The technical and economic difficulties found in all enrichment operations have caused foresters to prefer total replacement (Dupuy and Mille 1991). In the same vein attention was re-directed from rainforest silviculture towards plantation formation in especially the forest reserves in Ghana.
In 1960, the FAO proposed a national forest plantation estate of 590,000 ha (FAO/UNEP 1981). In the late 1960s, a National Land Use Planning Committee revised the objectives downward and targeted an estate of 110,000 ha to be established over a 10 year period from 1970/71 (Nsenkyire 1992). The main objectives in plantation formation in the late 1960s by the FD had been to improve the stocking of commercial species in poorly stocked forest reserves to meet the expanding timber industry and also to provide employment for the rural dwellers (Apomasuh 1992).
It has been estimated that approximately 50,000 ha of plantations was established by the state in the HFZ in 88 forest reserves between 1963 and 1987 (Figure 1). The FD plantations were established in the forest reserves due to easy access to land in these areas. Of the 50,000 ha planted in the HFZ, 15,000 ha (33%) was assessed to have been successful by the FD in 1991 (Figure 2). More than 80% of the stands have stocking of less that 300 stems/ha and only a third have basal areas in excess of 18 m2/ha (FD 1994).
About 2,500 ha of teak plantations were established in the productive forest reserves in the Volta Region. The successful area was assessed to be about 1,300 ha (52%) with a mean stocking of about 330 stems/ha (Arbor Nova Ltd. et al. 1994). FD records also indicate that there are about 1,600 ha of teak plantations in the Northern regions of Ghana both within and outside forest reserves. Some of the plantations in the north are above 40 years old. Most of the teak trees there are however below pole sizes (i.e. dbh < 20 cm).
The current status of most of the FD plantations is generally a mixture of natural forest re-growth/bushes and the plantation species. Most of the fully stocked teak stands have very little undergrowth and erosion has occurred under those on moderate to steep slopes. The plantations were neither pruned nor thinned until recently when market was established for teak poles and Cedrela logs.
Figure 1. Forestry Department annual planting rates achieved
Figure 2. Forestry Department hardwood forest plantation establishment by species
Government institutions are very recent converts to the community forestry scene. The FD’s Rural Forestry Division (RFD) was created under the FRMP in 1990. This was after several years of involvement of the Forestry Department in community forestry programmes, co-ordinated by inter-agency committees, in the northern savannah zone.
The six-year programme designed by the RFD under the FRMP was based on a pilot approach covering the six savannah zone regions. The programme centred on tree nurseries at central, subsidiary and village levels. By 1995 - 1996 it was planned that 112 nurseries would be producing 1.9 million seedlings annually. Evaluation of progress up to the third year of the programme recorded that there were 52 nurseries established producing 1.4 million seedlings in 1993. However, it was also concluded that 50% of the nurseries were ‘very substandard’ and only 11% were ‘good’ in terms of condition, appropriateness of species and demonstration value. The major concern however was that seedlings were being produced with little subsequent community or individual planting (Markanday 1993).
Of the planting that did take place, woodlots accounted for about 90% of the seedlings while the remaining 10% were aimed at agro-forestry, boundary planting, wind breaks and home gardens. The RFD’s stated aim was to support private sector planting to the tune of 10 - 15 million seedlings/year by the year 2000 (Abu 1993). The RFD anticipates expansion into activities in the HFZ in the future, possibly starting with the Eastern Region which falls in the SZ. A role for the RFD is seen particularly in training other FD staff, facilitating the development of village organizations for forestry and working with NGOs (Abu 1993). The FD’s Collaborative Forest Management Programme, with a focus on the HFZ, became fully operational in 1993.
The National Agro-forestry Committee (NAC) was established in 1993. This Programme represents the FD’s major co-operation with the Ministry of Agriculture’s Agro-forestry Unit, under the Crop Services Division. Under the NAC, a unified extension services was established. This was considered to have been ineffective due to competing land uses between forestry and agriculture coupled with the use of the amount of food produced as the measure of success.
The Agro-forestry Unit had support from the FAO and FRMP. About 120 trial plots were established around the country, mostly demonstrating alley cropping with Leucaena and Gliricidia spp.
