Appendix tables

Appendix tables

Table 1: Population by sex and urban/rural

Demographic Group	Population	% of Total Population
Urban Male	231 435	16.4%
Urban Female	224,405	15.9%
Rural Male	454,892	32.3%
Rural Female	499,188	35.4%
TOTAL	1,409,920	100 %

Source: 1991 Census

Table 2: Male and female as a percent of population .

	Male	Female
Urban Population	50.8%	49.2%
Rural Population	47.7%	52.3%
TOTAL POPULATION	48.7%	51.3%

Source: 1991 Census

Table 3: Population by geographic area, sex and urban/rural

Area	% Urban Male	%Urban Female	% Rural Male	% Rural Female	Total Population
North	4.3%	5.0%	41.6%	49.1%	829,220
Central	35.55%	33.55%	17,0%	13.9%	390,752
West and	29.9 %	27.3 %	22.7%	20.1 %	189,948
TOTAL	16.4%	15.9%	32.3 %	35.4%	1,409,920

Source: 1991 Census

Table 4: Population by sex and communal/commercial

Area	% Female	% Male	Total Population |
Communal	53.3%	46.7%	983;621
Commercial	46.7%	53.3%	426,299

Source: 1991 Census

Table 5: Population by communal/commercial and urban/rural

	% Urban	% Rural	Total Population
Communal Areas	53.3 %	46.7 %	983,621
Commercial Areas	46.7 %	53.3 %	426,299

Source: 1991 Census

Table 6: Female population by communal/commercial .

Area	Female Population	% of Female Population
Communal Areas	524,556	72.5%
Commercial Areas	199,037	27.5%
TOTAL	723 593	100.0%

Source: 1991 Census

Table 7: Local Authority Elections by gender, 1992

Area	Candidates	Women	% Women of total	Total Seats filled	Women	% Women of total
Municipalities	417	147	35.3 %	110	29	26.4 %
Towns	224	83	37.1 %	84	28	33.3 %
Villages	365	152	41.6%	168	57	33.9%
TOTAL	1006	382	38.0%	362	114	31.5%

Source: Hubbard and Kavari, 1993.

Table 8: Regional Council Elections by gender, 1992

REGION	No. of Candidates	No. of Women	No. of Seats	No. of Women
Caprivi	15	0	6	0
Erongo	16	1	6	0
Hardap	17	1	6	0
Karas	13	1	6	1
Khomas	22	5	9	1
Kunene	15	0	6	0
Ohangwena	18	2	10	1
Okavango	12	0	6	0
Omaheke	17	0	6	0
Omusati	15	1	9	0
Oshana	19	0	9	0
Oshikoto	14	1	10	0
Otjozondjupa	15	0	6	0
TOTAL	208	12 (5.8%)	95	3 (3.2%)

Source: Hubbard and Kavari 1993

Table 9: Women in management positions in ministries concerned with rural development

Ministry	Women	Men	Total
Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Rural Development	1	17	18
Ministry of Lands, Resettlement and Rehabilitation	2	7	9
Ministry of Environment and Tourism	0	14	14
Ministry of Regional and Local Government and Housing	3	9	12

Source: Personnel Officers

Table 10: Marital status of the population aged 15 years and over

Marital Status	Male		Female		Total
	Rural %	Total %	Rural %	Total %	Rural %	Total %
Never Married	54.3	54.6 %	41.0 %	45.3 %	47.1 %	49.8 %
Married Legally	28.4	29.7 %	30.6 %	29.5 %	29.6 %	29.6 %
Married Consensually	12.7	11.7%	13.5%	12.6%	13.1 %	12.2%
Separated	1.0	0.8%	2.2%	1.7%	1.6%	1.3%
Divorced	1.3	1.3 %	3.3 %	2.9 %	2.4 %	2.1 %
Widowed	1.3	1.2%	9.0%	7.5%	5.5%	4.4%
Not Stated	1.0	0.7%	0.4%	0.5%	0.7%	0.6%
TOTAL	100	100	100 %	100 %	100 %	100 %
TOTAL NUMBER	234,924	393,518	279,569	428,015	514,493	821,533

Source: 1991 Census

Table 11: Security on the land by region and land tenure

	Owambo Cuvelai	Ow. Non Cuvelai	Kavango	Caprivi	Other CAs	Land Owners	Farm Workers	Urban	CA Average
Can anyone lake your land?	25%	32%	4%	5%	3%	15%	14%	50%	14%

