each of the constituents of the mixture with it. Different constituents travel at different rates and the end-result is that when the solvent reaches the top of the plate they are spread in a line from bottom to top. By using a suitable detection system, the constituents are visibly revealed as spots on the plate. If more than one sample is analyzed on the same plate, spots which travel the same distance represent the same (or a similar) compound. TLC can therefore be used qualitatively to identify the same compounds in different samples. If standards are available then it may be possible to identify the compounds themselves. Some spots fluoresce under ultra-violet light. If a chemical spray reagent is used to detect the spots, different colors may be produced by different compounds, and this, too, assists identification.

The intensity (size) of the spot is proportional to the concentration of the compound in the mixture and so quantitative analysis is also possible under carefully controlled conditions.

15 samples of benzoin collected during the regional fieldwork were analyzed at the Royal Forest Department^[3] and the results are shown below (over). Some of the conclusions to be drawn are discussed in the main body of the report but the characteristic patterns of spots (and their colours) can be seen to distinguish the Siam from the Sumatra types (although some spots are common to both types). The forms of block benzoin which contain damar are also clearly seen.^[4]

Experimental conditions were as follows:^[5]

B = blue, V = violet, P = pink, C = crimson

Sample identification:

1 Sumatra, grade 1, ex Singapore [company A]
2 Sumatra, grade 2, ex Singapore [company A]
3 Sumatra, grade 3 (dust), ex Singapore [company A]
4 Sumatra, grade 1, ex Singapore [company B]
5 Sumatra, grade B, ex Indonesia [company C]
6 Siam, grade A, ex Lao PDR [company D]
7 Siam, grade B, ex Lao PDR [company D]
8 Siam, grade C, ex Lao PDR [company D]
9 Siam, grade D (dust), ex Lao PDR [company D]
10 Siam, mixed grade, freshly collected, ex Lao PDR
11 Sumatra block (low quality), ex Kuala Lumpur
12 Sumatra block (good quality brand), ex Singapore [company A]
13 Sumatra block (low quality brand), ex Singapore [company A]
14 Sumatra, mixed (low quality) ex Singapore [company B]
15 Siam, ex Bangkok

Appendix 3: Pharmacopoeia monographs on benzoin^[6]

Pharmacopoeia monographs on benzoin are listed below. They were the latest available at the time of the fieldwork for the FAO project (1997) and give descriptions and definitions of benzoin (either Siam or Sumatra types or both), identification tests, specifications and assay methods.

In addition to the British Pharmacopoeia (1993), which only describes Sumatra benzoin, an earlier one (1980) is also listed since this includes Siam benzoin and describes a method for thin layer chromatographic (TLC) analysis of benzoin.

1. British Pharmacopoeia (1980, Siam benzoin)

British Pharmacopoeia (1980) Siam Benzoin; Sumatra Benzoin. Vol. 1, pp. 51-53.

2. British Pharmacopoeia (1993)

British Pharmacopoeia (1993) Sumatra Benzoin. Vol. 1, p. 75. [Benzoin Inhalation and Compound Benzoin Tincture are described in Vol. 2, p. 791]

3. French Pharmacopoeia

Pharmacopée Française, 10^th edition (1996) Benjoin du Laos. 3 pp.

4. Swiss Pharmacopoeia

Pharmacopoea Helvetica, 7^th edition (1995) Benzoe Tonkinensis = Benjoin du Laos. 2 pp.

5. US Pharmacopoeia

The United States Pharmacopeia, 23^rd edition (1994) Benzoin. pp. 177-178.

6. Thai Pharmacopoeia

Thai Pharmacopoeia (1987) Benzoin. Vol. 1, Part 1, pp. 47-49.

7. Japanese Pharmacopoeia

The Japanese Pharmacopoeia, 13^th edition, English version (1996) Benzoin. p. 741.

8. Chinese Pharmacopoeia

Pharmacopoeia of the People’s Republic of China, English edition (1992) Benzoin. pp. 5-6.

Appendix 4:^[7] Examples of traditional Thai/Chinese medicines containing benzoin^[8]

Medicine A (taken internally twice a day for digestive disorders)

1. Myristica fragrans Houtt.

2. ?

