Agriculture and fisheries policy has 5 objectives : 1) achieve food security, 2) preservation and sustainable management of indigenous natural resources, c) promotion of diversified production of cash crops for local consumption and export, 4) water resource development and 5) rural development (Phonvisay 1994).
The Department of Livestock and Fisheries is the lead agency for the formulation and implementation of fisheries policy. As such, its policies are designed to support the development of demand driven livestock and fisheries production. The private sector, including small holders, are to be encouraged to develop the natural resource base through the provision of core support services for advising and monitoring.
Emphasis will be placed on establishing and strengthening technical support services in the more rural and remote areas of the country with the aim of increasing employment opportunities and income levels of small farmers.
Fisheries development strategy focuses on the conservation of natural resources and aquaculture development. The Department was recently reorganized to emphasize fisheries. It was formerly the Department of Livestock and Veterinary Services.
There are four program areas in support of the development policy and strategy. These are aquaculture, wetlands and reservoir management, aquatic resource identification and genetics and postharvest technology and regulations. In the following sections, these programs are considered in relation to the 5 objectives of agriculture and fishery policy.
Aquaculture is given top priority among the 4 program areas as it is thought to have high potential. There are a large number of existing ponds which can be improved. It is also hoped that aquaculture production can compensate for declining yields from capture fisheries.
The importance of fish in the Lao diet has to be looked at in the context of stagnating or declining capture fisheries. Hydroelectric dams, both planned and under construction, will severely impact capture fisheries. Among the ways to ameliorate these negative tendencies are to import more fish and fish products, increase aquaculture production and develop reservoir fisheries. Imports of fresh fish and processed fish products are probably growing as demand for fish increases. As transportation links improve with Thailand and Vietnam, these imports are likely to grow even more. On the other hand, demand for fish is increasing in the exporting countries, so the sustainability of imports is questionable.
The potential for expanding aquaculture production was demonstrated by the FAO/UNDP fish culture extension project (LAO/89/003). However, the present estimated aquaculture production of 10,000 tons per annum will have to be increased to around 112,000 tonnes by the year 2000 if it is to fulfill its role in meeting the animal protein requirements of the Lao population.
Stocking of natural water bodies and reservoirs is used in Lao PDR to establish culture based fisheries. Exotic species such as common carp and tilapia are usually used, but interspecific competition between exotic species and native fish may be detrimental to the indigenous species.
Breeding of indigenous species has been promoted through technical collaboration with Canada. Although the results have been somewhat limited in terms of fry production, the technical feasibility of induced breeding and fry production of these species has been established.
The success of culture based fisheries depends on the suitability of the introduced species to the local environment and the effectiveness of local management. Restocking of migratory species may not be viable if the fish move into areas of poor management. Culture based fisheries may also be put into jeopardy by environmental degradation. Excessive siltation caused by deforestation should be of particularly concern.
The introduction of exotic species for aquaculture can pose serious threats to indigenous species. Exotic species may displace native fishes through competition. There is also a possibility of the introduction of diseases which can have severe economic impacts. Two examples of exotic species which have become ubiquitous in Lao PDR are the tilapia, Oreochromis nilotica, and the common carp, Cyprinus carpio. It is not known if what effect if any these exotics had on native fish. The Luang Phabang provincial fish farm has introduced a South American characid which was imported from China. Nothing is known of the origin of these fish or their health status. Article 21 of the Draft law on the protection of the environment in Lao PDR states “Import-export activities of products, machinery, radioactivity, poisons, animal species (my emphasis), plants, etc. related to the protection of environment shall apply to the state environment management authority and the concerned sectors.” So the potential danger from the introduction of exotics is already recognized.
The income generating possibilities of fish culture have been clearly demonstrated by LAO/89/003. Fish culture can be incorporated with rice in rice-cum-fish culture systems, which has great potential for expansion. Even small ponds can add significantly to family income, as well as improving nutrition. Production is still low so most farmed fish do not get beyond the farmer's village. As production expands, more fish will inevitably reach urban markets.
Culture based fisheries can be used to increase fish production from reservoirs, partially compensating for fish loss due to dam construction. Aquaculture development in irrigation schemes will add significantly to local food supplies, as well as increase household income. Both pond culture and rice-cum-fish can be promoted in these schemes.
Fish production in reservoirs exhibits cyclical fluctuations correlated with nutrient availability. After the initial filling of the reservoir, there tends to be a surge in production as nutrients are leached from the newly submerged soil. After several years, fish production falls due to over fishing and nutrient depletion. The catch may rise again as the species composition of the fish fauna adjusts to a more stable, but lower, nutrient level. The initial fishery is often composed of high value predators, but the population tends to shift to lower value detritivours and planktophagous species. So the landings may increase as the value of the fishery declines.