	Owambo Cuvelai	Ow. Non Cuvelai	Kavango	Caprivi	Other CAs	Land Owners	Farm Workers	Urban	CA Average
Under what circumstances could someone take your land?
Government redist.	17%	28%	20%	19%	55%	25%	44%	28%	28%
Male head of hh dies	60%	49%	23%	14%	5%	4%	9%	12%	30%
Cannot repay loan	3%	4%	1%	2%	2%	23%	7%	20%	2%
Problems w/headman	9%	8%	4%	8%	8%	6%	4%	4%	7%
Divorce	-	-	6%	6%	5%	1%	-	2%	3%
Other	-	4%	-	-	9%	20%	17%	20%	5%
NOBODY CAN	10%	8%	47%	52%	17%	21%	19%	14%	27%

Source: NEPRU July 1991b (For a note on the geographical/tenure categories, see Table 4.6)

Table 12: Poverty and stratification in the Okavango Region (percent)

Group	All HHs	Female- headed HHs	Kangongo	Mpungu	Sikondo	Mabushe	Omuramba
Food insecure1	40	72	40	36	16	57	50
Generally poor2	13	6	10	13	20	13	10
Income sufficient3	47	22	50	51	64	30	40

¹The food insecure - those whose poverty is so great that they are unable to meet even their basic food needs

²The generally poor - those who have insufficient income to meet their general basic needs but who are able to meet basic food needs. Many of these households will be close to food insecurity and drought, for example, would present a significant threat to many in this group.

³The income sufficient - those with income sufficient to meet all their basic needs. As basic needs imply none of the luxuries which most of us would require (e.g., transport or entertainment), income sufficiency does not mean that development assistance is not required, merely that there are those whose needs are more acute.

Source: Yaron, et. al., 1992.

Table 13: Household head by sex of head, urban/rural

Household head*	Rural	Urban	Total	Total No. of Households
Male	57.1 %	68.0%	60.7 %	154,466
Female	42.9%	32.0%	39.3%	99,923
TOTAL	100.0 %	100.0%	100.0 %	254,389

*The Census defined the head of the household as "the person, male or female, who was recognised as such by the household members. He or she was usually responsible for the upkeep and maintenance of the household. If the usual head of the household was absent on the Census Night, the person (male or female) who took charge of the household during his or her absence was regarded as the head and relationships of all household members were specified in terms of that person."

Source: 1991 Census

Table 14: Household head by urban/rural, sex of head

Area	Male Headed	Female Headed	Total	Total No. of Households
Urban	37.2%	27.0%	33.2%	84,539
Rural	62.8%	73.0%	66.8%	169,850
TOTAL	100.0%	100.0%	100.0%	254,389

Note: The household population excludes institutional population (those in hotels, hospitals, hostels, orphanages, prisons and the homeless).

Source: 1991 Census

Table 15: Types of households by region

Region	Type of Household
	Extended family	Nuclear family	Male- centred	Female centred
Eastern Communal	45 %	16 %	8%	31 %
Southern Communal	32%	37%	13.5%	17.5%
Okavango	58%	42%	59%	41%
Owambo (Ombalantu)	64 %	36 %	49 %	51%

Note: Female-centred includes both de jure and de facto female-headed households.

Sources: Directorate of Agricultural Extension 1994; Directorate of Rural Development 1992; Yaron et. al. 1992; Van Rooy et al. 1993

Table 16: Proportion of household heads without a spouse (percent)

	Male Headed	Female Headed
Proportion of sex totals	30.6%	95.0%
Of total without spouse	33.2%	66.8%
Of all households	18.6%	37.3%

Source: 1991 Census.

Table 17: Household heads without a spouse as a percentage of all households by agro-ecological zone

Agro-ecological zone	Male Headed	Female Headed	Total
NORTH Communal	12.4%	47.8%	60.2%
CENTRAL
Commercial	27.3 %	20.3 %	47.6 %
Communal	28.3 %	35.8 %	64.1 %
WEST AND SOUTH
Commercial	25.9%	22.8%	48.7%
Communal	27.7%	36.7%	64.4%
NATIONAL	24.32%	32.7%	57.0%

Source: 1991 Census.