3. Mansonia gagei Drumm.

4. Tarenna hoaensis

5. Dracaena lonriri

6. ?

7. ?

8. Alyxia nitens Kerr.

9. Cinnamomum loureirii Nees.

10. Cinnamomum sp.

11. Cinnamomum sp.

12. Kaempfera roscoeana Wall.

13. Vetiveria zizanoides Stapf.

14. ?

15. Mimusops elengi L.

16. Mesua ferrea L.

17. Mammea siamensis Kosterm.

18. Nelumbo rucifera Gaertn.

19. Jasminum sambac Ait.

20. Jasminum sp.

21. Michelia champaca L.

22. Cananga odorata Hokker F.et Thoms.

23. Pogostemon cablin (Blanco) Benth.

24. ?

25. Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb.

26. ?

27. Picrorrhiza kurroa Benth.

28. Artemisia vulgaris L.

29. Angelica sylvestris L.

30. Saussurea lappa Clark

31. Conioselinum univitatum Turczaninow

32. Levisticum officinale Koch.

33. Atractyodes lyrata Sieb. et Zucc.

34. Citrus hystrix DC.

35. Mansonia gagei Drummond

36. Benzoin (Styrax benzoin)

37. ?

38. Pogostemon cablin (Blanco) Benth.

39. Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L.

Medicine B (taken internally for heart problems)

1. Conioselinum univitatum Turczaninow

2. Levisticum officinale Koch.

3. Angelica sylvestris L.

4. Atractyodes lyrata Sieb. et Zucc.

5. Artemisia vulgaris L.

6. Jasminum sp.

7. Mimusops elengi L.

8. Mammea siamensis Kosterm.

9. Nelumbo rucifera Gaertn.

10. Mesua ferrea L.

11. Aquilaria agallocha Roxb.

12. Cinnamomum bejolghola (Hom.) Swect.

13. Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch.

14. Glycyrrhiza glabra L.

15. Albizia myriophylla Benth.

16. Diopyros sp.

17. Amomum krervanh Pierre

18. Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & Perry

19. Benzoin (Styrax sp.)

Note:

? - Indicates species name not known

Appendix 5: Results of the follow-up studies in 1999 and 2000^[9]

The FAO project “Improved Benzoin Production” initiated activities which needed further attention after the project was completed. The results of the study on tapping techniques and other field experiments such as provenance and agroforestry trials were still inconclusive.

In 1999, the EU Micro Project Luang Prabang (Phase II) took over the funding for a follow-up programme. Project implementation stayed with the Luang Prabang Forestry Section.

The follow-up programme covered mainly maintenance of the field trials as well as data collection and analysis. In 1999 and 2000 a former staff of the “Improved Benzoin Production” project was fielded for two short-term missions. The objectives of these missions were:

1. To supervise harvesting of benzoin resin in the experimental plots;

2. To analyse the collected data concerning quantity and quality of the benzoin harvest and evaluate the tapping techniques; and

3. To evaluate the activities carried out in the other project field trials.

The main findings and results from the two missions are briefly described as follows:

A. Benzoin Tapping Trials

1. Trial to identify the best tapping method

• In the 1999 tapping season, the traditional Lao and the V-shape method produced the highest benzoin yield. The traditional Lao method produced also the best quality.

• The above results were confirmed in the 2000 tapping season. It was concluded that the most suitable tapping method was the traditional Lao method.

• Since the most suitable method was identified, the objective of this research plot was achieved. It was therefore recommended to close this trial.

2. Trial on the relationship between tree size and resin production

• In 1999, there seemed to be a positive correlation between bark thickness and benzoin production. The results of the year 2000 trial were not as clear and pronounced as in the previous year. Nevertheless, it could be concluded that bigger stem diameters (to a limited extent) and bark thickness (to a higher extent) are indicators for higher benzoin production.

• The analysis of the 1999 trial data seemed to confirm the hypothesis that benzoin yield increases with the height of the tapping notches on the tree. This hypothesis could not be confirmed in 2000. A final conclusion was not made. However, it seems that the tapping height does not significantly influence the yield per tapping notch.

3. Trial on the effects of undergrowth on the benzoin yield

• The trial data of both years (1999 and 2000) did not support the assumption that undergrowth has a significant influence on the capacity of trees to exude benzoin. The differences between individual trees might be more important.

