SESSION II: IMPROVED COASTAL ZONE PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT

Integrated coastal zone planning in Asian tsunami-affected countries

Robert Kay¹

Integrated coastal management and planning are processes through which rational decisions are made concerning the conservation and sustainable use of coastal and ocean resources and space. The principles of Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) are well-known and widely accepted throughout the world, employing a suite of tools including marine protected areas (MPAs), land-use control, marine zoning and permit systems, conflict resolution, planning and fisheries management.

In the aftermath of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami and its ensuing rehabilitation effort, the principles and objectives of ICM have been brought into stark relief. The clamor for quick action resulted, in many instances, in duplication and overlap of resources and effort. Poorly focused and uncoordinated initiatives meant that rehabilitation and reconstruction in affected areas were not always economically or environmentally sound. While principles of “build back better” were advocated in the reconstruction process, this was not always possible due to the pressing need to rebuild and rehabilitate hundreds of kilometres of devastated coastline, and re-establish livelihoods for displaced people.

Very little forward thinking was adopted with regard to contingency risk planning and land- and marine-use planning in the Asia–Pacific region, with a general absence of integrated long-term responses (i.e. a ten-year horizon). This highlights the pressing need for a coordinated integrated coastal area planning and management effort within the region. Well-formulated and implemented ICM plans may well have reduced the loss of lives and physical assets from the tsunami. For instance, had set-back areas along the coast been subject to enforcement, the mortality rate of marginalized fisherfolk would have been significantly reduced.

The application of integrated planning approaches and mechanisms could help to overcome previous constraints and avoid the mistakes that are currently being faced in the tsunami rehabilitation effort, maximizing economic, social and environmental benefits at a regional scale. However, it must be remembered that ICM-planning strategies are designed to be long-term proactive approaches. In light of this, their ability to respond rapidly in the face of sudden catastrophic disasters is somewhat problematic. In this context, while clearly valid for the long term, ICM processes require modification to cope with the requirement for immediate responses on short time frames resulting from sudden events.

Thus, the processes of short-term action require integration with the disaster response practitioners and activities. Recent collaboration among national, provincial and local emergency management agencies and local communities under the Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System (IOTWS) Program, has led to development of the concept of coastal community resilience (CCR) towards this aim. It is suggested here that the principles of CCR be adopted into a broader ICM framework with a view to protecting against and preparing for coastal disasters as part of a holistic planning process.

1. Introduction

The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami resulted in the widespread devastation of coastal communities throughout the region from a social, environmental and economic perspective. The huge loss of life generated by the tsunami waves was coupled with catastrophic destruction of the coastal zone in areas of India, Indonesia, Sri Lanka and Thailand. Areas most affected were generally those where marginalized members of the population were concentrated and unsustainable management practices were endemic. In order for the principles of “build back better” to be achieved, a focused and sustained coastal planning and management effort is required. In this context, the internationally recognized principles of Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) will play a key role in the rehabilitation and reconstruction process. With this in mind, the aim of this paper is to provide a perspective on ICM and its role in the post-tsunami era within the Asia–Pacific region.

The contents draw on perspectives from the country papers formulated for the workshop on “Coastal area planning and management in Asian tsunami-affected countries”, presented in this proceedings. The workshop was held in Bangkok, Thailand, in September 2006, and forms one of a series of FAO workshops in the region that address the range of forestry, fisheries, aquaculture, and agriculture problems faced by Asian countries in the aftermath of the 2004 tsunami.

Coastal planning and management policies and issues are considered in focus for each of the affected countries in the region, with the exception of Myanmar, for which limited information was available. In addition, a review of initiatives taken in the post-tsunami period is carried out in conjunction with a critical analysis of the broader principles of coastal management practice

Figure 1. Areas affected by the 2004 tsunami (adapted from AusAid 2005)

2. Integrated coastal zone planning and management: Concept and principles

The transitional region between the land and the ocean is commonly referred to as the coastal zone or coastal area (Kay and Alder, 2005). The variety of terms used internationally to refer to efforts to manage this coastal space include: Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM); Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management (ICMAM); Integrated Coastal Area Management (ICAM); Integrated Marine and Coastal Area Management (IMCAM), or even Integrated Management of Maritime Affairs (IMMA). Despite the variety of labels applied, it is generally accepted that they refer to the same over-riding set of principles (Cicin-Sain and Knecht, 1998).

The unique nature of coastal zones is widely understood to require a concerted, well-considered and holistic coordinated integrated management and planning approach (Kay and Alder, 2005). This is most often referred to as an “integrated” management approach. Indeed, “integrated” as a prefix to coastal management is now so widely adopted as a concept critical in striving for sustainable coastal environments that it has effectively been adopted into the daily language of decision- and policy-makers in many coastal nations. ICM explicitly defines its goal in terms of progress towards more sustainable forms of development seeking a balance between:

• economic development and use of the coastal region;
• protection and preservation of the coastal areas;
• minimization of losses of human life and property; and
• public access at the coastal zones.

Examples of principles and objectives advocated for successful ICM are listed in Table 1.