Table 18: Household heads by sex and marital status, urban/rural (percent)

Marital Status	National			Urban			Rural
	Total	Male	Female	Total	Male	Female	Total	Male	Female
Never married	19.6	15.7	25.7	27.3	18.0	47.0	15.8	14.4	17.8
Married legally	46 0	57.2	28.6	46 7	60.3	17 8	45.6	55 4	32.5
Married consensually	17.8	22.0	11.2	15.7	18.0	10.9	18.8	24.5	11.3
Separated	2.3	1.1	4.2	1.0	0.6	1.9	3.0	1.4	5.0
Divorced	4 0	1 8	7.4	3.5	1 7	7.4	4 3	2.0	7.4
Widowed	10.0	1.7	22 6	5.6	1.3	14.9	12.1	2.0	25.5
Not stated	0 3	0 3	0 3	0.2	0 2	0.1	0.4	0.4	0.4

Source: 1991 Census.

Table 19: Household heads by sex and educational attainment, urban/rural (percent) .

Educational Attainment	National			Urban			Rural
	Total	Male	Female	Total	Male	Female	Total	Male	Female
No schooling	35.1	32 8	38.8	13.8	12.9	15.8	45 7	44.6	47.3
Primary	32.1	31.3	33.4	24.8	23.8	27.1	35.7	35.7	35.8
Secondary	27.4	29.0	24.9	49.3	49.0	49.8	16.5	17.1	15.6
Technical/ Vocational	2.3	3.1	1.1	5.4	6.5	3.1	0.8	1.1	0.3
Teacher Training	1.1	1.2	1.1	1.9	1.8	1.9	0.8	0.8	0.7
University	1.8	2.5	0.7	4.7	5.9	2.2	0.3	0.5	0.1
Not stated	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1

Source: 1991 Census.

Table 20: Gender composition of productive adults (age 15-59) by location type

Type of location	% of Males	% of Females
Rural Community	42%	58%
Rural Town	48%	52%
Urban Township	57%	43%

Source: Van Rooy, et. al., 1993.

Table 21: Mean household size by sex of household head and urban/rural

	Mean Size
URBAN	4.7
Male Headed	4.7
Female Headed	4.8
RURAL	5.4
Male Headed	5.4
Female Headed	5.4
TOTAL	5.2
Male Headed	5.1
Female Headed	5.3

Note: The Census defined a household as "a group of persons, related or unrelated, who lived in the same housing unit and who shared or had common catering arrangements. A person who lived alone and had his/her own catering arrangements formed a one person household." Only domestic servants who lived in the same household AND shared common catering arrangements were included. It is important to note that the mean household size is influenced by the greater likelihood of one or two person households being male headed: only 32% and 34% respectively are female headed.

Source: 1991 Census

Table 22: Female population by number of children born

Age Group	Women Legally Married	Average # of Children ever Born Live	Women Never Married	Average # of Children ever Born Live
15-19	2,210	0.8	51,349	1.1
20-24	6,577	1.8	27,162	0.8
25-29	10,670	2.8	14,823	1.7
30-34	11,781	4.3	7,014	2.9
35-39	10,412	5.4	3,891	3.9
40-44	9,835	6.5	2,497	4.6
45-49	8,233	6.9	1,816	4.9

Source: 1991 Census.

Table 23: Rural households by sex, size of household and number of employed persons (percent)

Number of Employed Persons	Total	Size of Household
		1	2	3	4	5	6-7	8-9	10
All heads 0	18.4	29.6	24.6	22.6	19.9	17.8	15.3	12.6	8.9
1	44.6	70.4	48.2	49.2	48.5	45.9	41.3	34.5	25.2
2	23.4		27.3	24.1	23.5	26.4	28.3	28.6	24.4
3	7 8			6.9	5.2	6.9	9.8	14.5	16.8
4	3.1				2.9	1.9	3.4	5.7	10.5
5+	2.6					1.2	1.8	4.1	14.1
Male heads 0	12.9	22.4	15.7	14.0	12.6	11.5	11.3	10.0	6.9
1	41 9	77.6	46.5	44.3	43.1	39.7	34.7	30.0	22.9
2	28.4		37.8	30.5	32.1	34.6	34.6	31.6	24.5
3	9 3			11.2	7.3	9.1	12.1	16.4	17.2
4	4 0				5.0	2.9	4.6	6.8	11.7
5+	3.5					2.1	2.7	5.3	16.7
Female heads 0	25.7	48.7	39.3	32.4	27.7	24.5	19.6	16.0	12.4
1	48.3	51.3	50.9	54.8	54.3	52.3	48.6	40.6	29.3
2	16.8		9.8	10.9	14.4	17.7	21.4	24.8	24.3
3	5 9			1.9	30.	4.6	7.4	11.9	16.1
4	2.0				0.6	0.8	2.2	4.4	8.4
5+	1.4					0.2	0.8	2.4	9.4

