Mulberry germplasm and cultivation in Brazil

José Eduardo de Almeida and Tamara Canto Fonseca
Instituto de Zootecnia, São Paulo, Brazil

INTRODUCTION

Mulberry (Morus sp.), originally from Asia, was introduced in Brazil during colonial times. Today, mulberry is widely known and is common in orchards, recreational rural households and gardens. Its fruit is appreciated for direct consumption and for making jam. However, commercial mulberry cultivation occurs only in regions where it is associated with sericulture.

According to the latest statistics, the mulberry area in Brazil covers approximately 38 000 ha (Table 1 and Figure 1). The state of Paraná is the largest concentration of that area with 32 400 ha (Table 2 and Figure 2), followed by the western portion of the state of São Paulo, with 4 600 ha (Table 3 and Figure 3) and by smaller areas in the states of Goiás, Mato Grosso do Sul, Minas Gerais and Santa Catarina.

It must be highlighted that all production of these areas is for the silkworm, and no surplus is available for other uses. Plant management includes frequent pruning which prevents plants from blossoming and fruit development; plant sex is thus irrelevant.

According to Fonseca and Fonseca and Shammass (1986), the first attempt to cultivate mulberry commercially occurred in state of Rio de Janeiro, as an initiative of the Emperor D. Pedro II, in the middle of nineteenth century. After a period of decadence, it was resumed only in 1923, in the eastern parts of the state of São Paulo State following Italian immigration. Later, eastern São Paulo showed a decline in sericulture and western São Paulo flourished, coinciding with Japanese immigration. Today, sericulture is concentrated in the northern part of Paraná State.

TABLE 1

Areas with mulberry

States	Area (ha)
Goiás (GO)	24
Mato Grosso do Sul (MS)	459
Minas Gerais (MG)	77
Paraná (PR)	32 426
Santa Catarina (SC)	114
São Paulo (SP)	4 645
TOTAL	37 745

Source: Abrasseda, 1998.

Figure 2. State of Paraná State

TABLE 2

Mulberry area in the state of Paraná by county

County	Area (ha)
Apucarana	610
Campo Mourão	1 244
Cascavel	1 929
Cornélio Procópio	91
Curitiba	151
Francisco Beltrão	662
Guarapuava	214
Irati	1
Ivaiporã	2 241
Londrina	630
Maringá	8 776
Paranavai	4 601
Pato Branco	502
Ponta Grossa	415
Santo Antônio Da Platina	1 970
Toledo	763
Umuarama	7 626
Total	32 426

Source: EMATER, 1998.

TABLE 3

Mulberry area in the State of São Paulo

Regional agricultural division	Area (ha)	Regional agricultural division	Area (ha)
Andradina	243	Jaú	43
Araçatuba	27	Limeira	18
Araraquara	67	Lins	899
Assis	126	Marília	319
Avaré	21	Ourinhos	161
Bauru	554	Piracicaba	16
Catanduva	78	Presidente Prudente	222
Dracena	236	Presidente Venceslau	49
General Salgado	447	São João da Boa Vista	35
Itapetininga	5	São José do Rio Preto	194
Itapeva	42	Tupã	775
Jaboticabal	2	Votuporânga	30
Jales	36	Total	4 645

Source: Abrasseda, 1998.

IMPROVED VARIETIES AND CLONES

In Brazil, all cultivated mulberry varieties appear to belong to M. alba. In São Paulo state, there is an active germoplasm bank (BAG) at the Estação Experimental de Zootecnia (Livestock Experimental Station) in Gália county; one collection at the University of São Paulo (UNESP) in Jaboticabal county; one in a spinning mill (under the trade name of Fiações de Seda Bratac) in Bastos county; and one at the Agronomic Institute of Paraná (IAPAR), in Londrina.

The Estação Experimental de Zootecnia has sericulture research as a mandate and its BAG includes three collections: variety collection (32 clones), the Instituto de Zootecnia collection (42 clones); and the Fukashi-Miura collection (14 clones).

Little information is available on which clones are used in the 38 000 ha planted with mulberry. Commercial companies have disseminated the Miura and Korin clones, because of the great supply of planting material. These clones together with the Calabresa variety, make up the large majority of the cultivated area.

Genetically modified clones (IZ and FM) are very productive and with more nutritious leaves but, being destined completely to silkworm feeding, their expansion has been limited.

Production data for this report were obtained from research carried out at the Instituto de Zootecnia (Fonseca, Fonseca and Paolieri, 1985a, 1985b, 1985c; Fonseca, Fonseca Schammass, 1986, 1987a; Fonseca et al., 1987b and 1987c). Since the purpose of the work was fresh biomass production for silkworm feeding, the data are in fresh leaf weight. However, according to Almeida et al. (1989), it is known that the leaf:stem ratio is 1:1 when the cut is made at 90 days. For more frequent cutting, leaf:stem ratio can vary.

VARIETY COLLECTION

Branca da Espanha (Spanish white). Imported from Spain. It shows good development, good adaptation, is productive and precocious. Good propagation through cuttings.

Calabresa. Imported from Italy. Optimal adaptation. It is productive, rustic and very precocious. Easy propagation through cuttings. Estimated production is 5 079 kg/ha/year.

Catânia 1. Imported from Italy. Well adapted, vigorous and very productive. Not well propagated through cuttings.