Table 1. Principles and objectives of ICM (after Clarke, 1992)

ICM is now widely viewed as a mainstream activity. At the international level, all key institutions with involvement in the management and planning of coastal zones have embraced the concept including FAO, UNEP, UNDP, World Bank, IOC/UNESCO and IUCN. In addition, an estimated 142 national governments and semi-sovereign states are assessed to be actively engaged in ICM (Sorenson, 2002).

ICM is based on long-term consensus building and must be supported with a range of methods and techniques for the provision of sound information to aid the decision-making process. Many coastal managers seek to adopt this approach through planning activities that are either stand-alone ICM plans or include ICM approaches into other planning and policy instruments that influence or have an impact on coastal resource management. Plans used in the management of the coast can be classified according to a number of methods, the most common of which are shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Coastal management plan classification methods and plan types (adapted from Kay and Alder 2005)

In broad terms, all ICM programmes are focused on seeking operational mechanisms for achieving sustainable development goals for the use and management of coastal resources. As with all such multidisciplinary integrated approaches, the resulting objectives for management must be locally appropriate to ensure maximum uptake and, therefore, implementation effectiveness. An overarching principle of ICM is that it is able to be flexibly implemented according to both the coastal issues it is being focused on and the unique circumstances of a particular coastal nation. For example, the European Union (2002) outlines a clear set of objectives for member states, to be adhered to when formulating national strategies for coastal management, which highlights the need to consider:

“…local specificity and the great diversity of European coastal zones, which will make it possible to respond to their practical needs with specific solutions and flexible measures.”

Given the widespread adoption of ICM, there is a significant pool of expertise to facilitate the design of tailored approaches to employing ICM concepts. Indeed, many coastal managers describe this as a “toolkit” approach. For example, in Australia a recent initiative explicitly developed a set of capacity-building fact sheets to provide such tools to local governments attempting to improve its coastal management efforts (Coastal CRC, 2006).

Once individual projects are evaluated and decisions are taken, implementation begins. Implementation of a project must be supported with policy tools. These may be supplemented with voluntary agreements between various parties to achieve environmental or conservation objectives (UNEP, 1995).

The policy cycle as applied to ICM is illustrated in Figure 2 below, and is returned to later in the paper within the specific context of the Indian Ocean tsunami.

Figure 2. The ICM policy and planning cycle (GESAMP 1996)

In general, increased population pressure has resulted in unplanned and unregulated development throughout the coastal zones within the region. Here, “unplanned” development is understood to mean development that has not occurred under the umbrella of community- or government-led plans, or through an incomplete framework of plans and policies. The philosophy underpinning ICM and many of its tools and approaches focuses on planning for the long-term sustainability of coastal resources and the people that depend on these resources for their livelihood. The fundamental mandate of planning (and plan production) is to harness and focus community desires in the broader sense, i.e. local communities, communities of users and communities of elected representatives to develop a shared vision and practices for the use and allocation of coastal resources. This approach is most often articulated in some form of planning strategy. While there are numerous challenges in effectively implementing such strategies in whatever form they take (Figure 2), they are invariably better than either no plan at all or plans that have excluded key communities, either through a poorly conceived process or deliberate (and often malicious) choice.

3. Competing uses of the coastal zone: Costs and benefits of unplanned development and their contribution to challenges faced post-tsunami

Uses of the coastline are generally considered under four main categories: resource exploitation (for example fisheries, forestry, gas and oil, and mining); infrastructure (including transportation, ports, harbours, shoreline protection works and defence); tourism and recreation; and the conservation and protection of biodiversity (Kay and Alder, 2005). Of specific interest here are the major land uses in the coastal zones of tsunami-affected countries, which include agriculture, shrimp and fish farming, forestry and human settlement (UNEP, 2005).

Resource-based industries such as fisheries and tourism are particularly important within the Asia–Pacific region. Fishing provides a basic source of food and income for up to 13 million people, while the extensive tourist industry may directly account for as much as 20 percent of the GDP (UNDP/IUCN, 2006). Mangroves and the coastal forest play a crucial role in coastline stabilization and storm-surge protection (Table 3; Rutinbeek, 1991; 1994). In addition, mangroves act as important pollutant and nutrient sinks (Rutinbeek, 1991; 1994).

Table 3. Uses and environmental functions of mangroves (adapted from Rutinbeek, 1991; 1994)

The links between fisheries production and mangrove forestry are also widely reported in the literature (Janssen and Padilla, 1999; Mumby et al., 2004; Murphy, 2004; Thampanva, 2006), as is the important income provided by traditional use of mangrove products to many of the poorest households within the region (Rutinbeek, 1992; Sathirathai, 1998).

Within the Asia–Pacific region, healthy coastal ecosystems including mangroves, wetlands, estuaries, lagoons, sandy beaches, sand dunes, coral reefs and seagrass communities are fundamentally linked to human well-being (UNDP/IUCN, 2006). However, dramatic population growth has led to increased pressure on ecosystems throughout the coastal zone (UNEP, 2002) the effects of which are highlighted in detail through the country papers in this volume; they are summarized in Table 4.