Source: 1991 Census

Table 24: Sources of income to rural households by percent of households with access and region

FOR CASH	Ov-Cuv	Ov-NC	Kav	Cap	Other	Land	FrmWk	Urban	CA Average
Wages/pensions	40 %	33 %	39 %	41 %	38 %	99 %	94 %	91 %	38 %
Pensions	27%	33%	14%	17%	27%	3%	2%	8%	24%
Casual work	5%	3%o	13%	15%	4%	5%	8%	17%	16%
Remittances	32%	22%	9%	13%	9%	4%	5%	8%	17%
Small enterprise	22 %	17 %	17 %	32 %	5 %	4 %	4 %	4 %	18 %
Sales	33%	35%	54%	52%	63%	8%	5%	47%
Service trade	2%	1%	3%	7%	3%	1%	0%	5%	3%
Other ( ie rents)	2 %	0 %	2 %	2 %	7 %	1 %	0 %	1 %	3 %
FOR CASH and/or SUBSISTENCE
Crop Production	90%	98%	94%	89%	19%	15%	7%	10%	78%
Livestock Production	80 %	85 %	84 %	82 %	87 %	97 %	43 %	34 %	84 %
Hunting, gathering, fishing	11 %	7 %	51 %	27 %	19 %	24 %	7 %	10 %	23 %
Food (in-kind, drought)	15%	16%	6%	18%	41%	3%	52%	2%	19%

Note: Owambo Cuvelai (OC) is the central floodplain area. Owambo non-Cuvelai (ONC) is outside the central floodplain. Okavango (Kay) and Caprivi (Cap) are in the higher rainfall, northeastern zone. Other Communal Areas (Other) are the former reserves of Kaokoland, Damaraland,, Bushmanland, Hereroland, and Namaland.

Land owners (Land) are large-scale commercial farmers. Farm workers (FarmWrk) only includes those in the commercial farm sector.

The urban sample only includes Windhoek.

Source: NEPRU July 1991b

Table 25: Relative importance of household income sources - Okavango Region

Income Source	All areas
Subsistence from crops (1)	3%
Subsistence from fish (2)	1%
Crop sales (3)	1%
Animal sales (4)	11 %
Home production (5)	17%
Remittance income (6)	2%
Formal sector income (7)	46%
Informal sector income (8)	11%
Pension income (9)	4%
Other income (10)	5%
Agriculture (1+2+3+4)	16%
Transfers (6 + 9)	6 %
Employment (5+7+8)	74%
Other (9)	5%

Note: sub-totals may not sum to total due to rounding.

Source: Yaron G. et. al 1992

Table 26: Absolute and relative importance of income sources for poor and non-poor - Okavango Region

PERCENTAGES
MEAN VALUE	All households	Food insecure	Generally poor	Income sufficient
Total income	10 560	2 377	5 851	18 788
Subsistence from crops (1)	3 %	8 %	6 %	2 %
	310	181	352	407
Subsistence from fish (2)	1 %	1 %	5%	1 %
	150	34	275	211
	1%	2%	0%	1%
Crop sales (3)	75	43	27	116
	11%	21%	13%	10%
Animal sales (4)	1 208	491	785	1 932
Home production income (5)	17 %	9 %	7 %	19 %
	1 845	206	432	3 628
Remittance income (6)	2 %	5 %	4 %	1 %
	193	120	248	236
Informal sector income (7)	11 %	17 %	17 %	9 %
	1 119	402	983	1 762
Formal sector income (8)	46%	5%	22%	52%
	4 810	130	1 313	9 744
Pension income (9)	4 %	19%	10%	1 %
	375	452	605	244
Other income (10)	5%	13%	14 %	3%
	480	317	831	518
Agriculture (%)(1+2+3+4) (Rand	17%	32%	25%	14%
)	1 743	749	1439	2 666
Transfers (%) (6+9) (Rand)	5%	24%	15%	3%
	568	572	853	480
Employment (%)(5+7+8) (Rand)	74%	31%	47%	80%
	7 774	738	2 728	15 134
Other (10) (%) (Rand)	5%	13%	14%	3%
.	480	317	831	518

Note: sub-totals may not sum to total due to rounding.