Catânia 2. Imported from Italy. Well adapted, vigorous and highly productive. Not well propagated through cuttings.

Catânia Paulista. From the former Livestock Experimental Station at Limeira, São Paulo State. Its characteristics have some resemblance to the first two Catania varieties above. It is precocious, productive and vigorous. Not well propagated through cuttings.

Contadini. Imported from Italy. Well adapted, productive and precocious. Very good propagation through cuttings.

Fernão Dias. From Fernão Dias county of São Paulo state. It is precocious and productive. Good propagation through cuttings. Estimated production is 5 302 kg/ha/year.

Flório. Italian origin. Not very well adapted. It is precocious but not productive. Not well propagated through cuttings.

Formosa. Originated from Taiwan. Very well adapted, productive, precocious and vigorous. Easily propagated through cuttings. Estimated production is 8 608 kg/ha/year.

Galiana. Originated from Livestock Experimental Station at Gália, São Paulo state. Medium tardy, vigorous and rustic. Not well propagated through cuttings. Data for 1 m branch: leaf number, 22; mean leaf weight, 5.86 g; mean stem weight, 53.1 g; leaf weight:stem weight, 2.43; internodal distance 4.5 cm.

Iamada. Originated from Promissão county, São Paulo state. It is precocious, but not productive. Good propagation through cuttings.

Kokuso 21. Imported from Japan. Not well adapted, tardy, produces few branches that grow slowly. No propagation through cuttings.

Kokuso 27. Imported from Japan. Not well adapted, tardy, produces few branches that grown slowly. No propagation through cuttings.

Lopes Lins. Originated from Tietê county, São Paulo state. It is precocious and productive. Good propagation through cuttings.

Miura. Originated from Bastos county, São Paulo State. It has some similar characteristics to the Calabrese variety. It is precocious, rustic and productive.

Moretiana. Imported from Italy. Very good adaptation, productive and rustic. It is a little tardy, no propagation through cuttings.

Moscatela. Originated from Italy. Good adaptation, precocious, rustic and productive. Good propagation through cuttings.

Nezumigaeshi. Imported from Japan. Good adaptation, productive, rustic and vigorous. Not well propagated through cuttings.

Nostrana. From the former Livestock Experimental Station at Limeira, São Paulo state. It is rustic, precocious and vigorous. Easy propagation through cuttings.

Paduana. Originated from Borborema county, São Paulo state. It is precocious, rustic and productive. Good propagation through cuttings.

Pêndula. Originated from Rio de Janeiro State. It is precocious, rustic but not productive.

Rosa. Originated from Italy. Good adaptation but low productivity. Slow development. Good propagation through cuttings.

Rosa da Lombardia. Originated from Italy. Bad adaptation, its medium tardy, low productivity. Slow development and precocious leaf maturation. Not good propagation through cuttings.

Rosol. Originated from Registro county, São Paulo. It is precocious, rustic, vigorous and productive. but leaves are very wrinkled, coarse and easily broken, little adapted to feeding the silkworm.

Selvagem. From the former Sericulture Service at Campinas, São Paulo state. It is rustic, vigorous and precocious, showing low productivity, with excessively multilobed leaves and reduced useful foliar area.

Serra-das-Araras. Coming from the mountain Araras range situated in Rio de Janeiro state. It is very precocious, rustic and with low production. Very intense blossoming. Easy propagation through cuttings.

Siciliana. Coming from Barbacena county, Minas Gerais state, It is precocious, rustic but with low production. Easily propagated through cuttings.

Talo Roxo. From the former Sericulture Service in Campinas, São Paulo state. It is precocious, with low production, and easy propagation through cuttings.

Tietê. Coming from Tietê county, São Paulo state. It is precocious, rustic and with low production. Good propagation through cuttings.

Ungaresa - From the former Livestock Experimental Station at Limeira, São Paulo state. It is rustic, precocious and productive. Leaves are coarse, not appreciated by silkworm.

Korin. From the Fiações de Seda Bratac collection, it is very vigorous and productive. Good propagation through cuttings.

The production and agrobotanic characteristics of the varieties above are shown in Tables 4 and 5.

TABLE 4

Quantitative characteristics of some mulberry varieties (data for 1 m branch)

Variety	Leaf #	Leaf weight (g)	Branch weight (g)	Leaf/branch ratio	Internodal length (cm)
Branca da Espanha	24	4.65	42.5	2.63	4.2
Calabresa	26	3.04	33.5	2.36	3.8
Catânia 1	26	5.79	64.3	2.35	3.8
Catânia 2	26	6.09	50.9	3.10	3.8
Catânia Paulista	25	5.44	61.8	2.20	4.0
Contadini	31	3.29	38	2.69	3.2
Fernão Dias	25	4.10	38.6	2.67	4.0
Flório	25	2.40	37.5	1.60	4.0
Formosa	24	4.66	41.5	2.70	4.2
Galiana	22	5.86	53.1	2.43	4.5
Iamada	30	2.52	52.7	1.14	2.8
Kokuso 21	31	7.29	75.1	3.01	3.2
Kokuso 27	30	7.88	75.0	3.15	3.3
Lopes Lins	19	5.30	41.9	2.41	5.2
Miura	24	4.24	38.4	2.66	4.2
Moretiana	33	2.67	46.8	1.88	3.3
Moscatela	24	3.91	31	3.04	4.2
Nezumigaeshi	47	3.54	65.1	2.55	2.1
Nostrana	21	4.23	30.9	2.88	4.8
Paduana	20	8.04	44.6	3.61	5.0
Pêndula	24	3.48	32.2	2.61	4.2
Rosa	28	2.47	35.6	1.91	3.6
Rosa da Lombardia	31	4.29	62.2	2.14	3.2
Rosol	16	9.05	44.1	3.29	6.2
Selvagem	21	2.68	25.0	2.24	4.8
Serra-das-Araras	42	1.98	34.5	2.44	2.4
Siciliana	23	3.17	29.5	2.48	4.3
Talo Roxo	24	3.95	40.1	2.37	4.2
Tietê	21	4.75	43.1	2.32	4.8
Ungaresa	26	2.95	32.3	2.39	2.8
Korin	-	-	-	-	-