Table 4. Threats to coastal ecosystems and key drivers (adapted from Kay and Alder, 2005)

Within the Asia–Pacific region, an ad hoc approach, where no coherent planning strategy has been adhered to, has frequently provided greater short-term economic returns, although sometimes at great social and environmental costs — and often these returns benefit only some sections of society. Single objective, single output land management has resulted in the conversion of land from directly productive purposes, in many cases, leading to degradation or loss as a result of erosion, salinity, inundation and other interventions (FAO, 2005). For example, over the last 30 years the significance of the shrimp sector in particular has grown rapidly in tandem with increased demand and high prices for shrimp in international markets (Phillips and Budhiman, 2005). The increase in shrimp production has resulted in huge pressure on land in the coastal zone with agriculture and mangrove areas being converted for shrimp farming (IUCN, 2005).

While the ecosystem value of mangroves and coastal forests is well-known and widely accepted, their widespread clearance has subsequently become a common feature of coastal zones in all tsunami-affected countries (IUCN, 2005). In the islands of Indonesia, Java alone had lost 70 percent of its mangroves by 1991, while Sumatra had lost 36 percent (www.earthisland.org). Mangrove reduction has led to a loss of biodiversity and a reduction in food production and cooking fuel, which exacerbates the problem in other areas. In addition, a source of income is eliminated for marginalized communities that are already considered socially and economically worst off (Kay and Alder, 2005).

In this context, it is clear that the enormous contribution of healthy coastal ecosystems in safeguarding production and consumption, reducing vulnerability, strengthening resilience and mitigating disasters has generally been undervalued, poorly understood and improperly safeguarded within the region (UNDP/IUCN, 2006). In fact, it has been suggested that unsustainable development activities and their associated degradation of the coastal zone led to exacerbated effects of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami in terms of ecosystem destruction and loss of life (Table 5). For example, anecdotal evidence in the aftermath of the tsunami suggested that mangroves were effective in buffering its impacts (Dahdouh-Guebas et al., 2005; FAO, 2005; Wetland International, 2005). This was subsequently confirmed by systematic analysis of the effectiveness of mangrove buffering against tsunami waves (Chang et al., in press). Their preliminary analysis suggested that villages that were behind substantial mangroves suffered relatively little damage in comparison to those not likewise protected. However, assessment of the role of healthy ecosystems in reducing damage to coastal communities is ongoing and remains a matter for debate within the scientific community (Baird, 2006).

Table 5. Exacerbation of biophysical and socio-economic impacts as a result of unplanned development in the coastal zone

In addition to the problems brought about by the effects of the tsunami, pressure on coastal land is expected to continue in step with increases in the regional population. In light of this, the need for an integrated approach to the management and rehabilitation of the coastal zone has been brought into even starker relief.

4. Coastal planning and management — a synopsis of regional policy and adherence

It is now widely understood that tsunami waves undergo a complex set of interactions in conjunction with the varying landscape of the continental shelf and a suite of other physical variables (Skynolakis, 2002). However, the Indian Ocean tsunami in 2004 also interacted with another varying landscape, that is, the policy and practices under which coasts are managed. Coastal planning and management in the pre-tsunami period has been discussed in depth in the country papers in this volume. However, for the sake of completeness, a brief overview of coastal land use and management policies is provided in this section to set the scene for a regional discussion.

A broad spectrum of coastal management planning approaches was employed in the Asia–Pacific region prior to the tsunami (Table 6).

Table 6. Coastal management and planning, pre-tsunami

Like all coastal nations, each of the tsunami-impacted countries implemented a wide range of coastal hazard management approaches. As with variations to the overall ICM landscape there are significant differences between countries regarding their coastal hazard management landscape in line with those provided in Table 7 below.

Table 7. Options and measures for coastal erosion hazard management (Kay et al., 1994)

Overall, while several countries instituted legal and planning instruments for the management of the coastal zone, these generally lacked adherence. This non-implementation of coastal laws often gave way to unregulated development along many stretches of the coast ultimately affected by the tsunami. A consideration of the information presented in Table 7 identifies a set of common problems leading to this poor implementation and adherence at a regional scale. Key issues include:

• low capacity to participate in ICM programmes;
• no focal agency or coordinating body;
• lack of integration — persistence of fragmentation and sectoral isolation;
• overlapping of jurisdiction and misunderstandings over responsibilities; and
• inadequate legal framework to oversee implementation.

In Thailand, for example, coastal zone management was first attempted in the 1980s with the establishment of the Coastal Development Division under the Department of Land Development. Its broad objective was to provide guidelines for coastal development. However, a lack of guidance on how to integrate the work of the division with other government agencies led to closure of the division. Meanwhile, major developments have taken place in the coastal areas, making coastal zone management more a tool for resolving land-use conflicts than a tool for holistic planning that takes into account the needs of all stakeholders (UNEP, 2006).

In Sri Lanka, the Coast Conservation Department (CCD) has adopted a measure whereby a permit is required for any development activity within a 300-metre land buffer at the coastline. Fishing, cultivation of crops, planting of trees and other vegetation is allowed within this zone without a permit. Also, nested within the coastal zone is a high-hazard exclusion zone, or set-back of 60 metres from the mean waterline, where no construction is allowed (Khazai et al., 2006). However, these areas are often inhabited by marginalized fisherfolk and buffer zones are generally poorly enforced.

