I. INTRODUCTION

1. Despite geographic and economic differences among small island developing States (SIDS),¹ all island communities are extremely dependent on the sea and its living resources for their existence. Since opportunities for land-based development are limited, the sea and the fisheries sector play a critical role in the lives and economy of all island communities.

2. The nature of problems faced by SIDS concerning the sustainable utilization of fisheries resources are not essentially different from those of other States. However, SIDS are considerably disadvantaged in that they do not have the same range of solutions to these problems as larger States. As essentially self-contained ecosystems, fisheries problems in SIDS usually manifest themselves more obviously, more quickly, and with greater effect than in larger continental States.

3. The special fisheries and aquaculture requirements of SIDS, and their dependence on the fisheries sector for food, employment and national income, have been recognized by FAO for the past two decades. Indeed, the Committee on Fisheries (COFI) first acknowledged the particular fisheries needs of SIDS at its Fifteenth Session in 1983. The Strategy adopted by the 1984 FAO World Conference on Fisheries Management and Development underscored the importance of the fisheries sector to SIDS when it noted that "… Due consideration should be given to the special role of small-scale fisheries in the economies of island States where they are often the major source of employment and foreign exchange earnings. …"² Later, the Twenty-first and Twenty-second Sessions of COFI in 1995 and 1997, respectively, addressed SIDS issues, when it was agreed that an FAO Programme of Fisheries Assistance for Small Island Developing States should be elaborated and submitted without delay to the international donor community for funding.

4. In addition to its own initiatives focussing on fisheries and aquaculture issues in small island States, FAO also sought to highlight the importance of the fisheries sector to SIDS in international fora and in the negotiation of international declarations and instruments. For example, FAO inputs to the preparatory commissions for the negotiation of Agenda 21 of the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development and the 1994 Barbados United Nations Global Conference on the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States, were cases in point.³

5. A recent development concerning the importance of fish to island States was the 1998 deliberations by the High-level Panel of External Experts in Fisheries. In the course of discussions references were made to the fish and food security in SIDS, to problems island States face with respect to obtaining a fair share from the exploitation of their fisheries, and to the difficulties associated with the sustainable management of their fisheries resources. More specifically, the Panel noted:

• that populations in SIDS were one of the groups that were more vulnerable to food insecurity as a consequence of reduced access to fish;
• that rising real fish prices though time will support fleet over-capacity in many fisheries and thereby continue to exert excessive pressure on resources. SIDS and the poorest will be most disadvantaged in obtaining and maintaining access to fish;
• the difficulty of developing countries, and in particular SIDS, to make use of their offshore resources; and
• that monitoring, control and surveillance (MCS) will be an increasingly major issue for the future management of fisheries. Developing countries and in particular those countries such as SIDS that depend on access arrangements with foreign fleets, need MCS assistance and in particular in dealing with vessels flying flags of convenience or phantom vessels flying no flags at all.

6. In terms of their participation in international fisheries affairs, which can be quite financially burdensome for island States, Table 1 shows 35 SIDS are Members of the United Nations and 33 are Members of FAO. In most instances it is the smallest island States from the South Pacific (Cook Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, Tuvalu) that are not members of the United Nations or FAO. Eleven island States (or 13 percent of the total) are classified as low-income food deficit countries (LIFDCs),⁴ while 11 States (or 23 percent of the total number of least developed States), have ‘least developed’ status⁵ within the UN System.⁶

7. Selected UN development indicators for developing island States are shown in Table 2. These data provide an indication of the relative social and economic status of States. In summary, the data show that:

• with respect to GNP, five island States are classified in the high category (i.e. with GNP per caput greater than US$ 9 386 per annum); 28 States fall in the very broad medium category (i.e. with GNP per caput between US$ 766 to US$ 9 385 per annum); while five States fall in the low category (i.e. GNP per caput below US$ 765 per annum).
• for the human development indicator, 16 SIDS are classified in the high category, 13 island States in the medium category, and 3 States fall in the low category.⁷ The purpose of this indicator is to demonstrate the relative socio-economic progress made by countries through time. By way of clarification, the indicator is important for governments in that it permits the determination of priorities for policy intervention.