Deliberate organized tree planting has never been part of the Ghanaian culture except for isolated cases of shade and fruit trees. Most community forest efforts have therefore been the result of bilateral donor projects with little initiative coming from the rural communities themselves. Hence, developments have not survived without external support. Rural communities can be reluctant tree planters for a number of reasons: shortage of land or ambiguous tenure over trees planted, limited availability of labour and capital, and previous bad experience of the Taungya system where the FD failed to provide seedlings or appropriate advice (Abu 1993).
The RFD and several NGOs have generated interest in tree planting in many parts of the country but their activities have been concentrated largely on woodlots. Lately the perceived market for utility poles - which were mainly produced from the thinnings of the FD’s teak plantations - has generated an unprecedented interest in the planting of teak.
The RFD and most NGOs have given out free seedlings. The provision of free seedlings has made some farmers make wrong decisions. Examples are that farmers have grown large tracts of plantations for which they did not have the requisite financial capacity to maintain.
National Association of Tree Growers has about 500 registered members. It is estimated that the members of this association have planted a total of about 2,000 ha. The majority of the plantings are teak. But there are small stands of indigenous species like Triplochiton scleroxylon and Terminalia ivorensis.
Bonsu Vonberg Farms Ltd. (BVFL)
This is a typical example of an investment company. The project was initiated in 1993 and planting commenced in 1994. The Bonsu Vonberg Farms is located at Somanya some 40 km north east of Accra. It is owned jointly by Dutch and Ghanaian investors. The investors have been assured of reasonable returns on their investments by a guarantee of the revenues from the sale of the wood by an independent international accounting firm.
The main objective of the BVFL is sawlog production. The total area of the Somanya plantation is about 700 ha. Of this about 500 ha has been planted with teak. The remaining area is composed of wetlands and natural vegetation. A further 3,000 ha of plantable land has been identified in the Brong Ahafo Region. The overall objective is to plant a total of 10,000 ha in Ghana.
The vegetation at the BVFL plantations is mainly grass with scattered bushes. The area has been divided into 10 ha blocks or management units. A sample plot has been established in each unit for the assessment of growth rates. Site preparation is mechanized. The teak has been planted on vertisols. The stands are of indifferent form and flowering on the terminal shoot at age 4 years which will have adverse effect on the future growth of the stands.
Mechanical weeding is carried out during the first two years before the dry season using slashers. This type of weeding does not usually affect the weed growth at the base of the trees. These weeds are the crucial ones with respect to competition. It was learnt that such weeds are generally removed by manual weeding. The performance of the seedling planted during April - June seems to perform better than those that are planted in September - October (BVFL management).
BVFL has established an out-grower scheme that is supposed to be used to educate the inhabitants of the area on how to assist with the amelioration of the environment through tree planting. The extent of the individual areas involved is about 0.4 ha to 1 ha each. The total number of out-growers was not available at the time that the writer visited BVFL. An Extension Officer visits each out-grower about 2 to 3 times in a month. Free seedlings and technical advice is given. Advice has been given to the farmers involved to plant mainly marginal land, farm boundaries or a proportion of the farmland. The condition attached to the offer of support by BVFL to the farmers is that the mature crop would be sold to the company at the prevailing market rates.
Subri Industrial Plantation Ltd. (SIPL)
The SIPL is a parastatal organization and is a successor to the erstwhile “Subri Project” that was under the FD. To date, the SIPL is the only company that has established the most extensive forest plantations of the same species. It was incorporated to commence business in 1985 with the Government of Ghana, five local financial institutions (National Investment Bank, Ghana Commercial Bank, Agricultural Development Bank, Social Security Bank and Social Security and National Insurance Trust) as shareholders. An African Development Bank loan was obtained to cover the entire foreign exchange and some of the local costs.
The SIPL was formed to establish 4,000 ha of Gmelina arborea for the production of fibre for a proposed paper mill which was intended to be established at Daboase on the eastern banks of River Pra in the Western Region of Ghana. The delay in the establishment of the pulpmill has resulted in the addition of the production of sawlogs to the objective in 1990. The total area which has currently been established stands at about 5,000 ha. The project’s land of about 17,800 ha was acquired by Executive Instrument by the government in 1990 which was later assigned to the SIPL.