While legislation exists in many countries requiring an EIA for development in wetland areas, this is not applicable to uncontrolled, unlicensed and illegal development, or rebuilding existing structures. In addition, EIAs in many of the areas affected have traditionally served little purpose in terms of impact mitigation. Rather, the EIA has generally been seen as a hurdle to achieving development permission, despite the feelings of local people (Teerakul and Renshaw, 2005).

In Malaysia, reasons cited for the lack of follow up, implementation and adherence to coastal management plans include the fact that the existing structure of decision-making would require considerable change to allow their incorporation (Ong, 2006). In addition, it has been suggested that early plans lacked sufficient understanding of the issues and were perhaps weak in terms of explanation of the changes that needed to be made to the governance structure in order to implement integrated coastal area management plans (Ong, 2006).

Recent analysis of ICM practice in Indonesia has also highlighted barriers to fully adopting the factors associated with sustained ICM by key levels of government (Christie et al., 2005). This research suggested that laws that encourage sustainable resource use are increasingly adopted and enforced at local levels, but remain underdeveloped at the national level (Christie et al., 2005). There are few clear incentives for networks of national institutions to adopt ICM as an overarching framework and to collaborate across sectoral lines (Lowry et al., 2005).

Fundamentally, managing coastal zones is a people-centred exercise and as a result effective management revolves around the foibles of the individual and the institutions and practices built by the individuals. Practitioners understand that corruption, cronyism, individual egos, power and factors such as politics and familial relationships all play a part in daily life and, consequently, also play an important role in managing the coast. In many ways the global spotlight brought to the region by the tsunami highlighted these issues and while both the government and the donor community have made stringent efforts to mitigate these factors, they will always play a role.

5. Post-tsunami management challenges and approaches for sustainable ICM

A major challenge in the post-tsunami rehabilitation process was how to avoid a knee-jerk reaction and control the investor-led need for rapid, uncontrolled redevelopment (Teerakul and Renshaw, 2005). As detailed in Section 3, pre-existing forms of coastal development were generally unplanned and often inefficient, inequitable and unsustainable, pushing the poor into the most unhealthy and hazardous corners of the coast (UNEP/GPA, 2005). The need to undertake some kind of coastal management planning process within the post-tsunami rehabilitation effort was widely acknowledged throughout the region in light of the significant potential long-term benefits afforded by an integrated and interdisciplinary approach. The goals of an integrated approach to coastal planning and management are to:

• minimize possible future tsunami and other coastal hazard impacts;
• maximize coastal resource use in a sustainable manner; and
• improve the living conditions of the coastal inhabitants.

There are numerous well-known examples in the Asia–Pacific region of long-term ICM programmes and extensive analysis of the factors that lead to and enhance the effectiveness of these programmes, as well as the barriers to their success. Case studies are outlined in several texts, for example the Coastal Zone Asia Pacific (CZAP) conference series, (2002; 2006) and recent evaluative research carried out in the Philippines and Indonesia (Pollnac et al., 2005; Christie et al., 2005; White et al., 2005; Sievanen et al., 2005; Lowry et al., 2005; Pomerey et al., 2005; Patlis et al., 2005). This research has demonstrated that participative, rewarding ICM processes, conducted in a supportive legal–institutional context, are capable of improving environmental conditions while maintaining services to society (Christie et al., 2005). This work suggests that there is a need for:

“A renewed, and expanded, long-term commitment to ICM, and other forms of long-term planning and environmental management which will require careful implementation by cooperative efforts of national governments, NGOs, and civil society who have growing experience with ICM.”

The study by Christie et al. (2005) provided an overview of important considerations towards the improvement of ICM project design with a view to fostering long-term sustainability (summarized in Table 8).

Table 8. Examples of strategies to improve ICZM project design to foster sustainability (adapted from Christie et al., 2005)

Table 8 suggests that successful, sustainable ICM in the wake of the Indian Ocean tsunami should strive to:

• Highlight the importance of the participatory management processes, specifically those based at a community level over a long-term perspective (Pollnac et al., 2005). Chang et al. (2006) found that there was considerable variation in the performance of local conservation efforts across villages. Performance appeared to be influenced by the design of external aid programmes, with higher levels of performance attributed to bottom-up programmes. In this respect, practitioners involved in coastal management should view the disaster as providing a window of opportunity to enable and build relationships with local people that allows them to become active participants in the process.
• Share the benefits from ICM within and between constituency groups with specific reference to potentially contentious relations between different groups (Thiele et al., 2005; Sievanen et al., 2005). Pollnac and Pomeroy (2005) found that early involvement and participation in ICM are influenced by initial project benefits and perceptions of benefits. This involvement enhances the chances that the ultimate benefits will be those desired by the target population. Achievement of these benefits also stimulates continuing involvement in the activities, sustaining the ICM process. Their findings indicate that both community involvement and achievement of desired benefits will be necessary to impact ICM sustainability in the post-tsunami era (Christie et al., 2005).
• Carry out evaluative and adaptive processes to ensure that ICM projects result in tangible benefits to the stakeholders involved (Olsen and Christie, 2000).
• Monitor, which is a significant predictor of ICM sustainability. Pollnac (2004) provides quantitative evidence that community monitoring is one of the principal predictors of both compliance and biological success of community-based no-take areas in Visayas, the Philippines.