Source: Yaron G. et.al 1992.

Table 27: Contribution of cash sources to monthly household budget - Eastern Communal Areas 1993

Cash Sources	Contribution
	Major	Little/None
Remittances	5.4 %	94.6 %
Pension	42.8 %	57.2 %.
Wage-Employment	32.3 %	67.7 %
Self-Employment	32.3%	67.7%
Sale of Fish	2.0%	98.0%
Sale of Animals	44.4 %	55.6 %
Sale of Karakul Pelts	.7%	99.3%
Sale of Crops	3.0%	97.0%
Homemade Products	6.4%	93.6%

Source: Dir. of Agricultural Ext. and Engineering 1994

Table 28: Levels of malnutrition in children under five by urban/rural and geographic region

Area	Stunting (Height-for-age)	Wasting (Weight-for age)	Undernourished (Weight-for-age)
Urban	21.8%	6.6%	17.8%
Rural	31.3 %	9.5 %	29.8 %
Northwest	27.1 %	9.8%	30.0%
Northeast	42.1 %	7.9 %	31.1 %
Central	19.6%	13.2 %	20.5 %
South	24.7 %	5.2 %	18.4 %

Source: Ministry of Health and Social Services, National Demographic Health Survey 1992

Table 29. Household decision-rnaking and division of labour by gender - Uukwaluudhi District, Omusati Region (Owambo)

Resource and Activity	Control - Who
Land
Crops	Female > Male
Vegetables	Female > Male
Trees	Female
How much to plant	Malea
Labour
Ploughing	Male
Sowing	Female
Weeding	Female, Children
Malindilindi	Female, Childrenb
Harvesting	Female > Male
Processing	Female, Female Children
Hiring	Male
Livestock
Cattle	Male
Goats	Male
Sheep	Male
Donkeys	Male
Oxen	Male
Horses	Male
Pigs	Female
Poultry	Female
Cash
Keeping	Female
Deciding	Male = Female
Harvest Storage	Female
Household
Seeds	Male
Agricultural tools	Male
Fuel wood	Female, Children
Water	Female, Children
Cooking	Female, Female Children
Education	Female > Male
Training	Female > Male
Literacy	Female > > Male

^aThe person who is ploughing decides.

^bOnly certain areas.

Source: Reprinted from van Uytvanck, November 1993.

Table 30: Household decision-making by gender - Okavango Region

	Decision Maker
	Yes	No	Joint
Male	71.1%	1.8%	27.1%
Female	42.3 %	13.5 %	42.2 %

Source: Yaron et. al. 1992

Table 31: Household decision-making by type of household - Southern Communal Areas

Type of Household	Decision Maker
	Head	Spouse	Joint	Other
Nuclear	50%	6%	43 %	1 %
Extended	69%	5 %	22%	4%
Female-headed	92 %	0 %	0%	8 %

Source: Directorate of Rural Development 1992

Table 32: Household decision-marring by type of household - Eastern Communal Areas

	Subject of Decision
Decision Maker	Money to Spend	Sell Animals	Buy Food	Children to School	Clothes
Head	72%	63 %	50%	54%	49%
Spouse	3 %	4 %	15 %	6 %	9 %
Both	17%	21%	26%	28%	33%
Other	9%	12%	10%	12%	9%

Source: Directorate of Agricultural Extension and Engineering 1994

Table 33: Ownership of livestock by households and number of stock - Eastern Communal Areas

Livestock	None	1-10	11-30	30+ (up to 1,000)
Cattle	24 %	20 %	22 %	35 %
Goats	30%	23%	23%1	25%
Donkeys	60 %	39 %	01%	0 %
Poultry	43%	37%	19%	01%