Through its income generating potential as well as its contribution to improved nutrition, fish farming can contribute significantly to nutrition and income in rural communities. The technology is readily transferable to farmers and well suited to small scale development.
Community ponds have been shown to be an effective way for villages to raise funds to meet local needs (schools, electricity supply and temple construction). Where suitable wetlands exist, there is scope for expansion of these ponds.
The implementation of aquaculture policy confronts several issues relating to sustainability and institutional capacity.
Expansion of aquaculture production rests on a dramatic increase in production of fry and fingerlings. Government fish farms play a central role in providing fry to farmers and community ponds. However, funding constraints are likely to lead to declining production. Although the provincial fish farms generate revenue, it must be returned to the Ministry of Finance.
Future projects in the aquaculture sub-sector should include components for the promotion of small scale hatchery technology in the private sector. Small scale hatcheries offer good profit potential for micro enterprise development.
Fingerling production must be encouraged as a micro-enterprise to increase the supply of fingerlings to rice-cum-fish farmers in particular.
In broad terms, aquaculture technology may be characterized as extensive, semi-intensive or intensive. The dividing line between one and another may be vague at times, but basically relates to the level of intervention. For example, traditional fish “culture” in Lao PDR means impoundment of whatever species happens to be present followed by harvesting after a suitable time interval. There is no stocking, feeding or other direct intervention aside from constructing some kind of impoundment.
Semi-intensive fish farming implies the construction of structures specifically for fish culture (ponds, channels in rice fields, etc.) elimination of extraneous organisms, controlled stocking of desired species and enhancement of natural productivity.
Intensive fish farming requires high stocking densities, high rates of water exchange, usually monoculture and the dependence of the fish on artificial feed.
Extensive culture is widely practised in the country, but is not productive enough to contribute significantly to fish supplies. It does provide a basis for the introduction of better technology since farmers are already familiar with the idea of holding fish in some kind of impoundment.
Polyculture of carps based on enhanced natural production has proven itself appropriate for rural fish culture development in Lao PDR. In combination with dispersed mini-hatchery and fingerling production, this system should be the basis for further fish culture development.
Intensive monoculture of species such as prawns or catfish involves high capital outlays and high risks. The inputs needed for efficient feed formulation are not readily available. It is not an appropriate technology in the context of rural development. It may be interesting to risk taking entrepreneurs, but is a poor candidate for public investment.
Centralized vs. dispersed hatcheries is another point to consider. As fish culture grows, business opportunities for mini-hatchery development will multiply rapidly. The dispersion of hatchery production will also make fry more available to farmers in remoter areas.
Sustainable aquaculture depends on good water quality. Sound watershed management is critical to the continued expansion of the industry. Siltation, excessive runoff attendant flooding and agrochemical pollution are immediate threats to production. Reservoir management can directly impact fish production through flooding. Deforestation leads to accelerated siltation and runoff which can reduce water supplies to fish farms. The growth of plantation agriculture could lead to increased agrochemical pollution.
Policy and program coordination with the departments of forestry, agriculture and environment should be promoted to ensure that water quality and fishery resource management are integrated into land and water use planning and development.
Subsistence fishing is wide spread in the country. Fish are harvested from streams, rivers and swamps by farmers on an occasional basis. The magnitude of the subistance fishery is not documented but is believed to be quite large (Claridge 1966). The subsistence fishery is certainly the most important source of fish for most rural households. Wetlands and reservoir management has secondary priority in program and activity development, reflecting the importance of wetlands in the rural economy.
The decline of capture fisheries from wetlands and the effects of dam construction on fishery resources are a direct threat to food security, particularly in rural areas. Falling catches have several causes, although none can be singled out as more important. Growing population and increasing demand leading to overfishing are significant. As fish become scarcer, there is a tendency to employ illegal methods such as poisoning, small mesh nets and fishing on spawning grounds. Wetlands reclamation for agriculture may be a contributing factor. The loss of wetlands is also likely to continue as a consequence of hydroelectric dam construction. If plans to construct run-of-the-river dams on the Mekong are realized, the effect could be quite dramatic.
The number of reservoirs is going to increase in the next few decades as a consequence of hydroelectric power development. They open opportunities for the development of culture based fisheries and cage culture of fishes. However, it should be born in mind that intact wetlands provide a dispersed resource base readily accessible to local people. The diversity of exploited species is high, which provides some stability. On the other hand, reservoir fisheries are less diverse, access to the fishery requires water craft, and the reservoir is likely to lead to localized over crowding and pollution as the reservoirs attract people from surrounding areas. The population shift will, in turn, create demand for public services.
Management of reservoir fisheries will probably depend to a large degree on community based controls, as has already happened in the Nam Ngum reservoir. The management project underway in the same reservoir will provide valuable inputs into the development of management policies and strategies for all the new reservoirs that will be coming up.