While the aforementioned objectives provide a sound framework for the long-term sustainability of ICM projects in the region, there were a number of barriers to effective employment of ICM principles in the immediate aftermath of the tsunami. Reasons for this included the following (updated from Kay, 2005):

• Pressure to rebuild tsunami-affected areas as quickly as possible — both to re-house local people and to encourage tourists to return.
• There were often competing donor agendas to promote rapid redevelopment on the one hand, while promoting sustainable development on the other (combined with the sheer complexity and scale of the international relief effort).
• There was the perception that CZM is about ecosystem management and not about land-use planning, tourism management, hazard management, urban development or sustainable livelihood promotion.
• There were difficulties faced by donors and national governments in obtaining international CZM expertise quickly and effectively.
• The procurement processes faced by tsunami-affected countries are tied to many different needs and systems of releasing funds by donors.
• There were problems with engaging with local-level coastal managers charged with making on-the-ground land-use planning decisions.

Requirements for quick action resulted, in many instances, in duplication and overlap of resources and effort (Khazi et al., 2006). While the rebuilding process has strived to avoid needlessly repeating the mistakes of the past, uncoordinated initiatives have meant that rehabilitation and reconstruction in areas affected by the tsunami were not always economically or environmentally sound (FAO, 2005). This was due, in large part, to the immediate needs of post-tsunami reconstruction that resulted in restoration and rehabilitation activities guided by short-term planning perspectives (UNDP/IUCN, 2006). Currently, many of these short-sighted projects remain incomplete, unfinished or have failed to achieve their intended impact (UNDP/IUCN, 2006).

It is important to recognize the trade-off between the need for rapid inputs to restore livelihoods in communities affected by the tsunami versus good governance and sustainable management (UNESCO, 2005). In some instances, the lack of good governance that builds on supporting institutions and policies has hindered recovery and even resulted in a return to some of the undesirable pre-tsunami situations. That said, it is also necessary to acknowledge that economic development has been, and still remains, an important component of the coastal zone.

The potential impacts of unplanned coastal development may only be mitigated through established democratic and mature legislative processes. In the absence, or poor functioning, of these legislative processes it is inevitable that there will be wide variations in management outcomes. These are clearly sensitive issues which are known by practitioners but not widely discussed.

Almost two years after the disaster there is still a large percentage of regional coastal populations that is highly vulnerable and ill-equipped to deal with future disasters (UNDP/IUCN, 2006). The critical factor in this context is that ICM-planning strategies are designed to be long-term proactive approaches, and that in the face of sudden catastrophic disasters their ability to respond rapidly to such events is problematic. Fundamentally, because they are long-term processes, they thus take a long time to develop, with consensus building among the key stakeholder communities proving to be a painstaking process. While clearly valid for the long term, ICM processes require modification to cope with the requirement for immediate responses on short time frames resulting from sudden events.

Kay (2005), in reflecting on the role of ICM/CZM to date in tsunami response stated:

“By-and-large the potential central role of CZM in the regional tsunami response has not eventuated. This is not to say that CZM won’t play a critical role in long-term recovery efforts – it is that the potentially integrative role that CZM could have played has not occurred. Rather, the response and recovery efforts have used mainstream disaster management approaches. The tsunami appears to have been viewed as a disaster that occurred on the coast, rather than a critical CZM issue that was a disaster.”

The fundamental question then is: Are the underlying principles of ICM at fault here? In response to this question, Professor Wong, in an eloquent summary of ICM effectiveness as of late 2005 wrote:

“… if integration in CZM is to be carried out in the post-tsunami phase, it must first be an integration of livelihood restoration and habitat restoration. This would require a paradigm change or a change in the mindset of those implementing CZM. Too many of the principles expounded in various post-tsunami recovery programs may not offer practical solutions. To start, there should be a list of immediate tasks with which local communities can become involved, both to earn a livelihood and at the same time to restore coastal habitats. These are challenging tasks for coastal managers in the affected areas and they need to understand the fundamental change in CZM wrought by the 26 December 2004 event. At the very least, tropical CZM in the post-tsunami phase will never be the same.”(Wong, 2005)

The author agrees with Professor Wong’s assessment. ICM must be adapted to both manage the long-term response of the tsunami-affected coastlines and also to be able to deal more effectively with future coastal disasters.

Examples following the Asian tsunami illustrated the complete absence of methodologies and the outstanding need to formulate a potential disaster coastal response action plan. This highlighted the imperative for quick and robust ICM tools and techniques which are accepted as an approach by governments and donors alike. In this context, recent collaboration among national, provincial and local emergency management agencies and local communities under the USAID-funded US Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System (IOTWS) Program, has led to the development of the concept of Coastal Community Resilience (CCR) (USAID, 2006)(Figure 3).

Figure 3. The Coastal Community Resilience Process (White, 2006)

CCR promotes tsunami and other hazard readiness through better and more consistent tsunami awareness and mitigation efforts among communities at risk. The main goal is to improve public safety during tsunami emergencies and to build resilience against recurring coastal events (USAID, 2006). To meet this goal, the following objectives need to be met:

• Create minimum standard guidelines for a community to follow to become tsunami resilient.
• Encourage consistency in educational materials and response among communities and national emergency systems.
• Recognize communities that have adopted CCR guidelines.
• Increase public awareness and understanding of tsunamis and other hazards.
• Improve community pre-planning for tsunami and other disaster impacts (USAID, 2006).