The local counterpart funding which is meant mainly for plantation formation and maintenance has generally been untimely and inadequate. The tending of the plantation has consequently been adversely affected. Salaries are also in arrears and this has affected the morale of the staff.
Due to the lack of market for smallwood, thinnings have been delayed. The growth of most of the stands has consequently been adversely affected. As a result of the above, the SIPL has embarked on a campaign for private investors and technical partners. Weeding was carried out after 4, 7, 21 and 28 months. Normal practice would be every 3 to 4 weeks until canopy closure. This would be expected after 6 to 8 months on correctly sited plantations with the rainfall of at the SIPL (Hardcastle 1998).
The conversion of natural forest, whatever its condition, is not environmentally acceptable. The SIPL management has realized this and commenced the search for agricultural fallow lands within a 25 km radius of Daboase. In 1995, about 1,000 ha of such lands (cassava fallow) was acquired at Manso and about 925 ha planted with Gmelina arborea. The silvicultural operations were given out on contract to the locals. Inter-cropping with black pepper was permitted and part of the land is set aside for food crops (SIPL management). The limited financial resources of the company have affected the tending of the plantation.
Swiss Lumber Co. Ltd. (SMS)
The SMS has embarked on a kind of out-grower scheme for planting timber species. The project is said to have started in 1989 by trial and error. Contract or agreement has been established concurrently with tenant farmers and the respective landowners for the growing of timber trees on mainly fallow farm areas. Such lands are usually those that are unsuitable for growing cocoa. The total area under contract as at mid-1997 was 101 ha with about 66 ha having been planted at that time.
The species used are Triplochiton scleroxylon, Terminalia superba, Khaya ivorensis, Milicia excelsa, Entandophragma anglonse, Entandophragma cylindricum, Lovoa trichiloides, Nauclea diderrichii, Lophira elata, Tieghemella heckelii, Guarea cedrata and Mansonia altisima. Tectona grandis and Piptadeniastrum africanum have been added recently. The Tieghemella heckelii trees that were grown in the open were not doing well. They could have been established under shade initially. The most promising growth is Triplochiton, which at the age of 5 years has a mean dbh of about 18 cm and is putting on MAI of about 3.66 cm/yr. In some places the crowns of the Triplochiton trees were touching at that age and may require thinning soon.
The management and supervision of the SMS plantation project is under the supervision of one Manager and a retired Senior Forest Guard of the FD. 5 x 5 m planting espacement is used in open areas and along cleared lines. Where the vegetation is dense lines are cleared 5 m apart and plants put in at the same distances. Inter-planting with food crops by the farmer is allowed up to crown closure in the open areas.
Other Timber Firms
Apart from the SMS, some other timber companies have also established plantations on limited scales. They include Sunstex Ltd., Western Hardwoods, WLVC, Ghana Prime Woods Products Ltd., Specialised Timber Products, John Bitar & Co., Asuo Bomosadu Timbers and Samartex Ltd.
Pioneer Tobacco Company Ltd. (PTC)
Since the early 1970s, the PTC has been establishing plantations of mainly in the Brong Ahafo Region where the company’s tobacco is grown. The species that has been planted include teak, Gmelina, Cassia and Eucalyptus spp. About 90% of the plantations are teak. The main objective has principally been the production of fuelwood for the curing of tobacco as well as for environmental reasons.
The area coverage of the company’s teak stands is about 4,900 ha. About 25% of the area has been established through assistance to farmers, schools, churches and other private communities and organisations. The assistance is in the form of provision of seedlings and pegging. The sizes of the plantations are 50 ha or less. Seeds are collected from plus trees in the FD plantations
Ashanti Goldfields Company Ltd. (AGC)
The AGC has teak stands of about 1,400 ha on their concession for mine props and fuelwood. There are also about 150 ha and 42 ha of Gmelina and Eucalyptus species, respectively.
Samartex Afforestation Projects
The Samreboi Timber and Plywood Company Ltd. (Samartex) has initiated a forest plantation programme at Oda Kotoamso near Asankrangwa in the Western Region. The area is an abandoned cocoa farm outside the reserved forests. The project is under the supervision of three graduate foresters. The major objective is to raise the standard of living of the farmers. The total area involved is 500 ha. About 40 ha had been planted with indigenous species and Teak as at the time of the study. Snail/fish farming and honey production has been introduced in the area. There is also inter-cropping with black pepper and cola. Cedrela, teak and indigenous species are being planted. The management philosophy is to undertake line planting in secondary forest. There is no land clearing where farms are located. Spacing of 10 x 10 m is used for inter-cropping on farms.