Right of access is a critical factor in resource management. Most sea fisheries are “common property” resources, that is, any one who wants to fish an area has the right. Exceptions are found in coral reef communities and some coastal fisheries, but in general common property rights prevail. In contrast, in Lao PDR the customary rights of the people to terrestrial and aquatic resources are recognized by the government (Decree No. 169/PM). This decree formally establishes the legality of customary rights by:
minimizing limitations on the exercise of customary usage,
restricting the transfer of customary rights to forest resources to within the community.
requiring that changes in customary rights be granted only by the consent of the holder of the rights, by gradual lapsing or by law:
explicitly stating that customary rights can be abrogated only if the highest interests of the nation are at stake and must be done by law. Hydropower, communication and transportation are among these highest interests.
requiring monetary or in-kind compensation when laws abrogate customary rights where the livelihood of the user is affected.
Thus traditional fisheries management has a legal basis in Lao PDR. These traditional measures include permanently or seasonally closing areas, prohibiting or limiting destructive harvesting techniques, and protection of particular species or groups. Effective community based management will become increasingly important if sustainable harvesting of wetland and reservoir fisheries are to be realized. While there is a tradition of local management, strengthening of local capabilities will be required with the support of district, provincial and national fisheries authorities.
The formulation of management policy and regulations is based on information received at the district level from village chiefs. Village chiefs may request specific measures be taken to conserve fish stocks including bans and gear prohibitions. The district chief communicates this information to the provincial livestock and fisheries section. Up to this point the process is rather informal, based on discussions between interested parties.
The provincial agriculture and forestry service finalizes any recommendations, which are forwarded to the Dept. of Livestock and Fisheries. The DLF prepares a draft resolution which is communicated to the office of the Ministry of Agriculture. The minister will then meet with the DLF and chiefs of provincial agriculture and forestry services. The draft resolution is completed and sent to the Prime Minister's office, which then issues a decree.
The decree is communicated to the district level via provincial Departments of Agriculture and Forestry. They, in turn, inform village chiefs of the regulations. Data inputs and feed back are supposed to come from the district level officials, but given staff and budgetary constraints, fisheries data collection is difficult. Actual management regulations are based on traditional practices. The process is aimed at developing grass roots consensus on regulatory measures which originate at the village level.
Major constraints facing the implementation of fishery management policy are the lack of relevant data, shortage of trained staff and the remoteness of major wetlands, rivers and reservoirs. The latter hinders monitoring and enforcement.
Introduction of exotic species into reservoirs and other natural water bodies is an issue that should be considered in relation to the preservation of biodiversity. Common carp and tilapia are stocked with the goal of developing culture based fisheries. Both of these species are prolific breeders and generalized feeders. Their impact on native species could be considerable.
Studies could focus on these interspecific interactions in reservoirs to assess the fate of native species. To preserve biodiversity, it will be necessary to develop breeding techniques for native species suitable for the reservoir environment.
NGO involvement in resource management, including fisheries, could yield dividends. An example already exists in the Lao Community Fisheries and Dolphin Protection Project. The program is a collaboration between the Earth Island Institute, the Dept. of Forestry and villages aimed at protection of the Irrawaddy dolphin, but has also included fishery management measures.
Wetlands produce a variety of products other than fish. Some of these enter into rural commerce and include lotus seeds, reeds for making roofing material and aquatic plants used for human consumption and animal fodder. The existence of the raw materials on which this trade is based depend upon the integrity of the wetlands.
Claridge (1996) lists 31 aquatic plants used for human and animal food and for house construction. Turtles, frogs, and molluscs are harvested from wetlands for home consumption and sale. Wetlands fisheries provide an important source of cash income for purchasing basic foodstuffs, including rice.
Reservoirs have potential for tourist development including promotion of sport fishing. Sport fishing potential would require some studies as to the interests of both local and international tourists and preferred species. There is a growing number of foreign residents to whom this activity might appeal. The issuance of temporary and resident sport fishing licenses could help pay for the necessary research and promotion activities.
Aquaculture development alone will not be sufficient to compensate for the damage to fisheries that will result from dam construction. Culture-based fisheries and aquaculture have been mentioned as technologies for increasing fish production in reservoirs. Both have been demonstrated in the case of Nam Ngum (culture-based fisheries) and Nam Souang (cage culture) reservoirs.
Issues related to culture based fisheries were discussed in 2.2.2. Cage culture of planktivorous carps (silver and bighead) may be feasible, but is directly tied to the natural fertility of the reservoir. Primary production will change over time and could affect production of planktivorous species. Tilapia are an excellent alternative, but require feed inputs. Some of the indigenous species such as Probarbus jullieni might be adaptable to cage culture, but experiments are needed to verify their suitability. If a large population of small, low value cyprinids or clupeids develop, they can be used as a food source for culturing snakeheads. In the oxbow lakes of North Sumatra, Indonesia, Rasbora spp. are caught in lift nets and fed to snakeheads cultured in small floating cages.