The concept of CCR blends elements of disaster management and ICM

(Figure 4). It provides a promising framework that has been tested through local scale workshops and bodes well for future efforts to minimize social disruption and mitigate the effects of events and impacts.

Figure 4. Integrating disaster management and ICM frameworks through CCR
(Tobey, 2006)

While CCR is relevant to ICM, it should not be viewed as a replacement. Rather, CCR appears to be a useful component to be adopted into a broader ICM framework — i.e. protecting against and preparing for coastal disasters is one component of the holistic planning process. Indeed, the CCR concept may become the conduit through which to address integration shortfalls that have occurred to date in the ICM response to the tsunami as outlined in the next section.

6. Key findings and lessons learned relevant to post-tsunami reconstruction

The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami has brought into sharp relief the challenges faced by those responsible for managing Indian Ocean coasts and has highlighted the need for improved and more systematic coastal management efforts. The lack of, or poor implementation or adherence to, policy and legislative frameworks that support coastal area management within the region have contributed to the unplanned development of coastal zones and the suite of problems with which it is associated. Impacts of the tsunami served to compound and exacerbate many of these pre-existing problems. Damage was reduced in areas with healthy coral reefs, mangrove forests, and coastal vegetation (Chang et al., in press). Likewise, had designated set-back areas been enforced along the coastal zone it is likely that the mortality rate of marginalized fisherfolk and their families throughout the region would have been significantly reduced. Although it is important to stress that while this is both intuitively correct and supported by anecdotal evidence, rigorous examination of this issue is still ongoing and remains a matter for debate.

Equitable and sustainable reconstruction efforts have been an important focus of the post-tsunami response. However, effective ICM requires long-term planning and implementation adherence. This may only be achieved through setting realistic objectives and time frames for implementation and working steadily toward that goal. In this context, it is evident that the aftermath of a disaster is not the appropriate time to attempt to use traditional ICM approaches alone, owing to their reliance on long-term consensus building, generally through community-driven participatory techniques. The CCR approach, by contrast, combines ICZM philosophies with contingency planning for the next disaster.

In the aftermath of the Indian Ocean tsunami, it has become clear that we must ensure that the long-term sustainable goals of ICM do not become compromised by short-term responses. Although efforts to rebuild and reconstruct have been well-intentioned, there is still a large percentage of regional coastal populations that is highly vulnerable and ill-equipped to deal with future disasters. In this climate, the marriage of coastal disaster response plans, CCR principles and traditional ICM tools and techniques may represent the way forward towards a holistic planning process. This will protect against and prepare for future coastal disasters, while at the same time add considerable benefit to sustainable responses to the 2004 tsunami disaster.

Acknowledgements

Aiblhe Travers (Senior Consultant, Coastal Zone Management Pty Ltd) is thanked for her contribution to this paper. FAO is gratefully acknowledged for its funding support and foresight in convening this workshop. Peer reviews are thanked for their supportive comments on earlier drafts of this paper.

Bibliography

AusAid. 2005. N.E. Indian Ocean earthquake/tsunami-affected area. http://www.ausaid.gov.au/ (accessed 13 February 2005).

Baird, A. 2006. Tsunami viewpoint: the myth of green belts. Samudra, 44: 14–19.

Cicin-Sain, B. & R.W. Knecht. 1998. Integrated coastal zone and ocean management concepts and practices. Washington DC, Island Press.

Chang, S.E., Adams, B.J., Alder, J., Berke, P.R., Chuenpagdee, R., Ghosh, S. & C Wabnitz. (in press). Coastal ecosystems and tsunami protection. Report to the National Science Foundation of the USA.

Christie, P., Lowry, K., White, A.T., Oracion, E.G., Sievenen, L., Pomeroy, R.S., Pollnac, R.B., Patlis, J.M. & R.V. Eisma. 2005. Key findings from a multidisciplinary examination of integrated coastal management process sustainability. Ocean and Coastal Management, 48: 408–483.

Clark, J.R. 1992. Integrated management of coastal zones. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 327. Rome, FAO. 167 pp.

Coastal CRC. 2006.� Cooperative research centre for coastal zone, estuary and waterway management. Local Government Authority Information Factsheets, Australia. http://www.coastal.crc.org.au/lg/index.html

CZAP. 2002. Improving the state of the coastal areas. In: Coastal zone Asia Pacific conference, Bangkok, Thailand, 11–17 May. Thailand Coastal Development Institute.

Dahdouh-Guebas, F., Jayatissa, L.P., Di Nitto, D., Bosire, J.O., Lo Seen, D. & N. Koedam. 2005. How effective were mangroves as a defence against the recent tsunami? Current Biology, 15(12): R443–R447.

Chuenpagdee, R. & D. Pauly. 2004. Improving the state of coastal areas in the Asia Pacific region. Coastal Management, 32: 3–15.

Eisma, R.V., Christie, P. & M.J. Hershman. 2005. Legal issues affecting sustainability of ICM in the Philippines. Ocean and Coastal Management.