TABLE 5a

Agrobotanic characteristics of some mulberry varieties

Variety	Size (cm2)	Shape	Base	Edge1
B. da Espanha	380	Entire/Lobed	Truncate	S
Calabresa	240	Five lobed	Lobed	D
Catânia 1	330	Entire/Ovate	Truncate	D
Catânia 2	335	Entire/Ovate	Truncate	D
Catânia Paulista	252	Entire/Ovate	Rounde	D
Contadini	257	Entire/Ovate	Rounde	D
Fernão Dias	274	Entire/Ovate/Lobed	Cordate	D
Flório	150	Entire/Cordiform	Cordate	S
Formosa	339	Entire/Ovate/Lobed	Cordate	S
Galiana	405	Lobed	Truncate/Lobed	S
Iamada	184	Entire/Ovate/Lobed	Cordate/Lobed	D
Kokuzo 21	408	Entire/Ovate	Linear round	C
Kokuzo 27	405	Intire/Ovate	Round	C
Lopes Lins	330	Entire/Lobed	Cordate	C
Miura	276	Entire/Lobed	Cordate/Lobed	D
Moretiana	181	Entire/Cordiform	Cordate	S
Moscatela	282	Entire/Ovate	Truncate	S
Nezumigaeshi	213	Five lobed*	Truncate/Lobed	S
Nostrana	250	Entire/Ovate	Rounded	D
Paduana	404	Entire/Ovate/Lobed	Cordate	D
Pêndula	232	Entire/Ovate/Lobed	Truncate/Linear	D
Rosa	177	Entire/Cordiform	Cordate	D
R. da Lombardia	289	Entire/Cordiform	Deeply cordate	S
Rosol	500	Entire/Ovate	Linear	D
Selvagem	210	Lobed	Lobed	S/D
Serra das Araras	144	Entire/Ovate	Cordate	S
Siciliana	253	Entire/Ovate/Lobed	Truncate	S/D
Talo Roxo	282	Entire/Cordiform	Cordate	D
Tietê	272	Entire/Ovate/Lobed	Truncate	D
Ungaresa	209	Entire/Ovate	Truncate/Linear	S/D
Korin	-	-	-	-

C = crenated; D = dentated; ¹ S = serrated.

TABLE 5b

Agrobotanic characteristics of some mulberry varieties

Variety	Surface	Bark colour	Bud1	Flower	Size1/Colour
B. da Espanha	Smooth/Glossy	Greyish-yellow	S		S/White
Calabresa	Smooth/Glossy	Dark greyish brown	S		M/Purple
Catânia 1	Undulated/Glossy	Light greyish yellow	S		L/Purple
Catânia 2	Undulated/Glossy	Light brown	M		L/White
Catânia Paulista	Undulated/Glossy	Whitish brown	L		-
Contadini	Undulated/Glossy	Greyish brown	M		M/Purple
Fernão Dias	Smooth/Glossy	Whitish brown	M		M/Purple
Flório	Smooth/Glossy	Brown	S		S/Purple
Formosa	Smooth/Glossy	Dark brown	M		M/Purple
Galiana	Smooth/Glossy	Greyish brown	L		M/Purple
Iamada	Smooth/Glossy	Greyish brown	M		M/Purple
Kokuso 21	Smooth/Glossy	Light greyish yellow	M		-
Kokuso 27	Smooth/Glossy	Light greyish yellow	S		-
Lopes Lins	Smooth/Glossy	Light greyish brown	S		S/Purple
Miura	Smooth/Glossy	Light greyish brown	L		M/Purple
Moretiana	Smooth/Glossys	Brown	M		S/Purple
Moscatela	Smooth/Glossy	Light brown greyish	L		S/Purple
Nezumigaeshi	Smooth/Glossy	Light yellow greyish	S		-
Nostrana	Undulated/Glossy	Dark brown	M		M/Purple
Paduana	Undulated/Opaque	Greyish brown	L		-
Pêndula	Smooth/Glossy	Greyish brown	L		M/Purple
Rosa	Smooth/Opaque	Brown	M		S/Purple
R. da Lombardia	Smooth/Glossy	Light brown	S		M/Purple
Rosol	Blistered	Whitish brown	S		S/Purple
Selvagem	Smooth/Glossy	Dark brown	L		M/Purple
Serra-das-Araras	Smooth/Glossy	Brown	L		S/Purple
Siciliana	Undulated/Glossy	Dark brown	L		-
Talo Roxo	Undulated/Opaque	Dark reddish brown	L		L/Purple
Tietê	Smooth/Glossy	Brown	M		M/Purple
Ungaresa	Smooth/Opaque	Dark brown	S		-
Korin	-	-	-	-	-

¹S = small; M = medium; L = large.