4. Trial to test the effect of beating the bark in order to stimulate resin flow

• The preliminary conclusion from the 1999 study (beating stimulates the resin flow) could not be verified after the analysis of the trial data in 2000. In 2000, the data basis for this experiment was considerably broader than in the previous year. It was therefore concluded that bark beating has no significant influence on the benzoin production.

5. Comments and recommendations concerning the tapping trials

• The benzoin harvest in the year 2000 was considerably lower than in the previous year, most likely due to different weather conditions.

• For some aspects (relationship between tree size and resin production) a longer observation period (2-3 years) is necessary in order to come up with scientifically proven results.

B. Provenance Trials

• The survival rate in the Ban Thali plot was too low to assure a reliable date basis for future experiments. It was recommended to discontinue this research plot but to collect growth data (DBH and height) beforehand.

• The survival rate in the Ban Kachet trial was satisfactory. It was recommended to continue according to the proposed work plan.

C. Agroforestry Trial

• The results of the year 2000 experiment showed no considerable improvements compared to 1999 and the previous years. It was therefore proposed to discontinue the agroforestry experiment.

Appendix 6: Bibliography

The following references on benzoin include both cited and non-cited sources in this publication for the convenience of its readers. Some of the older books or articles are likely to be out of print but should be accessible through libraries.

Anon. 1980. British Pharmacopoeia, Vol. 1, pp. 51-53. British Pharmacopoeial Commission, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London.

Anon. 1983. State regulations on Styrax tonkinensis. Ministry of Forestry. Publishing House of Agriculture, 57 pp. Hanoi, Vietnam.

Anon. 1987. Thai Pharmacopoeia. Vol. 1, Part 1, pp. 47-49. Department of Medical Sciences, Ministry of Public Health, Nontaburi, Thailand.

Anon. 1992. Pharmacopoeia of the People’s Republic of China, English edition. pp. 5-6. The Pharmacopoeia Commission of the People's Republic of China, Beijing.

Anon. 1993a. British Pharmacopoeia, Vol. 1, p. 75. British Pharmacopoeial Commission, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London.

Anon. 1993b. Informasi Pasar Industri Produksi Lokal Jenis Tanaman Kemenyan di Kabupaten Tapanuli Utara [Industrial market information for local benzoin tree production in North Tapanuli]. Report of the Institute of Land Rehabilitation and Conservation, Ministry of Forestry, Regional Office, Medan, North Sumatra. 26 pp.

Anon. 1994. The United States Pharmacopeia, 23^rd edition. pp. 177-178. The United States Pharmacopeial Convention Inc., Rockville.

Anon. 1995. Pharmacopoea Helvetica, 7^th edition. Benzoe Tonkinensis = Benjoin du Laos. 2 pp. Departamente Federal de l'Interieur, Berne, Switzerland.

Anon. 1996a. Pharmacopée Française, 10^th edition, [Benjoin du Laos. 3 pp.]. La Commission Nationale de Pharmacopee, Paris.

Anon. 1996b. The Japanese Pharmacopoeia, 13^th edition (English version). p. 741. The Society of Japanese Pharmacopoeia, Tokyo.

Arctander, S. 1962. Benzoin. pp. 87-91. In: Perfume and Flavor Materials of Natural Origin. Publ. Allured.

Ash, M. and Ash, I. 1995. Gum benzoin. p. 506. In: Handbook of Food Additives. Publ. Gower.

Boelens, H.M., de Rijke, D. and Haring, H.G. 1982, Studies of some balsamics in perfumery. Perfumer and Flavorist, 6(6), 7-14.

Burdock, G.A. 1995. Benzoin. p. 54; Benzoin resin. p. 46. In: Fenaroli’s Handbook of Flavour Ingredients, 3^rd ed. CRC Press.

Burdock, G.A. 1997. Benzoin. p. 252; Benzoin resin. pp. 253-254. In: Encyclopedia of Food and Color Additives, Vol. 1. CRC Press.

Burkill, I.H. 1935. Styrax, In: A Dictionary of the Economic Products of the Malay Peninsula, Vol. II, pp. 2101-2108. The Government of the Straits Settlements and Federated Malay States. The Crown Agents for the Colonies, London.