Joint Forest Management Project, Gwira Banso
Ghana Primewoods Products Ltd., Takoradi (GAP) has initiated a “Joint Forest Management Project” outside the reserved forests in late 1995 at Gwira Banso in the Western Region. In this project, the landowners, Tenant Farmers, GAP, and a timber marketing company - Dalhoff Larsen and Horneman (DLH) of Denmark - are co-operating in the design and implementation of a sustainable forest management system. It includes tree planting on farm as well as line enrichment planting of the natural forest. The results of this project would be invaluable in other similar areas in the country. The project is still in its design stages.
Care International has shown interest in the project and plans to co-operate with the project with respect to capacity building of the individual farmers and local institutions to implement sustainable land-use practices. This is meant to improve their livelihood security within the forest ecosystem.
Conclusions
The assessment of only 11% of the RFD nurseries as being of the optimum standard point to the fact that upgrading of skills in this area of plantation formation as in the case of the other relevant disciplines is very important.
The issues of free seedlings to farmers also require review in the future. The lack of incorporation of post-planting support to the farmers in the RFD programmes must have contributed a great deal to the large surplus of seedlings that were raised but not planted. There were therefore no incentives for those who had not planted before to do so and those who did plant would not increase the size of their plantations.
There are also a lot of small scale planters who have been girded on by the recent good market for teak thinnings. Future programmes would have to take such planters into consideration to maintain the interest that has already been generated as well as encourage others to follow suite. Incentives to such tree planters must include training, provision of genetically improved planting material of farmer-preferred and marketable species, establishment grants and the provision of extension services by funded consultants. Assistance would also be required to assist such planters to organize themselves into co-operatives to facilitate efficient delivery of the proposed incentive schemes.
Ghana Rubber Estates Ltd. (GREL)
In addition to the forest plantations cited above estimates, Ghana has about 11,200 ha of rubber plantations. Ghana Rubber Estates Limited (GREL) owns about 8,500 ha of this and plans to fell and re-plant with improved planting material at the rate of about 500 ha/year from 1999 onwards.
Site preparation
The decision by the BVFL management to stump and plough during site preparations was due to the difference in growth that had been observed on areas that received such treatments as compared to those which did not receive similar treatment at the beginning of the project. The growth of the former is about one and half times as much as the latter.
Measurements during field visit by the Author to the Somanya site gave the average diameter and growth rates of the ploughed and the unploughed stands as:
|
Treatment |
Age (years) |
dbh (cm) |
Growth (cm/yrear) |
|
Plough + Stumping |
3 |
7.21 |
2.62 |
|
Plough + Stumping |
2 |
6.96 |
3.21 |
|
No plough or stumping |
3 |
5.17 |
1.59 |
The difference between the above data is evident. Observations in the field indicated less grass growth under the ploughed and stumped stands whose canopy also tended to close earlier. But it may be early yet to make any substantive conclusions from the data.
Planting material
Vegetative reproduction of Gmelina has been tried by the SIPL. The cuttings were observed to produce mainly lateral roots and the trees grown from them become susceptible to wind-throw. They are however reported to be more vigorous and branchier than those plants raised from seeds (SIPL management).
The experience at BVFL is that teak stumps (2” root, 1” stem) do better when planted between late April and mid-May (usually with 90% success). The success rate with respect to the use of stumps reduces to about 70% after mid-May hence the use of polypots after the latter period.
Planting distances
Teak
Since the 1970s, the changes in the espacements used by the PTC for the establishment of teak plantations are shown below. The related observed periods for the canopy closure are also given:
|
Year |
Spacing (m) |
Canopy closure time |
|
1972 |
4x4 |
more than 5 years |
|
1988 |
3x3 |
by the 5th year |
|
1990 onwards |
2x2 |
by the 3rd year |
No pruning or thinning is done. Pole sizes (20 - 25 cm) are said to be attained in about 20 years at the planting distance of 2 x 2m (pers. comm., Oyirifi). Firewood is cut at tree sizes of between 10 cm and 15 cm.