Origin and estimated production of IZ collection clones

Clone	Cross-breeding	Estimated production (kg/ha/year)
IZ 30	Random breeding	8 559
IZ 40	Random breeding	9 931
IZ 64	Random breeding	7 945
IZ 1/17	Fernão Dias x Catânia Paulista	7 686
IZ 2/2	Calabresa x Catânia Paulista	6 197
IZ 3/2 - Issaokina	Contadini x Catânia Paulista	8 597
IZ 5/2 - Capucho	Branca da Espanha x Catânia	7 895
IZ 6/2	Lopes Lins x Catânia Paulista	5 438
IZ 10/1 - Campinas	Lopes Lins x Catânia Paulista	7 984
IZ 10/4	Lopes Lins x Catânia Paulista	6 698
IZ 12/3	Fernão Dias x Catânia Paulista	6 104
IZ 13/6 - Luiz Paolieri	Fernão Dias x Kokuso	11 844
IZ 15/1	Calabresa x Nezumigaeshi	6 304
IZ 15/7 - Rio da Pedras	Calabresa x Nezumigaeshi	6 501
IZ 19/1	Talo Roxo x Kokuso 27	5 119
IZ 19/13 - Rosa da Fonseca	Talo Roxo x Kokuzo 27	10 177
IZ 23/8	Rosol x Catânia Paulista	5 555
IZ 29/1 - Sempre Verde	Capinas x Nezumigaeshi	8 224
IZ 42/12	Catânia x Siciliana	5 001
IZ 51/1	B. da Espanha x Nezumigaeshi	7 878
IZ 56/4 - Tamarina	Formosa x Catania Paulista	12 043
IZ 57/2 - Javanesa	Fromosa x Kokuso 27	9 353
IZ 1/1,/2,/3,/12 &/16	Fernão Dias x Catânia Paulista
IZ 2/1	Calabresa x Catânia Paulista
IZ 3/1	Contadini x Catânia Paulista
IZ 4/1 & IZ 1/4	Moretiana x Catânia Paulista
IZ 5/1 & IZ 6/1	Calabresa x Catânia Paulista
IZ 6/3 & IZ 9/7	Lopes Lins x Catânia Paulista
IZ 11/9	Formosa x Kokuso 21	4 526
IZ 14/1	B. de Espanha x Catânia Paulista
IZ 16/3	Fernão Dias x Catânia Paulista	5 310
IZ 18/19	Catânia x Catânia Paulista
IZ 23/3	Rosol x Catânia Paulista	4 049
IZ 23/3	"

INSTITUTO DE ZOOTECNIA COLLECTION

This is a collection of selected clones, originating from breeding programmes at the Instituto de Zootecnia (IZ), Secretary of Agriculture of São Paulo state (Table 6). The production and agrobotanic characteristics of the IZ clones are shown in Tables 7 and 8.

TABLE 7

Quantitative characteristics of mulberry clones of the IZ collection (data per 1 m -branch)

Clone	Leaf number	Leaf weight (g)	Branch weight (g)	Leaf/branch ratio	Internodal length (cm)
IZ 30	27	2.52	35.0	1.70	3.71
IZ 40	34	2.35	49.0	2.35	2.95
IZ 64	26	4.70	38.0	3.00	3.85
IZ 1/17	19	5.28	48.9	2.05	5.3
IZ 2/2	24	3.06	49.9	1.47	4.2
IZ 3/2	27	4.10	49.9	2.22	3.7
IZ 5/2	24	4.13	46.3	2.14	4.2
IZ 6/2	22	4.09	48.6	1.85	4.5
IZ 10/1	22	5.56	46.8	2.62	4.5
IZ 10/4	23	4.26	53.7	1.82	4.3
IZ 10/8	19	4.27	38.0	2.14	5.3
IZ 12/3	25	3.88	41.9	2.32	4.0
IZ 13/6	25	4.82	53.0	2.28	4.0
IZ 15/1	25	3.74	52.1	1.80	4.0
IZ 15/7	26	1.83	34.6	1.83	3.8
IZ 19/1	28	3.10	50.7	1.71	3.6
IZ 19/13	32	4.06	54.9	2.37	3.1
IZ 23/8	23	5.62	52.9	2.44	4.3
IZ 29/1	28	3.57	48.0	2.08	3.6
IZ 42/12	22	3.34	37.4	1.97	4.5
IZ 51/1	21	3.89	35.5	2.30	4.8
IZ 56/4	23	4.24	49.4	1.97	4.3
IZ 57/2	25	4.16	44.2	2.35	4.4

FUKASHI MIURA COLLECTION

Mulberry clones selected by Fukashi Miura (FM) from Fiações de Seda Shoei-Bratac, São José do Rio Preto, São Paulo state:

Shima Korin 01-SK02-SK03-SK04 - from crossbreeding Shimagoa and Korin varieties.

Shima Miura 11-SM12-SM13-SM14-SM15 - from crossbreeding Shimagoa and Miura varieties.

Fukashi Miura 3/1-FM6/3-FM10-FM30-FM3/2 - from selection into plant origin by seed.