Source: Directorate of Agricultural Extension and Engineering 1994

Table 34: Ownership of livestock by type of household and mean number owned - Eastern Communal Areas

Type of Household	Mean Number Owned
	Cattle	Goats	Donkeys	Poultry
Nuclear	35	23	2	4
Extended	75	33	2	9
Female	25	19	1	4
Male	16	9	1	3

Source: Directorate of Agricultural Extension and Engineering 1994

Table 35: Ownership of livestock by households and number of stock - Southern Communal Areas

	None	2-50	52-100	105-200	204-800
Goats	25.1 %	31.7%	13.2%	16.4%	13.6%
	None	1-52	59-100	105-3100
Sheep	66.1 %	14.9%	9.0%	9.0%
	None	1-10	11-180
Cattle	63.0%	21.8%	15.2%

Source: Directorate of Rural Development 1992

Table 36: Ownership of goats by type of household and income level - Southern Communal Areas

Type of Household	Median # of Goats
Extended family	62
Nuclear	47
Female headed	20
Lowest Income	8.5
Medium Income	35
Highest Income	100

Source: Directorate of Rural Development 1992

Table 37: Ownership of livestock by households and number of stock - Owambo Region

Livestock	None	1-10	11-30	31-50+
Cattle	50.7%	15.9%	18.4%	15.0%
Goats	43.3 %	19.1 % %	25.7 %	13.9%

Source: FAO, Northern Livestock Improvement Project, 1992

Table 38: Ownership of livestock by households and number of stock - Okavango Region

Livestock	None	1-10	11-30	31-50+
Cattle	66.0 %	15.1 %	12.7 %	6.2 %
Goats	77.8%	11.4%	8.1 %	2.7%

Source: FAO, Northern Livestock Improvement Project, 1992

Table 39: Ownership of livestock by household income group and mean number owned - Okavango Region

Type of Household	Mean Number Owned
	Cattle	Goats	Pigs	Poultry
Food Insecure*	9	3	0	8
Generally Poor	10	5	1	7
Income Sufficient	25	12	1	6

*72% of all female headed households were found to be food insecure.

Source: Yaron et. al. 1992

Table 40: Ownership of livestock by households and number of stock - Erongo/Kunene Regions (former Damaraland)

Livestock	None	1-10	10-20	20-40	40-80	80-160	160-320+
Cattle	48%	22%	9%	8%	6%	4%	3%
Goats	8%	4%	13%	16%	32%	15 %	12%
Sheep	65%	10%	8%	7%	6%	4%	0%

Note: Percentages are estimated from a graph.

Source: Rohde 1993

Table 41 Ownership of goats by gender and mean number owned - Erongo/Kunene Regions (former Damaraland)

Average Herd Size for Goats as a % of total male/female farmers
	None	1-10	10-20	20-50	50-100	100-300+
Male Farmers	8%	15%	15%	20%	25%	17%
Female Farmers	7%	10%	10%	25%	22%	16%

Note: Percentages are estimated from a graph.

Source: Rohde 1993

Table 42: Ownership of cattle by gender and mean number owned - Erongo/Kunene Regions (former Damaraland)

Average Herd Size for Cattle as a % of total male/female farmers
	None	1-10	10-20	20-40	40-60+
Male Farmers	50%	23%	10%	9%	8%
Female Farmers	60%	26%	9%	4%	1%

Note: Percentages are estimated from a graph.

Source: Rohde 1993

Table 43: Farmers' views of constraints to increased crop production (percent) - Okavango Region

Constraints reported as:	Food insecure	Generally poor	Income sofficient
lack of land	47	60	46
lack of credit	26	46	44
lack of equipment	85	89	78
lack of labour	28	14	38
lack of expertise	20	23	26
lack of markets	10	11	11
lack of transport	19	11	30
lack of rain	40	29	30

Source: Yaron et. al., 1992.

Table 44: Type of cultivation used by household head - Uukwambi District, Omusati Region, Owambo

Household Head	Hand hoe	Donkey/ Plough	Oxen/ Plough	Tractor	Hoe & Donkey	Hoe & Oxen	Donkey & Tractor	Hoe & Tractor
Male	5%	17 %	2%	9%	39%	2%	3%	14%
Female	18%	9%	3%	8%	33%	0%	0%	26%

Note: The predominance of using two methods of cultivation, including combining tilling by hand with ploughing by tractor, suggests that many households aim to balance limited labour availability with limited cash resources.