8. Although there are apparent differences among regional groupings of SIDS, and indeed even within regional groupings, it is nonetheless possible to generalize about a number of common characteristics of SIDS. These characteristics include, inter alia:

• relatively small land areas, coastlines of moderate length, and large EEZs which give a disproportionately high ratio between the EEZ and land areas, especially for countries in the Indian Ocean and South Pacific (Table 1);
• high levels of dependence on fish for food (Table 3);
• important fish and aquaculture production. Data⁸ for island States is summarized in Table 4. The high contribution of marine fishery production to total production is notable, though in the Caribbean and the Mediterranean aquaculture figures are significant, while inland capture fishery production, due primarily to production in Papua New Guinea, is relatively important in the South Pacific.
• large populations and high rates of population growth relative to the carrying capacity of islands, and high population densities (Table 1);
• high and increasing rates of urbanization, particularly in main islands through migration from outer islands;
• physically fragile environments and climatic fluctuations;
• high dependence on foreign development assistance, most notably in the South Pacific;
• high levels of urban unemployment (as high as 20 percent and higher of the adult population) and disguised rural under-employment;

• small, open, dependent and undiversified economies that are extremely vulnerable and reliant, in some cases to a large extent, on preferential trading arrangements; and
• substantial rates of emigration in some States resulting, in some cases, in critical losses of skills to the economy, especially in the Caribbean and the South Pacific regions.

9. Fish provides the basic source of animal protein for many SIDS, and as such fish therefore figures heavily in the food security equation in these countries.⁹ Indeed, largely out of necessity, per caput fish consumption rates (from both capture fisheries and aquaculture) in island States are high by international standards.

10. Data showing fish consumption rates in SIDS, and the contribution of fish to the overall protein intake, are shown in Table 3. These data indicate that:

• per caput consumption rates of fish range from a high of 153.2 kg to 2.2 kg per annum;
• in addition, in 22 SIDS fish accounts for more than 20 percent of animal protein, in 15 countries fish accounts for more than 30 percent of animal protein, while in six States fish accounts for more than 50 percent of the animal protein intake; and
• in 22 SIDS fish accounts for more than 10 percent of the total protein intake and in nine States fish accounts for more than 20 percent of the total protein intake.

11. Significantly, and contrary to general expectations, many small island States are net importers of fishery products. These imports are for use both by island populations and, in some cases, for the tourist industry. Table 3 shows that 29 SIDS, for which data are available, are net importers of fishery products. In view of this situation, and the need to ensure that fisheries continue to contribute to the maximum extent possible to food security in island States, every effort should be made to facilitate long-term sustainable resource use.

12. The fisheries sector is important in island States because it is an avenue for both self- and paid-employment. Near urban centres or tourist resorts, small-scale fishermen and fish farmers have the opportunity to catch and farm fish and to sell their catches in urban markets. Where industrial fisheries exist, islanders can obtain work on vessels, as is the case in some South Pacific countries. The marketing of catches, both from small-scale fisheries and the by-catch from industrial fleets, presents opportunities for islanders, and in particular women, to participate in an economic activity to which they otherwise would not have access.

13. The fisheries sector generates national income for SIDS through fish exports and revenue from fisheries access fees. This revenue can be substantial, and in some cases is the most important source of revenue available to an island State (e.g., Kiribati). Fees for fishing access, primarily for tuna, are paid by foreign fishing fleets to island countries in the South Pacific and Indian Ocean for the right to fish in their respective EEZs.

14. Employment opportunities in SIDS are limited, and this situation presents difficulties where it is necessary to re-locate fishermen as part of fisheries rationalization programmes. In cases where there is pressure on fisheries resources, and possibilities for tourism exit, it has been possible for some fishers to re-orientate their activities in support of small-scale eco-tourism, often with an emphasis on sports fishing and other water sports. In other cases fishers have found work outside the country. The remittances from these workers are economically important in many cases.