TABLE 8

Agrobotanic characteristics of mulberry clones from the IZ collection

Clone	Size (cm2)	Shape	Base	Edge1	Surface
IZ 30	235	Entire/Ovate	Truncate/Round	S	Plan
IZ 40	265	Entire/Cordiform	Truncate	S	Plan
IZ 64	395	Entire/Ovate	Cordate	D	Undulate
IZ 1/17	332	Entire/Ovate	Cordate	C	Undulate
IZ 2/2	236	Entire/Ovate	Cordate	S	Undulate
IZ 3/2	246	Entire/Ovate	Cordate	S	Undulate
IZ 5/2	271	Entire/Cordiform Lobed	Cordate	S	Undulate
IZ 6/2	230	Entire/Cordiform Lobed	Deep cordate	C	Wrinkled
IZ 10/1	301	Entire/Cordiform Ovated	Cordate	C	Undulate
IZ 10/4	241	Entire/Ovate	Cordate	C	Undulate
IZ 10/8	396	Entire/Ovate	Deep cordate	S	Undulate
IZ 12/3	261	Entire/Ovate	Cordate	S	Undulate
IZ 13/6	242	Entire/Ovate Lobed	Cordate/Lobed	D	Undulate
IZ 15/1	309	Five-lobed	Lobed	S	Plan
IZ 15/7	200	Entire/Ovate Lobed	Cordate	S	Plan
IZ 19/1	308	Entire/Cordiform	Cordate	C	Plan
IZ 19/13	332	Entire/Ovate	Truncate	C	Undulate
IZ 23/8	222	Entire/Cordiform	Cordate	D	Wrinkled
IZ 29/1	201	Asymmetric/Cordiform	Deep cordate	S	Plan
IZ 42/12	230	Entire/Ovate	Truncate	C	Plan
IZ 51/1	334	Entire/Ovate	Cordate	S	Rugose
IZ 56/4	339	Entire/Cordiform	Cordate	S	Undulate
IZ 57/2	365	Entire/Cordiform	Truncate	S	Plan

C = crenated; D = dentated; S = serrated.

Climatic conditions

Temperature. Optimal temperature required for mulberry is situated between 24-28ºC; below 13^oC growing stops and so do branching and bud formation. From August to May, mulberry vegetative growing is practically continuous.

Rainfall. Ideal rainfall for mulberry This condition is met in São Paulo and Paraná states.

TABLE 8

Agrobotanic characteristics of clones from the IZ collection

Variety	Bark colour	Bud1	Flower	VP %2
IZ 30	Greenish ligth brown	S		80
IZ 40	Greyish light green	M		86
IZ 64	Greyish light brown	L	/*	54
IZ 1/17	Geryish brown	S		-
IZ 2/2	Greyish light green	M		-
IZ 3/2	Whitish light green	L		-
IZ 5/2	Geennish brown	M		-
IZ 6/2	Greyish brown	M		-
IZ 10/1	Greyish light brown	M		-
IZ 10/4	Greyish green	M		-
IZ 10/8	Greyish brown	M		-
IZ 12/3	Yellowish brown	M		-
IZ 13/6	Whitish dark brown	L		-
IZ 15/1	Greyish dark brown	L		-
IZ 15/7	Greyish light brown	S		-
IZ 19/1	Greenish dark brown	L		-
IZ 19/13	Whitish light green	L		-
IZ 23/8	Greenish light brown	L		-
IZ 29/1	Greenish light green	L		-
IZ 42/12	Greenish light green	L		-
IZ 51/1	Greenish light brown	M		-
IZ 56/4	Greenish light green	L		-
IZ 57/2	Greenish light brown	M		-

S = small; M = medium; L = large² VP percent = percentage of vegetative propagation.

Relative humidity. In general, the required air humidity for mulberry is between 65 and 80 percent. Higher precipitation and soil humidity are contributing factors towards improved leaf quality.

Photoperiod. The major mulberry areas in Brazil are located between 20 and 30^o south, and it seems that there are no photoperiodic limitations to plant growing.

Altitude. In São Paulo State, in general, mulberry crops are located in altitudes varying from 300 to 700 m, far from the limit tolerated by mulberry.

Drought resistance. No research data are available relating to drought resistance for varieties cultivated in Brazil. The seasonal supply of green leaves shown by some varieties even in drought periods was qualitatively observed for some clones, such as IZ 29/1.

Soil

Despite mulberry’s need for adequate soil quality, it can grow in most of the soils available in São Paulo state. However, shallow soils and well as compacted, hard, impermeable and swampy soils should be avoided. Whenever possible, preferred soils are deep, fertile, well-drained, friable, porous, with adequate water retention capacity and a mild acidity (pH 6.2-6.8).

Fertilization

Organic. In general, poultry manure is applied, with a minimum dose of 0.5 kg per plant, during the winter time, at a depth of 20 to 30 cm. Field experiments demonstrate higher productivity when mulch is applied to mulberry plants. When available, its utilization is highly desirable, but some precautions are necessary. For example, when residues of different origins with very high C/N ratio are used, it is recommended that chemical N fertilizer be applied jointly in order to accelerate the decomposition of organic material and avoid competition for N in the soil.