Gmelina
A spacing of 4 x 2 m (1250 trees/ha.) has been observed to be the best for Gmelina arborea at the SIPL plantations for the production of pulpwood and sawlogs (SIPL management). It is also recommended that due to frequent problems with the shape of Gmelina (straight bole, forking, and multiple stems) and pruning, a planting density of the order of 1,100 stems/ha which ensures natural pruning and a sufficiently large stock for a good selection at the time of thinning should used (Cabaret 1988).
Weed suppression (Cover crops)
The high cost of post-planting maintenance of forest plantations makes any affordable and environmentally friendly measure that can be used to suppress weed growth more than welcomed. The oil palm and para rubber industries both in Ghana and elsewhere have used and continues to make use of the creeper plant Peuraria phaseoloides for weed control and soil improvement. But forestry in Ghana has never applied this technique.
Pueraria is leguminous creeper that colonizes very rapidly. It is nitrogen fixing and drops a lot of leaves which improves soil texture. It is also evergreen and is good for weed suppression and erosion and evapo-transpiration control. The attributes of Peuraria would make it very useful as a cover crop especially for teak, which requires an undergrowth to prevent soil erosion and also to fix nitrogen in the soil.
Other similar cover crop species include Centrosena pubescence and Mucuna utilis. The latter is easier to establish than Peuraria. It is an annual plant that dries up in the dry season and re-seeds in the wet season and hence creates fire hazards in fire-prone areas. Centrosena on the other hand does not climb tree trunks when used in tree plantations. It would be worth the trial for the adoption of the use of cover crops for weed control in forest plantations.
Table 5 gives a summary of the major hardwood plantations in Ghana the government and the private sector. This is based on the available data obtained from the various organizations indicated and those estimated. The time for the study did not allow verification of the data in the field. There are other medium to small scale hardwood plantations whose data are being compiled by the FD. These were not available at the time of the study. The details can be found in Appendix 1.
The extent of the FD plantations may currently be less than indicated in the above table due to lack of maintenance and frequent fires especially in the Transition Zone (FST). Recent thinnings of the teak plantations were also not properly supervised and has resulted in creaming of the better stands.
Table 5. Summary of the estimates of areas of major hardwood plantation in Ghana
|
Species |
Estimated |
Remarks |
|
Teak |
22,900 |
No info. on DWT areas |
|
Cedrela |
3,800 |
|
|
Gmelina |
6,350 |
|
|
Terminalia |
400 |
|
|
Eucalyptus |
42 |
No info. on FD areas |
|
Mixed Hardwoods |
6,070 |
No. info. on AGC areas |
|
Rubberwood |
11,200 |
|
|
Total |
50,762 |
|
There are various relationships that have been used for the establishment of tree crops -especially rubber and oil palm - in the country for several years. These are normally between companies and individual farmers. They include:
1. The small holder scheme;
2. The out-grower scheme; and
3. The lease-back system.
In the case of (1) and (2), the companies are multi-nationals which benefit from their international expertise and experience in the establishment of the tree crop in question.
Under such a system the individual planter or small farmer does not own the land. A nucleus company arranges for credit and provides extension services and planting material for the establishment and maintenance of the tree crop. The nucleus company also serves as the market for the produce.
An example of type this type of relationship is what is being practiced by the Benso Oil Palm Plantations (BOPP) in the Western Region. The company has 6,000 ha of land acquired by Government instrument. About 4,200 ha of the land has been developed by BOPP and the remaining 1,800 ha is placed under a small holder scheme. BOPP provides the management and extension services while the loans for the smallholders come from the Groupe Caisse Francais de Development, Ghana (GCFP) and managed through BOPP. Interested poorest farmers in the vicinity are screened to join the scheme. They are given a 4 ha plot of land each to tend.
The land is prepared by BOPP and the planting, weeding, fertilization and harvesting is done by the small holder. Extension workers from BOPP ensure that the farmers use approved methods and harvest the palm fruits at the appropriate times. Supervision of planting and other cultural operations is undertaken up to the second year after planting when the first harvest is expected. It has been planned that the farmers work on their plots for 4 hours a day. That leaves them the rest of the day to tend to their own food crop farms.