Coppen, J.J.W. 1995. Gums, resins and latexes of plant origin. FAO Non-Wood Forest Products series. Vol. 6. Rome

Coppen, J.J.W. 1997. Gum Benzoin: Its markets and Marketing and the Opportunities and Constraints to their Improvement in Lao PDR. FAO/TCP Benzoin Project consulting report for FAO Bangkok. 108 pp.

Coppen, J.J.W. 1998. Sample collection and training of staff at Food & Drug Quality Control Centre, Vientiane, in benzoin analysis. FAO/TCP Benzoin Project consulting report for FAO Bangkok. 36 pp.

Coppen, J.J.W. 1999. Benzoin: production, uses and international trade. Perfumer & Flavorist, 24(3), 11-12, 14-18, 20-22.

Crevost, C. 1927. Benzoin [In French]. pp. 103-113. In: Catalogue des Produits de l’Indochine, Vol. 4.

Costaz, R. 1999. Benzoin marketing in European market. FAO/TCP Benzoin Project consulting report for FAO Bangkok.

De Beer, J.H. 1993. Benzoin, Styrax tonkinensis. p. 17. In: Non-Wood Forest Products in Indochina. Focus: Vietnam. FAO Working Paper FO: Misc/93/5. Rome.

Delnoye, R. 1994. Back-to-office Report: Benzoin TCP project formulation mission in Lao PDR. FAO Representative Office, Vientiane. 6 pp.

Den, X.Q., Cheng, S.P., Pan, N.X. and Chen, J.L. 1978. The effects of ethrel upon benzoin production and balsamic ducts of Styrax hypoglauca Perk. [In Chinese, English summary]. Acta Botanica Sinica, 20(1), 26-30.

Doan Van Nhung, Nguyen Huu Dong and Nguyen Quang Tang. 1978. Study on harvesting, storage and seed stand establishment of Styrax tonkinensis. Report on scientific activities of the Forest Research Institute during 1961-1977. Vietnam. pp. 25-26.

Druet, L. 1924. Le benjoin d’Indochine. Les Parfums de France. 18:209-215.

FAO, 1992. Benzoin gum [published in FAO Nutrition Meeting Report Series 57, 1977]. pp. 187-188. In: Compendium of Food Additive Specifications. FAO Food and Nutrition Specifications from 1^st through 37^th Meetings, 1956-1990). Rome.

FAO, 1996a. Improved benzoin production. Project document for FAO/TCP Benzoin Project, TCP/LAO/6611. Rome. 12 pp.

FAO, 1996b. Benzoin gum. p. B-3. In: Summary of Evaluations Performed by JECFA (Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives). Rome.

FAO, 1998. Terminal statement, Improved benzoin production in Lao PDR. FO: TCP/LAO/6611. Rome.

Fischer, M. 1998a. Physical and socio-economic conditions of benzoin production in northern Laos. Report on a survey in two villages in Nam Bak district, Luang Prabang province. FAO/TCP Benzoin Project, Vientiane, Lao PDR.

Fischer, M. 1998b. Back-to-office Report: Study tour on benzoin production and marketing. FAO/TCP Benzoin Project, Vientiane, Lao PDR.

Fischer, M. 1999. Benzoin Production Consultancy: Mission Report, EU Micro Projects Luang Prabang Phase II, Luang Prabang, Lao PDR.

Fischer, M. 2000. Benzoin Production Consultancy: Second Mission Report, EU Micro Projects Luang Prabang Phase II, Luang Prabang, Lao PDR.

Foppes, J., and Ketphanh, S. 1997. The use of Non-Timber Forest Products in Lao PDR. Paper presented at the Workshop on Sustainable Management of Non-Wood Forest Products, 14-17 October. Selangor, Malaysia.

Hansen, P.K. and Sodarak, H. 1997. Potentials and constraints on shifting cultivation stabilisation in Lao PDR. Paper presented at the Stakeholder Workshop on Shifting Cultivation Stabilisation, Vientiane, 6-7 Feb. 1997. 11 pp.

Helliwell, K. and Jenningsd, P. 1983. A critical evaluation of commercial Sumatra benzoins. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, 35 (Supplement). 17 pp.