FAO. 1996. Environmental changes in the Maldives: current issues for management. (Mohamed Khaleel & Simad Saeed, Ministry of Planning Human Resources and Environment, Ghazee Building Malé, Republic of Maldives). http://www.fao.org/docrep/X5623E/x5623e0r.htm

FAO. 2005. Building back better livelihoods in tsunami-affected countries. http://ftp.fao.org/FI/DOCUMENT/tsunamis_05/FAO_guiding/FAOBriefSpecialEnvoy130505.pdf

Government of Maldives. 2005. Situation assessment. http://www.visitmaldives.com.mv/mu/latest/update_situation_assessment.php

GESAMP. 1996. The contributions of science to integrated coastal management.

Gupta, M. & Fletcher, S. 2001. The application of a proposed generic institutional framework for integrated coastal management to India. Ocean and Coastal Management, 44, 757–786.

IUCN. 2002. Regional technical assistance for coastal and marine resources management and poverty reduction in South Asian. Situation Analysis Report, ADB RETA 5974. Malé, Asian Development Bank.

IUCN. 2005. Rapid environmental and socio-economic assessment of tsunami-damage in terrestrial and marine coastal ecosystems of Ampara and Batticaloa districts of Eastern Sri Lanka http://www.iucn.org/tsunami/docs/rapid-ass-easte-sri-lanka.pdf

Inderfurth, K.F., Fabrycky, D. & S. Cohen. 2005. The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami: one year report, December 2005. New York, The Sigur Center for Asian Studies.

Janssen, R. & J.E. Padilla. 1999. Preservation or conversion? Valuation and evaluation of a mangrove forest in the Philippines. Environmental and Resource Economics, 14(3): 297–321.

Jeppesen, G. 2004. Overview of the integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) project. Sabah, Malaysia, DANCED ICZM project.

Kay, R.C. & J. Alder, J. 2005. Coastal planning and management. London, E&F Spon. 380 pp.

Khazai, B., Franco, G., Ingram, J.C., Rumbaitis del Rio, C., Dias, P., Dissanayake, R., Chandratilake, R. & S.J. Kanna. 2006. Post-December 2004 tsunami reconstruction in Sri Lanka and its potential impacts on future vulnerability. Earthquake Spectra, 22: S3, S829–S844.

Lowry, K., White, A.T. & C.A. Courtney. 2005. National and local agency roles in integrated coastal management activities in the Philippines. Ocean and Coastal Management, 48: 203–26.

Lowry, K. 1989. Issues in designing a coastal management program. In: T.E. Chua & D. Pauly, eds. Coastal area management in Southeast Asia, policies, management strategies and case studies, pp. 191–204. ICLARM conference proceedings, 19. Kuala Lumpur, Ministry of Science, Technology and the Environment; Johore Bahru, Malaysia, Johor State Economic Planning Unit; Manila, Philippines, International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management. 254 pp.

UNDP/IUCN. 2006. Mangroves for the Future: A strategy for promoting investment in coastal ecosystem conservation, 2007-2012.

Mokhtar, M.B. & S.A.G. Aziz. 2003. Integrated coastal zone management using the ecosystem approach: some perspectives in Malaysia. Ocean & Coastal Management, 46: 407–419.

Mumby, P.J., Edwards, A.J., Arias-Gonzales, E.E., Lindeman, K.C., Blackwell, P.G., Gall, A., Gorczynska, M.I., Harbourne, A.R., Pescod, C.L., Renken, H., Wabnitz, C.C.C. & G. Llewellyn. 2004. Mangroves enhance the biomass of coral reef fish communities in the Caribbean. Nature, 427 (6974): 533–6.

Murphy, P.J. 2004. Mangroves enhance the biomass of coral reef fish communities in the Caribbean. Nature, 427: 6974, 533.

Olsen, S.B. & P. Christie. 2000. What are we learning from tropical coastal management experiences? Coastal Management, 28: 5–18.

Ong, Jin Eong. 2006. Pre- and post-tsunami coastal planning and land use policies and issues in Malaysia. This volume.

Oracion, E.G., Miller, M.L. & P. Christie. 2005. Marine protected areas for whom? Fisheries, tourism, and solidarity in a Philippine community. Ocean and Coastal Management.

Patlis, J.M. Undated. The role of law and legal institutions in determining the sustainability of integrated coastal management projects in Indonesia. Ocean and Coastal Management.

Phillips, M. & A. Budhiman. 2005. An assessment of the impacts of the 26^th December 2004 earthquake and tsunami on aquaculture in the provinces of Aceh and North Sumatra, Indonesia. FAO.

Pomeroy, R.S., Oracion, E.G., Pollnac. R.B. & D.A. Caballes. Undated. Perceived economic factors influencing the sustainability of integrated coastal management projects in the Philippines. Ocean and Coastal Management.

Pollnac, R.B. & R. Pomeroy. Undated. Factors influencing the sustainability of integrated coastal management projects in the Philippines and Indonesia. Ocean and Coastal Management.

Pollnac, R.B. 2004. Multimethod analysis of factors contributing to the sustainability of community based marine protected (no-take) areas in the Philippines. Paper presentation at American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) annual meeting. Seattle, 2004.