The company assists the selected farmers with the relevant inputs such as fertilizer, tools and bicycles for commuting to work in the form of loans. The farmer is assured of ready market for the produce and the loans are deducted from the sale of the oil palm fruits to the company after harvest. The loan is about US$2,700 for each 4 ha plot. The payment is expected over 12 years with a 5 year grace period and a fixed interest rate of about 16.5%.
This is similar to the small holder scheme. The main difference is that the farmer owns his own land. This can be in the form of lease, freehold or share-cropping. In the case of share-cropping, agreement is required between the tenant farmer and the landowner for the purposes of joining the scheme. The relationship in the latter case is further strengthened through a tripartite agreement between the landlord, tenant farmer and the nucleus company. To prevent the splitting of land into uneconomic units after the death of an out-grower, a next-of-kin agreement is established with the chiefs/landowners and the family of the farmer as witnesses.
All inputs except land and labour are provided by the company and seedlings may be sold at cost to the farmer as is the case with the small holder scheme. The services include extension and farmer loan account services. Usually this type of service company will define a radius within which a farm must fall to qualify to join the scheme.
Companies which are applying the system include the Ghana Rubber Estates Ltd. (GREL) in the Western region and the Ghana Oil Palm Company (GOPC) in the Eastern Region. The main sources of finances are the companies’ own funds, the World Bank and the GCFD.
In this case, the farmer who owns the land does not want or is unable to make any investment towards the establishment of the crop. The nucleus company is granted use of the land. The farmer may or may not provide paid labour to the company but usually takes a share of the final value of the harvest. This is the model which is being implemented by the SMS.
Under the agreement, SMS undertakes the planting of the tree crop and its maintenance to maturity. Annual rent is paid by SMS to the landowner 3 - 5 years in advance at the rate of about US$12/ha/yr. The future proceeds from the sale of the trees are planned to be shared between the tenant farmer and the landowner on a 50/50 basis. The SMS has the first option to buy the timber. But the farmer can also sell his or her share elsewhere.
The individual areas concerned are mapped and endorsed by the respective Paramount Chief in addition to the Chiefs of the Stool lands concerned to confirm that the tenant farmer has their blessing for using the land as such. The condition for the acceptance of a farm into the scheme is that it should share boundary with an existing plantation so as to ensure their efficient management.
Weeding is carried out four times a year during the first two years and three times a year during the third and fourth years. Maintenance is carried out by SMS labour or the out-grower who is then paid for such services on contract by SMS. The cost benefit analysis of the SMS lease back scheme is yet to be assessed.
Pure teak stands have been associated with the deterioration of soil and erosion. This is usually the case when teak is either planted on steep slopes where undergrowth has been systematically cleared or where excessive burning has taken place. Evidences of such environmental degradation under teak in Ghana include parts of the plantations at the Ho Hills Forest Reserve in the Volta Region and the Yendi Town Plantation to the north of the country. Some of the plantations are also devoid of undergrowth due to the frequent fires that run through the stands. No cover crop is planted under teak plantations in Ghana.
The maintenance of a protective under-storey after canopy closure tends to prevent the deterioration of the soil, especially when the undergrowth is a nitrogen fixer. For example, in Indonesia the inter-planting of teak with Leucaena glauca is practiced. This is done soon after the teak is planted to form an under-storey and is regularly pruned to prevent competition with the teak. The advantages claimed for Leucaena are the improvement of soils aeration, nitrogen fixation and the prevention of surface run-off.
There is a fire problem in the area of the BVFL’s plantation at Somanya as is the case with similar savannah areas. The 5 m wide roads constructed round the 10 ha blocks serve as firebreaks in addition to facilitating the transportation of seedlings to the planting site. Weeding of the plantation is also carried out before the dry season. The company has had about 20 workers trained by the National Fire Service in fire fighting. The trained fire fighters have been supplied with bicycles and radio communication equipment to call for help when the need arises. The company plans to install fire towers in the future to assist in early fire outbreak detection. After fires, burnt young teak trees are cut to the ground level. It has been observed that this intervention leads to vigorous sprouting from the stool.