TABLE 9

Mineral content of organic materials

Material	C	N	P	K	Ca	Mg	S	Zn	Cu	Cd	Ni	Pb
Fresh bovine manure	100	5	2.6	6	2	1	1	33	6	-	2	2
Composted bovine manure	320	15	12	21	20	6	2	217	25	-	2	1
Poultry manure	140	14	8	7	23	5	2	138	14	2	2	17
Swine manure	60	7	2	5	12	3	-	242	264	-	2	3
Castor oil seed meal	450	45	7	11	18	5	-	128	73	-	-	-
Mucuna	60	3	0.6	3	2	0.4	-	6	3	-	-	-
Crotalaria juncea	70	2.8	0.4	3	2	0.4	-	2	1	-	-	-

Source: Van Raij et al., 1996.

According to Rubia Brasil Sobrinho and Azeredo (1976), in cases of low contents in P and K and when all silkworm residues are applied to mulberry fields, the following application could be suggested (in kg/ha/year): 250 kg of N, 65 kg of P2O5, and 156 kg of K2O.

In manure utilization, the data presented in Table 9 may help to determine nutrient application rates.

DISEASES AND PESTS

The characteristics and symptoms of the main mulberry pests and diseases are described in the Sericulture Manual (Manual de Sericicultura) compiled by the Technical Committee on Sericulture (Comisso Técnica de Sericicultura) (Tinoco, 1999).

PRINCIPAL PESTS

Pseudaulacaspis pentagona (Targ. Tozz, 1885). This insect attacks mulberry branches and stems, introducing its mouth apparatus (stylus) into the sap plant conductors and sucking a great deal of the plant sap. These insects shield themselves under small structures and, when an attack is intense, these structures fully cover the branches and stems of the plant (Figure 4). The plant is quite weakened by the attack, showing cracks that allow the entrance of pathogenic micro-organisms. In boggy, shadowed and poorly aired soils, or in badly managed crops, this attack is more severe.

Figure 4 Mulberry branches infested by Pseudaulacaspis pentagona

Naupactus spp. These beetles belong to the Curculionidae family. Adult phases of the insect feed on mulberry leaves, causing severe reduction in the leaf surface, and larvae phases feed on roots. As a result, plant vigour decays, once nutrient absorption collapses and pathogenic micro-organisms are eased through plant injuries. The Naupactus versatilis form has been more frequently detected in Paraná state. Its adult form presents a length ranging from 11 to 14 mm, with a metallic green colour, which becomes darker with age, due to the loss of scale-like structures.

Adult form of Naupactus versatilis

Migdolus fryanus Westwood-Coleoptera from the Cerambycidae family. This polyphagous beetle, biologically little known, has been causing economic damages in several crops, namely in sugarcane and, more recently, in mulberry. Adult males are generally black, dark brown or red brown, and their total length ranges from 12.1 to 37.0 mm. Adult females, on the other hand, are generally reddish brown or dark brownish, and their total length ranges from 19.5 to 35 mm (Bento et al., 1995). The male exemplars have membranous and functional wings, with antennas that reaches approximately half the body size (Figure 6). The females have reduced non-functional wings and much shorter antennae than the males. Larvae cause the totality of the damage to the mulberry plants. Those larvae find their ideal source of nutrition in the root system, so destroying the roots (Figure 7). Insect dispersion happens in the larvae phases, because in this period an increased mobility in the soil environment is observed, establishing a net of channels that are likely to be used for adults in order to reach the soil surface during the mating period. Although plants are generally affected only partially, attacks can completely destroy the affected plants.

Figura 6 Adult form of Migdolus fryanus

Figure 7 Mulberry root with lesions caused by Migdolus fryanus larvae

With regard to population control of the insecto, there are few solutions because of its biological and behavioural aspects. One obstacle is that larvae bury 3-4 m into the soil; eggs are laid atg different depths. Although there was a generalized belief that attacks were more frequent in sandy soils, today studies on the subject have demonstrated that there is no linkage between types of soil and Migdolus attack.

"Cutting-prone" ants - Sauba ant. Ant hills are true subterranean urban structures, endowed with a great number of individuals (more than ten million, in a adult ant hill), which can reach 7 m in depth, below the soil line. Quenquéns ants of the genus Acromyearmex are smaller than sauba ants and, in general, ant hills from this genus hardly reach depths lower than 50 cm. One ant hill communicates with another by ocelli (orifices on the soil surface). In an ant hill of three or more years old, three types of ocelli are observed: one for transportation of land, one for ventilation, and one for food provision.

Nematode diseases - Meloidogyne spp. These worm species attack mulberry producing root tumours (root knots), which make it hard for the plant to absorb nutrients and water causing severe damage to the crop (Figure 8). Plants attacked present reduction in size, with leaves appearing to lack water, becoming yellower and collapsing, reducing sensibly the production of leaves per area. Mulberry vitality deteriorates gradually and, in the later stages, the plant dies.

Figure 8 Mulberry root with root-knots

Main bacteria and fungus diseases

White root rot. This is caused by fungus from genus Rosellinia. This type of fungus lives as a saprophyte in decaying organic matter, mainly from plants left over the soil, and they can become pathogenic to cultivated plants. The diseased mulberry plants become weak, and the root rots. The hyphae emerging from the various fruiting bodies attack the smaller roots of the healthy plants, and spread to the main root system, causing white root rot.

Figure 9 Mulberry root with violet root rot

Violet root rot, caused by Helicobasidium mompa, Tanaka fungus. The First symptoms of this disease appear when mulberry does not sprout at the beginning of spring or when the leaves suddenly appear to wither in the middle of summe. The main disease characteristic is the existence of similar velvet veilings that colours the root bark dark-brown. Several reddish filamentous substances appear that colors all the root bark that are the hyphes from the pathogen.