Hoang Chuong. 1974. Storage of Styrax tonkinensis seeds. Forest Research Institute, Vietnam. Forestry Review, No. 8. 8 pp.

Hoesen, D.S.H. 2000. Styrax L. In: Boer, E. and Ella, A.B. (eds.) Plant Resources of South-East Asia (PROSEA), No. 18, Plants producing exudates, Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, Netherlands, pp. 112-119.

Jafarsidik, Y. 1986. Benzoin-producing species. Journal of Forestry Research and Development, 2 (1):4-6. Agency for Forestry Research and Development, Bogor.

Kangkarn, Yanyong. 1997. Mission report: benzoin processing. FAO/TCP Benzoin Project consulting report for FAO Bangkok. 21 pp.

Kashio, M, 1994. Back-to-office Report: Benzoin TCP project formulation mission in Lao PDR. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific. Bangkok. 12 pp.

Kashio, M. 1996. Back-to-office Report: Problem solving in the recruitment of an international expert for the benzoin TCP project. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific. Bangkok. 6 pp.

Kashio, M. 1997. Back-to-office Report: Technical backstopping mission for the benzoin TCP project. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific. Bangkok. 9 pp.

Kashio, M. 1998. Back-to-office Report: Support to the national workshop on benzoin. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific. Bangkok. 15 pp.

Ketphanh, S. 1994. Benzoin (Styrax tonkinensis). pp. 5-7. In: Country Paper of Lao. Paper presented at the Regional Expert Consultation on Non-Wood Forest Products: Social, Economic and Cultural Dimensions, 28 Nov.- 2 Dec. 1994, Bangkok. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific.

Ketphanh, S., and Soydara, V. 1998. The use of Non-Timber Forest Products in northern Lao PDR. Paper presented at the Sino-Lao Trans-boundary Biodiversity Management & Development Workshop, 26-29 October, Xishuangbanna, Yunnan, PR China. 6 pp.

Kiew, R. 1982. Germination and seedling survival in kemenyan, Styrax benzoin. The Malaysian Forester, Vol. 45 (1):69-80.

Lam Cong Dinh. 1964. Planting Styrax tonkinensis. Forest Research Institute, Hanoi, Vietnam. 24 pp.

Le Nam Hung. 1990. Integrated control method of green larva, Fentona sp. (Lepidoptera: Notodontidae), defoliator of Styrax tonkinensis in Vietnam. In: C. Hutacharern, K.G. MacDicken, M.M. Ivory, K.S.S. Nair, ed. Proceedings - IUFRO workshop on pests and diseases of forest plantations. 5-11 June 1988. RAPA Publication: 1990/9. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, pp. 282-283.

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Marsden, W. 1811. Benzoin. pp. 154-155, 184. In: The History of Sumatra, 3^rd edition. Publ. Oxford, 1966, reprinted 1975.

Moyler, D.A. and Clery, R.A. 1997. The aromatic resins: their chemistry and uses. Paper presented at Royal Society of Chemistry Symposium on Flavours and Fragrances, 1 May 1997, University of Warwick, UK.

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Nguyen Thai Ngoc. 1989. Styrax tonkinensis provenance trial. Forest Research Centre, Phu Ninh, Vietnam. 5 pp.

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Pinyopusarerk, K. 1994. Styrax tonkinensis: Taxonomy, ecology, silviculture and uses. ACIAR Technical Report No 31. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research. Canberra. 20 pp.

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Pinyopusarerk, K. 1997a. Second mission report for ‘Improved benzoin production (TCP/LAO/6611)’, FAO, Bangkok. 26 pp.

Pinyopusarerk, K. 1997b. Third mission report for ‘Improved benzoin production (TCP/LAO/6611)’, FAO, Bangkok. 40 pp.

Pinyopusarerk, K. 1997c. Fourth mission report for ‘Improved benzoin production (TCP/LAO/6611)’, FAO, Bangkok.

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Appendix 7: Examples of products using Siam benzoin

From left to right: alcoholic perfumes (Egoïsre from Chanel and Shalimar from Guerlain); cleansing cream; toilet soap; and toothpaste.

Incenses

From left to right: ice creams; caramel; vanilla flavours; cookies; and yogurts

Cigarettes