Source: Naeraa and Solomon 1994

Table 45: Agricultural extension staff by position and gender

TITLE	Educational Requirement	Female	Male	Total*	% Female
Agriculture Extension Officers	Bachelor of Science	4	20	24	17%
Agriculture Extension Technicians	Senior certificate & 2 year diploma	12	138	150	8%

*Due to rationalisation, 42 positions remain unfilled.

Source: Department of Personnel, Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Rural Development

Table 46: Veterinary services staff by position and gender

Position	Educational Requirement	Female	Male	Tolal*	% Female
State Veterinarians	Bachelor of Science	5	15	20	25%
Meat Inspectors/ Examiners	Senior certificate & 2 year diploma	0	41	41	0%
Technicians	Senior certificate & 2 year diploma	12	5	17	71%
Control/Chief Animal Health Inspectors	Senior certificate	0	18	18	0%
Animal Health Inspectors	Standard 8	0	62	62	0%
Clerical Assistants	Standard10	23	0	23	100%
Stock inspector Assistants	Standard 6-8	4	111	115	3%

Source: Mr. I. Shaw, Director of Veterinary Services, MAWRD

Table 47: Directorate of Forestry staff by position and gender

Position	Educational Requirement	Female	Male	Total*	% Female
Chief Forester/ Director	Bachelor of Science	0	4	4	0%
Forester	Bachelor of Science	2	5	7	29%
Forest Ranger	Senior certificate & 2 year certificate	2	7	9	22%
Forest Technician	Senior certificate & 2 year diploma	1	7	8	13 %

Note: A one year program for Forest Guards is also being developed.

Source: Acting Director, Directorate of Forestry, MET

Table 48: Department of Nature Conservation staff by position and gender

Position	Educational Requirement	Female	Male	Total*	% Female
Nature Conservation Researcher	Bachelor of Science	1	15	16	6%
Conservation Research Technicians	Senior certificate & 3 year diploma	4	1	5	80 %
Nature Conservation Officers	Senior certificate & 3 year diploma	0	35	35	0 %

Source: Personnel, Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism

Table 49: Enrolment in Ogongo Agricultural College by gender

OGONGO	Female	Male	Total	% F
1st year: 3 year diploma	14	17	31	45%
1st year: 2 year forestry	4	12	16	25%
2nd year	8	17	25	32%
3rd year	15	14	29	52%

Source: Principal. Ogongo Agricultural College

Table 50: Enrolment in Neudamm Agricultural College by gender

NEUDAMM	Female	Male	Total	%F
1989 1 st year	1	28	29	3
1989 2nd year	4	25	29	14
1990 1st year	1	30	31	3
1990 2nd year	1	17	18	6
1991 1st year	3	26	29	10
1991 2nd year	1	25	26	4
1992 1st year	2	21	23	9
1992 2nd year	3	19	21	14
1993 1st year	0	10	10	0
1993 2nd year	0	9	9	0
1994 1st year	3	23	26	12
1994 2nd year	0	10	10	0
1994 3rd year	0	13	13	0

Source: Principal, Neudamm Agricultural College.

Table 51: Secondary school enrolment in agricultural subjects by gender, 1993

Enrolment	Agricultural science			Agricultural production and farming techniques			Both subjects
	M	F	All	M	F	All	M	F	All
Pupils	12160	13053	25213	11924	12037	23961	19950	19864	39814
Ratio (%)	48.2	51.8	100	49.8	50.2	100	50.1	49.9	100

Table 52: Water supply to rural households

Piped Indoors	3.5%
Piped Outdoors	7.2%
Public Pipe	15.2%
Well	39.4%
Borehole	21.5%
River, canal or lake	12.7%
Other	0.3%
TOTAL	100.0%

Table 53: Toilet facilities of rural households

Water Closet (exclusive)	4.7%
Water Closet (shared)	2.2%
Pit	6.5%
Bucket, pail	1.1%
Bush	85.6 %
TOTAL	100.0 %