Mulberry withering. This disease has been verified in mulberry cultivations of the state of São Paulo, mainly in the region of São José do Rio Preto. Its main characteristic is root rot. Several samples of attacked plants have been examined in research institutes and, to date, non-conclusive diagnoses are available. According to personal reports by scientific researchers, the following micro-organisms are detected in a sample from Guaraçaí, São Paulo (1997): Fusarium sp., Lassiodiplodia sp., Fusicoccum sp., Meloidogyne sp. and Pratylenchulus sp.

Oidium. Phylactinia corylea Prest Karst. Oidium is a very common disease in mulberry plants and can cause severe damage to leaves, making them so they are unable to feed silkworm once the fungus has absorbed all the leaf nutrients. It frequently occurs in older leaves, which are covered by a greyish-white powder, made from pathogen structures. The disease is more frequent during the spring and summer, periods when favourable conditions for its development are present.

Rusty spot Cylindrosporium mori Targioni Tozzeti. In the beginning, the spots are small (less than 1 mm in diameter) but with the development of the process, they can reach more than 1 cm, and are brownish in colour with yellowish edges. The spots usuals to appear at the top, in the petiole and over the young branches. In severe attacks, mulberry leaves fall from the plant.

Other leaf spots caused by fungus. These attacks may be caused by fungus from the genera Cercospora sp., Alternaria sp., Helminthosporium sp. and Colletotrichum sp. Seasonally, they are more frequent during spring and summer, in periods of higher humidity and temperature.

Bacteria spots. Bacterium mori (Boyer & Lambert), Bacillus curbonianus (Macchiatti), Bacterium moricolum (Yendo & Higushi). Mulberry is susceptible to these kind of spots, at any age and in any aerial part of the plant. Seasonally, the disease is more frequently observed in summer (higher humidity and temperature). Initial symptoms appear as on the leaves small and sparsely distributed spots in necrosed areas, which coalesce and tear apart in a later phase, exuding yellowish pus on the lesion. The shootings can also die, causing oversprouting.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abrasseda (Associação Brasileira de Fiações de Seda) 1998. Dados Estatísticos da Produção Sericícola.

Almeida, J.E., Soares, A.R., Ramalho, M.A.P. & Fonseca, T.C. 1991. Stabilité phénothypique chez le mûrier. Sericologia 3(3): 469-474.

Baffi, M.H. 1992. Utilização da amoreira (Morus alba L.) cultivar Yamada para caprinos: Curva de crescimento e digestibilidade in vitro. Trabalho apresentado a Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias, UNESP, Campus de Jaboticabal, para graduação em Zootecnia. FCAV - UNESO, Jaboticabal, São Paulo, Brazil.

Bento, J.M., Vilela, F., Della Lucia, T.M.C., Leal, W.S. & Novaresti, W.R.T. 1995 Migdolus, Biologia, Comportamento e Controle. Instituto Interamericano de Cooperação para a Agricultura. Salvador, BA, 58 pp.

Brazão, C.S., Takahashi, R., Sugohara, A. & Resende, K.T. 1992. Curva de crescimento e composição bromatológica da amoreira (Morus alba L.) IV Congresso de Iniciação Científica da UNESP, Araçatuba, São Paulo, Brazil.

EMATER (Empresa Paranaense de Assistência Técnica e Extensão Rural). 1998. Perfil da Sericicultura no Estado do Paraná.

Fonseca, A.S. & Fonseca, T.C. 1988. Cultura da amoreira e criação do bicho-da-seda - Sericicultura. Ed. Nobel, São Paulo, SP.

Fonseca, A.S., Fonseca, T.C. & Okamoto, F. 1994. Le programme d’amélioration du mûrier dans l’état de São Paulo au Brésil. Sericologia, 34(4): 727-733.

Fonseca, A.S., Fonseca, T.C. & Paolieri, L. 1985a. Caracterização de algumas variedades de amoreira. Zootecnia, Nova Odessa, São Paulo, 23(2): 111-129.

Fonseca, A.S., Fonseca, T.C. & Paolieri, L. 1985b. Híbridos naturais da amoreira. B. Indústr. anim., Nova Odessa, São Paulo, 42(1): 71-77.

Fonseca, A.S., Fonseca, T.C. & Paolieri, L. 1985c. Melhoramento da amoreira por meio da hibridação artificial. B. Indústr.anim., Nova Odessa, São Paulo, 42(2): 265-276.

Fonseca, A.S., Fonseca, T.C. & Schammass, E.A. 1986. Competição de híbridos naturais e artificiais e amoreira (1). B. Indústr. anim. Nova Odessa. 43(2): 367-373.

Fonseca, A.S., Fonseca, T.C. & Schammass, E.A. 1987a. Competição de híbridos artificiais e amoreira (2). B. Indústr. anim, Nova Odessa. São Paulo, 44(2): 315-322.

Fonseca, A.S., Fonseca, T.C., Schammass, E.A. & Cunha, E.A. 1987b. Competição de híbridos naturais e artificiais e amoreira (3). B. Indústr. anim. Nova Odessa. 44(2): 323-328..