15. The maintenance of the contribution of fisheries to food security, and the preservation of the fisheries sector’s key social and economic role in island States, is fundamentally related to fisheries conservation and management, and the subsequent utilization of resources, particularly those resources harvested in coastal areas. This is despite the economic importance of offshore resources, such as tuna, which are in most instances subject to lower levels of fishing efforts than inshore resources adjacent to population centres.

16. A common feature of inshore fisheries in SIDS is the deterioration of conservation and management practices as population pressure has increased and opportunities for commercial fish sales developed. Migration and social change has also led to the breakdown of traditional fisheries management practice which hitherto had been rather effective on islands which are populated by indigenous groups. Measures to rekindle and strengthen management practice, building on and working through traditional institutions, is viewed as the most realistic means of promoting inshore management in island countries, given the lack of success with so-called conventional management approaches.¹⁰ Indeed, the greater involvement of fishing communities in decision-making concerning fisheries management, as opposed to centralized approaches to management, is being promoted generally in developing countries as the most effective conservation and management avenue to pursue.

17. With respect to fish preservation, techniques were not usually well developed in island countries because the need for fish preservation was not pressing. However, with continuing transportation and marketing difficulties, growing urban populations, high fishing pressure on coastal resources adjacent to urban centres, and rising imports of fish and other animal protein in SIDS, there is a need to introduce and improve fish preservation techniques. In addition, marketing channels need to be made more efficient given that opportunities exist in some island States to move fish from outer islands to urban centres.

18. Of international fisheries concern at the present time is the issue of by-catch and discards. In artisanal fisheries in island States, there is little, if any, by-catch, and virtually no discarding of fish; all catch is retained for human consumption. However, in industrial fisheries the situation is somewhat different. Where vessels are locally based (e.g. tuna vessels or shrimp trawlers), by-catch is often brought back to port where it is sold, often by women and other disadvantaged groups. In this way the industrial by-catch augments food supply in island States. In the case of distant-water fishing nation vessels, which operate from ports outside the regions where island States are located, the practice of high-grading (i.e. retaining only high-valued species and fish that is of good quality) is common, principally because of the limited storage space on vessels. It is this practice in industrial fisheries which is the current focus of international attention.

19. Regional cooperation in marine capture fisheries among SIDS is well developed, and is therefore very important, in all regions. Island States recognize that, given their limited national financial and human resources, and the possibility of being individually manipulated in fisheries negotiations, cooperation and the sharing of information is essential in fisheries, taking into account that many of the stocks are shared and similar fisheries challenges faced. Cooperation among SIDS is pursued through regional organizations such as the Pacific Community and Forum Fisheries Agency in the South Pacific; the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) and the Organization for Eastern Caribbean States (OECS), and the Western Central Atlantic Fishery Commission (WECAFC) in the Caribbean; and the Committee for the Development and Management of Fisheries in the Southwest Indian Ocean of the Indian Ocean Fishery Commission (SWIO/IOFC) in the Indian Ocean. Tuna management, in which SIDS have a major interest, is facilitated through the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission (IOTC) and the International Commission of Atlantic Tunas. A regional tuna fishery body, incorporating fully the principles and concepts of the UN Fish Stocks Agreement, is currently being negotiated in the Western and Central Pacific.

20. Regional fisheries cooperation among island States is extensive, and ranges from the sharing of fisheries and related information, joint training and research programmes, to collaboration in MCS. Indeed, regional cooperation in the area of MCS, as a means of responsibly strengthening fisheries management, is being pursued as a matter of importance in both the Caribbean and South Pacific regions. Efforts to strengthen regional fisheries cooperation at all levels and in all areas should be actively encouraged among SIDS given the benefits that such cooperation can bring.