Table 54: Population aged 15 + by sex, activity status and urban/rural

Activity Status	Urban		Rural		Total
	Male	Female	Male	Female	Male	Female
Economically Active	74.7%	50.8%	64.1 %	48.1 %	68.6%	49.0%
Not Economically Active	25.2%	49.1%	35.5%	51.8%	31.3%	50.9%
TOTAL	100%	100%	100%	100%	100%	100%

Source: 1991 Census

Table 55: Population aged 15+ by sex, activity status and agro-ecological zone

Activity Status	Communal Areas		Commercial Areas		Rural Areas		Natl. Total
	Male	Female	Male	Female	Male	Female
Economically Active	59.3%	47.9%	82.2%	51.7%	64.4%	48.1%	58.4%
Employed	47.1 %	41.6 %	67. 1 %	36.2 %	53.7 %	42.1 %	47.2 %
Not Employed	12.3 %	6.3 %	15.1 %	15.5 %	10.7%	5.9%	11.2%
Previously Worked	4.3 %	1.0 %	4.8 %	3.8 %	3.9 %	1.1 %	3.1 %
First job Seekers	7.9%	5.3 %	10.3 %	11.7%	6.9%	4.9%	8.0%
Not Economically Active	40.6%	52.1 %	17.6%	48.1 %	35.5%	51.8%	41.5 %
Student	26.6%	21.6%	8.7%	11.1%	22.2%	18.3%	18.9%
Homemaker	4.4%	20.0%	2.6%	29.9%	3.7%	22.4%	13.8%
Income recipient	0.3 %	0.2 %	0.2 %	0.2 %	0.3 %	0.2 %	0.2 %
Disabled	1.7%	1.1%	0.8%	0.6%	1.6%	1.1%	1.1 %
Retired old age	7.2%	9.0%	3.8%	6.0%	7.3%	9.6%	7.0%
Other	0.4%	0.2%	1.5%	0.3%	0.3%	0.2%	0.5%
Not Stated	0.1%	0.1%	0.1%	0.1%	0.1%%	0.1%	0.1%
TOTAL	100 %	100 %	100 %	100 %	100 %	100 %	100 %

Source: 1991 Census

Table 56: Economically active population (aged 10 years and over) by sex, employment status, and area (percent)

Employment Status	National	Rural	North	Central		W - S		Total
			CA	CA	CF	CA	CF	CA	CF
All Employer	1.9	1.7	0.5	3.6	3.1	1.3	4.3	0.8	3.5
Own account worker	19.1	27.8	32.2	11.6	3.0	20.8	2.2	29.8	2.8
Employee: Gov't.	18.6	10.9	13.9	21.3	26.2	18.2	19.2	14.3	24 3
Employee: Private	39.1	26.7	16.4	49.7	66.1	30.3	73.2	20.0	68.0
Unpaid family worker	21.0	32.6	36.6	12.7	0.9	29.1	0.7	34.3	0.9
Other	0.1	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.4	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.3
Not stated	0.3	0.2	0.3	0.5	0.3	0.3	0.4	0.3	0.3
Male Employer	2.7	2.7	0.7	4.3	4.0	1.5	5.4	1.2	4.4
Own account worker	15.9	24.5	31.1	12.7	2.9	22.2	2.0	28.2	2.6
Employee Gov't.	21.7	14.1	20.2	16.7	26.5	17.0	13.1	19.5	24.2
Employee: Private	47.6	39.2	24.9	53.0	65.4	36.6	73.6	29.1	67.7
Unpaid family worker	11.6	19 2	22.8	13.0	0 7	22.4	0 6	21.7	0.6
Other	0.1	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.4	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.3
Not stated	0.3	0.2	0.3	0 3	0 2	0.2	0.3	0.3	0.2
Female Employer	0.8	0.6	0.4	1.8	1.4	1.0	1.7	0.5	1.5
Own account worker	23.2	31.5	33.2	8.9	3.2	18.5	2.8	31.3	3.1
Employee: Gov't.	14.5	7.3	8.6	34.7	25 5	20.3	22.0	10.4	24.6
Employee: Private	27.7	12.5	9.3	41 5	67.6	19.4	72.0	11.2	68.7
Unpaid family worker	33.4	47.8	48.3	12.1	1.5	40.5	0.9	46.4	1.4
Other	0.1	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.5	0.0	0.1	0.0	0.4
Not stated	0.3	0.3	0 2	1.0	0.4	0.4	0.5	0.3	0.4