Ramachandran, S. 1999. Coastal zone management in India problems, practice and requirements. In: W. Salomons, R.K. Turner & L.D. de Lacuda, eds. Perspectives on integrated coastal zone management. First edition. New York, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer.

Ranade, V. 2005. Tsunami recovery in India: reviving the economic chain. http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/NEWS/0,,contentMDK:20751221~pagePK:64257043~piPK:437376~theSitePK:4607,00.htm

Rutinbeek, H.J. 1991. Mangrove management: an economic analysis of management option with a focus on Bintuni Bay, Iran Jaya, Jakart., Government of Indonesia, Dalhousie University.

Rutinbeek, H.J. 1994. Modelling economy-ecological linkages in mangroves: economic evidence for promoting conservation in Bintuni Bay, Indonesia. Ecological Economics, 10: 233–47.

Samarakoon, J. 2005. Initiatives and practices in integrated coastal zone management in Sri Lanka: country status paper. Dhaka, Program Development Office for Integrated Coastal Management Plan, (PDO-ICZMP).

Sievanen, L., Pollnac, R.B., Lowe, C. & B. Crawford. Undated. Weeding through assumptions of livelihood approaches in ICM: eucheuma farming in the Philippines and Indonesia. Ocean and Coastal Management.

Siry, H.Y. 2006. Decentralised coastal zone management in Malaysia and Indonesia: A comparative perspective. Coastal Management, 34: 267–285.

Sridhar, A., Arthur, R., Goenka, D., Jairaj, B., Mohan, T., Rodriguez, S. & K. Shanker. 2006. Review of the Swaminathan committee report on the CRZ notification. New Delhi, UNDP.

Synolakis, C. 2002. Tsunami and seiche. In: W.-F. Chen & C. Scawthorn, eds. Earthquake engineering handbook, pp. 9-1–9-90. Boca Raton, FL, CRC Press.

Southeast Asia Fisheries Development Center. 2005. Tsunami impact on fisheries and aquaculture in Indonesia. January 18, 2005.

Sorensen, J. 2002. Baseline 2000 background report: second iteration. Boston, Urban Harbours Institute, University of Massachusetts.

Srinivas, H. 2006. The Indian Ocean tsunami and its environmental impacts. Available from: http://www.gdrc.org/uem/disasters/disenvi/tsunami.html [5th September, 2006]

Teerakul, B. & I. Renshaw. 2005. Draft comments: December 2004 tsunami event, Thailand. Wetlands International – Thailand Office.

Thampanva, U. 2006. Coastal erosion and mangrove propagation in Southern Thailand. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 68(2): 75–85.

Thiele, M., Pollnac, R.B. & P. Christie. Undated. Relationships between coastal tourism and ICM sustainability in the Central Visayas region of the Philippines. Ocean and Coastal Management.

Tobey, J. & P. Rubinoff. 2006. Tools to assess the resilience of coastal communities. Presentation to the Coastal Zone Asia-Pacific Conference, Batam, Indonesia, 29 August to 1 September.

Tulungen, J., Kussoy, P. & B.R. Crawford. 1998. Community-based coastal resources management in Indonesia: North Sulawesi early stage experiences. Convention of Integrated Coastal Management Practitioners in the Philippines, 10–12 November, Grand Men Seng Hotel, Davao City, Philippines, 1998.

UNEP. 1995. Guidelines for integrated management of coastal and marine areas. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 161. 80 pp.

UNEP. 2005. After the tsunami: rapid environmental assessment. February 2005, http://www.unep.org/tsunami/tsunami_rpt.asp

UNESCO. 2005. The tsunami disaster and disaster preparedness one year later. Summary prepared by Stefano Belfiore, Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, UNESCO.

UNEP/GPA. 2005. After the tsunami: rapid environmental assessment. http://www.unep.org/tsunami/reports/TSUNAMI_report_complete.pdf#search=%22UNEP%2FGPA%2C%202005%20tsunami%20%22

UNOSAT. Satellite imagery for all. http://unosat.web.cern.ch/unosat/asp/charter.asp?id=55

USAID. 2006. Coastal Community Resilience (CCR). Fact sheet available from: http://www.iotws.org/ev_en.php?ID=2142_201&ID2=DO_TOPIC

Wetlands International. 2005. Assessment report to Ramsar STRP12. Natural mitigation of natural disasters. Cited 15 June 2005. Available at http://www.wetlands.org/tsunami/

White, A.T. 2006. Coastal community resilience through integrated coastal management. Presentation to the Coastal Zone Asia–Pacific Conference, Batam, Indonesia, 29 August to 1 September.

Wijetunge, J. 2005. Living with tsunami: future directions for coastal land use. Article extracted from Island Newspaper, 25 January 2005.

White, A.T., Christie, P., Agnes, H.D., Lowry, K. & N. Milne. 2005. Designing ICM projects for sustainability: lessons from the Philippines and Indonesia. Ocean and Coastal Management 48. (Pre-publication draft, 23 pp.)

World Health Organization. 2005. Situation report 13. http://www.who.int/hac/crises/international/asia_tsunami/sitrep/13/en/World Tourism Barometre, 2005 “International Tourist Arrivals by Country of Destination (Table),” 3, No. 3 (October 2005): 15.

¹ Coastal Zone Management, Pty Ltd, Australia.