21. A number of factors can be identified that constrain the development and management of the fisheries sector in island States. These factors include, inter alia:

• A lack of institutional strength and capacity on the part of the public sector to manage the fisheries sector. Improving capacity is seen as being a vital pre-requisite for enhancing the overall management of the sector and thereby realizing its full contribution to national food security and social and economic development. It is being increasingly recognized that as a result of high staff turnovers in small national fisheries administrations, institutional strengthening and capacity building, particularly in terms of human resource development, requires an on-going and long-term commitment on the part of island governments and technical assistance agencies.
• Difficulties associated with improving inshore fisheries management, using traditional knowledge and practice through community management and relocating fishing effort to offshore areas in those cases where pressure on resources is less intense, must be overcome if sustainable fisheries are to be achieved. To address constraints of this nature a co-ordinated set of policies is required that would involve, for example, training, extension, new vessel design, finance, and even new port facilities.
• High post-harvest losses due to poor fish handling and limited and underdeveloped national and international fish marketing arrangements constrain fisheries utilization. For inshore catches the main marketing problem is moving fish from outer areas to urban centres, while maintaining quality and being able to offer fish at a reasonable price. This problem is not unique to SIDS but there are particular difficulties that may not be encountered, or which are less pronounced, in continental States.
• Inadequate safety regulations and systems for fishers, especially those that operate beyond the immediate inshore areas inhibit a better distribution of fishing effort. Many islanders are lost at sea each year because of fishing in bad weather, fishing with inappropriate craft and gear and a general lack of knowledge about safety at sea. The prospect of loss of life at sea constrains fishers from extending their operations seawards and away from heavily exploited inshore fisheries.
• Immature national fishing industries, many of which are public sector owned, and a weak private sector affects the extent to which the fisheries sector can contribute to national development. SIDS would benefit from assistance to privatize publicly owned investments and to put policies in place that would facilitate a strong and vibrant private sector. While recognizing that many SIDS have low absorptive capacity for investment because of their size and indeed may have difficulties in attracting investment for that reason, well defined policies to attract national and foreign investment, supplemented by legislation that provides reasonable protection for investors, should be vigorously encouraged.
• The current lack of aquaculture and inland fisheries development in small island States constrains the overall contribution of the fisheries sector to food security and national economic development. Most SIDS have yet to realize their full potential for the development of aquaculture and inland fisheries. In particular, measures to promote sustainable aquaculture and reef enhancement are required, while ensuring that inland capture fisheries are harvested rationally.

22. In considering the FAO Programme of Fisheries Assistance for Small Island States, the Twenty-second Session of COFI " … urged FAO to proceed with the Programme’s implementation without delay."¹¹ In conformity with that request, FAO has taken initial steps to secure funding for the implementation of the Programme.¹²

23. The purpose of the Programme is to enable SIDS to adopt and implement policies and measures to ensure that the capacity of their fisheries administrations is enhanced; that fisheries resources are conserved, managed, developed and utilized in a rational manner; that national food security is enhanced; and that the utilization of fisheries resources continues to contribute to national economic and social development on a sustainable basis. The Programme will also be used as a vehicle to assist SIDS implement the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries in a constructive and concrete manner.

24. The FAO Programme, which is consistent with the fisheries provisions of the 1984 Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development of Small Island States, has a tight focus and will address six areas that have been identified by island States as being of high priority. The six areas are:

• Institutional strengthening and national capacity building;
• Enhanced conservation and management of EEZ fisheries;
• Improved post-harvest fish management and marketing;
• Safety-at-sea;
• Strengthening the economic role of national fisheries industries and the privatization of fisheries investments, and
• Aquaculture and inland fisheries conservation, management and development.

25. FAO will keep future Sessions of COFI briefed on steps taken to implement the Programme and will continue to liaise with AOSIS on this matter.

26. The Committee is invited to review some of the more important fisheries and aquaculture issues facing island States. Furthermore, the Committee is invited to note progress with steps taken by FAO to secure funding for the FAO Programme of Fisheries Assistance for Small Island Developing States and to urge interested donors to commit funds to enable the Programme to be implemented.

Source: UNDP. 1998 Human Development Report 1998. Oxford University Press. pp. 224 - 225.