Tectona grandis
There are seed orchards at the FORIG, Kumasi, and the Dupaul Wood Treatment (DWT) plantation at Offinso, in the Ashanti Region. The latter was expected to start producing seeds in 1998. Teak seeds have recently been imported from Tanzania for the production of high quality seeds. The FORIG cannot meet the current demand for teak seeds from its seed orchards. Hence supplementary supplies are obtained from plus trees in the Forest Department plantations.
Triplochiton scleroxylon
Wawa seed orchard has been established at the FORIG and the testing for the production of high quality seedlings via mist vegetative propagation techniques is in progress. The potential availability of adequate quantities of improved seeds is limited. The selection and mapping of plus trees in the natural forest requires urgent attention.
Cedrela odorata
There is a neglected seed orchard of Cedrela that is being rehabilitated by FORIG. It can provide about 20 kilos of seeds annually (pers. comm., A. Gyimah). Requirements in excess of this quantity are met from plus trees in the established plantations. New seed stands are required for effective large scale plantation formation.
Gmelina arborea
The FORIG and the SIPL have seed orchards of Gmelina.
The clonal seed orchard at the SIPL was established with local superior phenotypes. The company has also imported some Gmelina seeds from Nigeria.
The collections of seeds and the provision of extension services by the FORIG are generally based on requests (pers. comm., A. Gyimah).
The FORIG Tree Improvement and Seed Technology Laboratory are currently ill-equipped and there are no control environments for the proper testing of seeds. The estimated average annual production of seeds from FORIG is teak: 1000 kg, Cedrela: 20 kg and indigenous species: 20- 30 kg (pers. comm., A. Gyimah). The existing refrigeration facilities can store about 20 kg. of seeds annually.
The Miliaceae
The shoot borer - Hypsipyla robusta - was the main constraint to the planting of the mahoganies. Although it is reported that Lovoa trichilioides tends to be less susceptible to the borer than the other Miliaceae species it is not resistant. It has been observed that mixed planting of about 10 to 15% with resistant nurse species that has the appropriate crown to give a side shade (not top shade) and which grows at similar rate (e.g. Nauclea diderrichii and Gmelina arborea) is very essential to minimize the risk of the borer. The shoot borer attack was also found to be less where the mahoganies were in complete mixture than where the mahoganies and the nurse trees were put in separate lines (Hardcastle et al. 1998). FORIG is undertaking research into this problem. A combination of resistant clones, species and age mixtures, nutritional studies and shade manipulation is being tested.
Terminalia ivorensis
The species has no serious pests and diseases. But there was a widespread die-back throughout Ghana. In Nigeria, the cause of this phenomenon is attributed to inhibition of nitrogen mineralization in the litter layer and to the accumulation of calcium which lead to the tree “poisoning itself in monocultures”. It is however recommended that large scale monocultures of the species should be avoided pending the resolution of the problem through research (Hardcastle 1998).
Milicia excelsa
Milicia is a very high value timber that has a potential for rapid growth. But the main constraint on its survival is the gall Phytolama lata which attacks the leaves of seedlings. In this case also, the FORIG is leading a research into the identification of resistant clones under an ITTO project (PD 3/95).
Triplochiton scleroxylon
Leading shoots are likely to be killed by aphids. Almost annually (in August - September), much defoliation by the caterpillar of Anaphe venata occurs. Loss in increment due to this is however not apparent. Stumps of Triplochiton are liable to severe or fatal termite attack if soil is not moist at the time of planting (Taylor 1962).
Cedrela odorata
In its original range, the main problem is the attack of the shoot borer moth - Hypsilla grandella. Even though there is Hypsilla robosta in Ghana that attacks the Khaya species it has not been observed to attack Cedrela yet.
Gmelina arborea
At the SIPL it has been observed that the Gmelina develops heart-rot at the age of 20 years and above resulting also in reduced coppicing ability. A rotation age of less than 20 years is therefore necessary. In a recent inventory of the SIPL plantations, 300 trees were bored with increment borers to assess the extent of the butt-rot. Eighteen (i.e. 6%) of the number bored had rot that extended to 0.5 m from the base of the tree. Of these, 6 were located on ridge tops, 5 on mid-slopes and 7 in valley bottoms. The rot had extended to about 1 meter from the base in only 2 (i.e. 0.6% of the 18 trees found with rot). About 95% of the 18 trees with rot were in the 30 cm to 50 cm diameter class. Their ages were also 20 years or more. They were found mostly on sandy soils in valley bottoms.