Community ponds using wetlands have been very successful in the country. Villagers take advantage of small oxbow lakes or depressions to develop localized culture-based fisheries.
Fish and other aquatic products are integral parts of the rural economy. Fisheries provide both income and nutrition and are especially important in remote areas. Aquaculture is likely to develop slowly in the hinterland and in the mountainous areas has more limited scope for development. It is in these regions that seasonal and perennial natural water bodies will have to continue to supply fish on a sustainable basis. Management will depend on an informed and aware village leadership. Difficulties in communication, the dispersed character of small water bodies, and the high rate of illiteracy in rural areas will have to be overcome to promulgate good resource management practices.
Successful management of the fisheries resources of the country will require the acquisition of biological, ecological and socio-economic data related to fish stocks and fisheries. As resources come under increasing pressure, the need for data on which to base resource policy is acute. It is likely that scientific management can be applied to the Mekong River, its major tributaries and reservoirs, while the management of small water bodies will have to remain along traditional lines.
The capture fisheries are the major source of fish and an important source of animal protein for rural dwellers. Subsistance fisheries are especially important in remote upland regions. The fisheries of the Mekong River and its tributaries are the main suppliers of fish to major urban markets located along its banks. It is critical to the future availability of fish that appropriate management strategies be implemented. The development of strategies and practical regulations depends in large part on sufficient data relating to the biological, economic and social parameters of the fisheries.
The status of the major commercial fish stocks of the Mekong River and its tributaries is unknown. Very little management related biological data yet exists. Some of the major questions to be answered are:
What are the migratory routes of commercially important species in the Mekong River and its major tributaries?
Can individual intraspecific populations be identified and do they originate in Lao PDR or in neighbouring countries?
What are the biological parameters of exploited stocks - growth, natural and fishing mortality, age structure, and recruitment patterns?
When are the spawning seasons of exploited fish species and where are their major spawning areas?
Capture fisheries offer little scope for expanded production. The challenge ahead is to institute management policies which will ensure sustainable yields. To achieve this goal, fisheries has to be seen in the wider environmental context in which they take place. Fish stocks are dependent on high water quality, which in turn tied to land management practices. Coordination between departments within Agriculture and Forestry and between ministries is essential to ensure that sustainable fisheries are considered in development policy and planning.
Watershed destruction through deforestation is a very serious threat to fisheries, probably second in importance to dams. The major cause of deforestation is swidden agriculture. It is the government's policy to eliminate this practice by the year 2000. Several externally aided projects are addressing the situation and trying to encourage sedentary agriculture on sloping lands, but the problem is already critical in some of the northern provinces.
If rural communities are to continue to obtain sufficient protein from wetlands, their management capabilities have to be improved by education and information campaigns designed specifically to reach remote areas.
Fish are a notoriously perishable product. Post harvest losses are commonly high in artesenal fisheries, but traditional methods of fermentation, drying, smoking and salting have evolved to preserve fresh fish or salvage stale fish.
The fisherfolk of Lao PDR are no exception. Fermented fish products (pa dek) and salted products are widely popular.
Information on processed fish products and marketing is lacking. Current fish processing methods are family practices and do not meet hygienic standards. Demand is high and partially met through imported products. Production methods need to be improved to promote higher quality products which can be marketed regionally as well as nationally.
Post harvest losses may be considerable in some fisheries. Where fermentation and salting are used to recover stale fish, losses are mainly economic due to the lower value of the processed fish. Traditional processing contributes to food security by recovery of fish that would otherwise be lost. Processed fish products can contribute to improved protein nutrition in remote villages, provided the cost is low enough.
There are public health issues involved in the fermentation of freshwater fish because of the potential to transmit parasites.
Traditional fish processing is an artisenal industry. Raw materials are limited to fish, salt, sugar and some spices. The preparation of some products requires boiling in salt water, but most processing is well suited to household production. In Lao PDR most fish processing is done by women, who also retail their products.
The economics of processed fish depend on an abundant source of cheap raw material. Unsold fresh fish are commonly converted into pa dek or similar products. Small, low value fish are also used, particularly for producing dried fish. Drying and other forms of processing can add value to small pelagics which might become abundant in some reservoirs.
Around reservoirs and other sources of low value fish, fish processing can be promoted as a household industry. Processed fish products are particularly suited to remote communities as the end products are not perishable and require no special storage facilities. Demand for fermented, dried and salted fish products is high in urban markets, providing marketing opportunities beyond the village.