Fonseca, A.S., Fonseca, T.C., Cunha, E.A. & Schammass, E.A. 1987c. Competição de variedades, híbridos naturais e artificiais e amoreira (4). B. Indústr. anim. Nova Odessa. 44(2): 329-334.

Guideli, C., Resende, K.T., Takahashi, R., Sugoraha, A. & Reis, R.A. 1993. Produção de cultivares de amoreira (Morus alba L.) em diferentes idades de crescimento, durante o verão. V Congresso de Iniciação Científica da UNESP. Depto de Zootecnia, FCAV, Jaboticabal, São Paulo, Brazil.

Hara, C.H. 1993. Produção e digestibilidade in vitro da matéria seca e proteína de cultivares de amoreira (Morus alba L.). Trabalho apresentado a Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias, UNESP, Campus de Jaboticabal, para graduação em Zootecnia. FCAV - UNESO, Jaboticabal, São Paulo, Brazil. 40pp.

Resende, K.T., Sugoraha, A., Takahashi, R., Reis, R.A. & Brazão, C.S. 1992. Produção de matéria seca de cultivares de amoreira (Morus alba L.) no outono, visando sua utilização na alimentação de ruminantes. Anais da XXIX Reunião Anual da SBZ - Lavras, MG, Brazil.

Resende, K.T., Takahashi, R., Sugoraha, A., Brazão, C., Reis, R.A. & Vasconcelos, V.R. 1994a. Composição bromatológica de cultivares de amoreira (Morus alba L.). 1 - Estação de inverno. Anais da XXXI Reunião Anual da SBZ, Maringá, PR, Brazil.

Resende, K.T., Takahashi, R., Sugohara, A., Brazão, C., Reis, R.A. & Vasconcelos, V.R. 1994b. Composição bromatológica de cultivares de amoreira (Morus alba L.). 2 - Estação da primavera. Anais da XXXI Reunião Anual da SBZ, Maringá, PR, Brazil.

Resende, K.T., Takahashi, R., Sugoraha, A., Reis, R.A., Hara, C. & Vasconcelos, V.R. 1994c. Produção e digestibilidade de cultivares de amoreira (Morus alba L.). 1 - Estação de inverno. Anais da XXXI Reunião Anual da SBZ, Maringá, PR, Brazil.

Rubia, A.C., 1976. Brasil Sobrinho, M.C. & Azeredo, J.S. Adubação mineral e calagem no sistema cepo, em solo do tipo podzolisado lins-marília. Revista da agricultura, 21(1): 47.

Schmidek, A. 1999. Composicão bromatológica e degradabilidade em caprinos de cultivares de amoreira (Morus alba L.). Trabalho apresentado a Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias, UNESP, Campus de Jaboticabal, para graduação em Zootecnia. FCAV - UNESO, Jaboticabal, São Paulo, Brazil. 63 pp.

Silva, D.J. 1981. Análise de alimentos. Viçosa. Imprensa Universitária. 166 pp.

Sugoraha, A., Resende, K.T., Takahashi, R., Magario, K. & Reis, R.A. 1994a. Composição bromatológica da amoreira (Morus alba L.), cultivar Yamada, em diferentes idades de crescimento. Anais da XXXI Reunião Anual da SBZ, Maringá, PR, Brazil.

Sugoraha, A., Resende, K.T., Takahashi, R., Guideli, C., Reis, R.A. & Vasconcelos, V.R. 1994b. Composição bromatológica de cultivares de amoreira (Morus alba L.). 3 - Estação de verão. Anais da XXXI Reunião Anual da SBZ, Maringá, PR, Brazil.

Sugoraha, A., Resende, K.T., Takahashi, R., Guideli, C., Reis, R.A. & Vasconcelos, V.R. 1994c. Produção e digestibilidade de cultivares de amoreira (Morus alba L.). 3 - Estação de verão. Anais da XXXI Reunião Anual da SBZ, Maringá, PR, Brasil.

Takahashi, R., Sugoraha, A., Resende, K.T., Reis, R.A. & Brazão, C.S. 1992. Produção de matéria seca de cultivares de amoreira (Morus alba L.) no inverno, visando sua utilização na alimentação de ruminantes. Anais da XXIX Reunião Anual da SBZ - Lavras, MG, Brasil.

Takahashi, R., Sugoraha, A., Resende, K.T., Reis, R.A &Vasconcelos, V.R. 1994. Produção e digestibilidade de cultivares de amoreira (Morus alba L.). 1 - Estação da primavera. Anais da XXXI Reunião Anual da SBZ, Maringá, PR, Brasil.

Tilley, J.M. & Terry. 1963. R.A. A two stage for the in vitro digestion of forage crops. J. Br. Grassland Soc., 18: 104-111.

Tinoco, S.T.J. 1999. Manual de Sericicultura - CATI, SAA, Campinas, SP.

Van Raij, B., Cantarella,H., Quaggio, J.A., & Furlani, A.M.C. 1996. Recomendações de adubação e calagem para o Estado de São Paulo. Boletim Técnico N^o. 100, IAC, Campinas, São Paulo, 285 pp.

Vasconcelos,V.R., Resende, K.T., Sugihara, A., Costa, R.G. & Takahashi, R. 1994. Características de degradação da matéria seca e proteína bruta da amoreira (Morus alba L.) por caprinos. Anais da XXXI Reunião Anual da SBZ, Maringá, PR, Brazil.