It was therefore concluded that the age of the stand (which is related to the size of the tree) in combination with the soil type are the possible causes of heart-rot in the Gmelina trees in the area (Odoom 1998). In order to prevent heart rot in Gmelina, it appears that sandy soils must be avoided.
An attack by grasshoppers on Gmelina leaves at the SIPL in 1990 was sprayed with Dioxenon chemical and there has been no occurrence since then (SIPL management).
The Forestry Research Institute of Ghana (FORIG) has tried over 150 tree species in experimental plots with various experimental designs between 1957 and 1990. Out of these about 30 species (20%) are indigenous. The research plot sizes ranged from about 0.04 ha to about 15 ha in extent (Foli and Ofosu-Asiedu 1997). The plots were located within the various ecological zones in the country. The objectives of the experimental set-ups included:
Due to budgetary and personnel constraints, the maintenance of the research plots could not be sustained and the data on the experiments are yet to be processed.
Investigations that have been carried out by the FORIG include seedling production with respect to pot sizes, depth of sowing, watering regimes as well as the use of bare rooted seedlings as opposed to those whose roots are covered with ball of soil.
Research into the vegetative propagation of Triplochiton scleroxylon, Milicia excelsa, Khaya spp., Ceiba pentandra, Terminalia superba, Baphia spp. and Ficus spp. is underway. FORIG expects to produce M. excelsa seedlings by vegetative propagation techniques for sale by the end of 1998 (pers. comm., Nketia and Ofori).
T. scleroxylon has irregular seed years with uncertain quantities of seed. Hence seeds cannot be relied upon for supplying plantation requirements. For example, Wawa has fruited once in the last 6 years (Foli and Ofosu-Asiedu 1977). Rot in T. scleroxylon cuttings have been observed at FORIG. This is said to have resulted in a germination rate of about 60%. The problem is being investigated (pers. comm., Nketia and Ofori).
There is ongoing research to try and gather genetic material from throughout the range and to identify resistant clones. This is funded under an ITTO project (PD 3/95) co-ordinated by Forest Research Institute of Ghana to which Cameroon contributes.
The SMS is co-operating with the FORIG/ITTO project in the field with regards to the control of the attack of Phytolyma lata on Milicia excelsa. The monocultures in Phase I had a lot of problems. During Phase II that was initiated in 1997, Milicia excelsa from the Ashanti Region, which is susceptible to gall attack, has been mixed with Piptadeniastrum africanum, Khaya ivorensis and Antiaris toxicaria to assess the performance of the species in a different environment. The trials are being undertaken on one of the SMSs lease-back lands.
Prior to the Fourth Republic, the forestry sector lacked an updated and clearly defined forest policy spelling out goals, objectives and strategies for development of forest resources and the future direction of the timber industry. As a result, administration by the relevant sector institutions was weak and this lead to widespread trade malpractice including failure to pay forest fees, speculative felling, illegal trading in forest products and unauthorized subletting of concessions to illicit timber operators. In force at the time were ridiculously low fines and outdated legal sanctions that served as stimuli, rather than as deterrents, to the rampant commission of forest offences. These deficiencies led to excessive depletion of the most marketable timber species causing severe forest degradation and an escalated rate of deforestation by agricultural encroachment. Also, a lack of local community involvement in forest resource protection and an absence of comprehensive and co-ordinated medium to long-term plans further aggravated the situation.
The key issues that militated against good forest management were therefore inconsistent financing of the forest sector operations, ill-motivated civil service personnel, and weak legislation coupled with lack of co-operation from the law enforcement agencies. There is also lack of unity in the private sector trade associations. Their co-operation with the forest sector agencies in the implementation of sound forest management practices was not as expected.
The Forest Service Bill (1998) requires the removal of the FD from the civil service and its transformation into a semi-autonomous Forest Service with a managerial and financial independence. This is meant to overcome the past short-comings of the establishment as well as ensure an effective management of the nations natural forest resources.
