6 Gender division of labour in agriculture
Smetsers, M.
Gender and agrarian change in Senegal: cooperation and conflict.
In: Agrarian Questions: the politics of farming anno 1995: Proceedings, edited by the Agrarian Questions Organising Committee, Wageningen, Volume IV, pp 1559-1574, Wageningen Agricultural University, the Netherlands.
1995
Bryceson, D.F.
African women hoe cultivators: speculative origins and current enigmas.
In: Bryceson, D.F.(ed), Women wielding the hoe; lessons from rural Africa for feminist theory and development practice; pp 282; Berg Oxford UK; pp 3-22
1995
Sperling, L.; Berkowitz, P.
Partners in selection: bean breeders and women bean experts in Rwanda.
Consultative Group on international Agricultural Research (CGIAR); Washington USA, pp
24
1994
AB: This study is based on collaborative work carried out by the Centro Internacional de Agricultural Tropical (CIAT) and the Institut des Sciences Agronomiques du Rwanda. It is the first of two cases illustrating the impact of and approaches to including women's knowledge and interests in agricultural research. In this case, the farmer experts are women who are responsible for most of the bean production in Rwanda. The case illustrates that locally sensitive approaches, respect and careful listening have high payoffs in the delivery and adoption of a set of high performing varieties flitting location-specific microniches and meeting the needs of smallholder bean producers in Rwanda. Despite the war in Rwanda, years of collaborating with the farmers has taught researchers the principles which make the seed relief efforts possible. Germplasm needs to be targeted to specific agriculture zones; multiple varieties encourage stable and reliable production; and skilled farmers need options with which to shape a productive future. Given the correct tools, and appropriate genetic material, skilled Rwandan farmers will start to rebuild their agricultural economy.
Key words: beans; plant breeding; research; participation; women; gender relations; indigenous knowledge; plant genetic resources; Rwanda
Tisch, Sol.; Paris, T.R
Labor Substitution in Philippine Rice Farming Systems: An Analysis of Gender Work Roles
In: Rural Sociology; 1994, 59, 3, fall, pp 497-514
1994
AB: Technology use is likely to be less labor-constrained K the work roles of men 8 women are flexible. Labor substitution between farming husbands 8 wives then occurs in response to economic pressures rather than being restricted by predetermined gender roles. Here, survey data from 79 households in 4 villages are drawn on to explore the effect of rice technology adoption on gendered work roles of husbands & wives in 2 rice ecosystems in the Philippines. Results indicate that work roles are more fluid than suspected, & labor substitution occurs between husbands & wives in response to economic opportunities. The adoption of the labor-saving direct-seeded rice technique releases wives' labor on partially-irrigated rice farms more than on rainfed rice farms. 3 Tables, 25 References. Adapted from the source document. (Copyright 1995, Sociological Abstracts, Inc., all rights reserved.)
Key words: Philippines; Spouses; Agricultural Technology; Sexual Division of Labor;
Lund, R.; Panda, S.M.
The role of gender in the quest for sustainable agricultural development.
In: Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift; 48; 3; pp 113-122;
1994
AB: This paper sets an agenda for creating both sustainable livelihoods and sustainable agricultural systems which benefit both genders. The contribution women make to agriculture in the Third World is discussed, and two case studies concerning gender roles in subsistence and rainfed agriculture are presented to highlight the impact of natural resource use on gender. The two studies, one on the role of women in shifting cultivation in the Koraput district of India, and the other in permanent paddy cultivation in the dry zone of Sri Lanka, provide an insight into the ways in which traditional farming communities have responded to changing economic, social, and physical structures, and how this has affected their sustainable livelihoods. It concludes that the political economy of sustainable agriculture must entail a gender perspective, gender sensitive policies and practices. This, it is suggested, is because biologically women have a closer affinity with the natural environment than do men. The case studies indicate how, under changed conditions, (such as the introduction of a market economy, population growth) there is a renegotiation of gender roles and gender based divisions of labour.
Key words: dry farming subsistence farming; shifting cultivation; case studies; natural resources; female labour; farming systems; environment; sustainability; rural development; Sri Lanka; India
Varma, S.K.; Sinha, B.P.
Inter - gender sharing of drudgery in cultivation of major crops.
In: Indian journal of extension education 27(1991)1/2 pp 18-23
1991
Key words: influence of technological development; agricultural labour; agriculture; wheat, rice; women; India
Kaur, M.; Sharma, M.L.; Darque, M.B. (ed); Gasson, R.(ed)
Role of women in rural development.
In: Women in agriculture. A selection of papers presented at a workshop at the World Congress for Rural Sociology held in Bologna, Italy, in July 1988. Journal of Rural Studies. 1991, 7: 1-2, 11-16; Part l: Women's work and transformations in agricultural production, BLDSC.
1991
AB: Indian women, and rural women in particular, play many social and economic roles inside as well as outside the home, but their contribution does not receive due recognition. They have been excluded from the various training and rural development programmes which usually involve the menfolk, being offered only programmes related to child health, nutrition, etc. This can be attributed to the planners' neglect of the contributions and potential of women. The paper examines the participation of rural women in home and farm activities in the state of Haryana, India. It indicates the invisibility of the majority of women, who act as unpaid workers on the family farm Care of livestock is a female domain but as dairy work is becoming modernized, women are losing control of both management and economic returns. Training of women in animal husbandry is found to be totally neglected. The level of improved household technology, too, is very unsatisfactory, especially in backward regions where the majority of women are still working with age-old tools. Over half the respondents had no leisure time. The paper suggests a number of measures to help rural women, whose working day is often considerably longer than that of men.
Key words: Rural women; Women; female labour; family farms; rural development; Developing Countries; South Asia; India; Haryana
Jacoby, H.G.
Productivity of men and women and the sexual division of labor in peasant agriculture of the Peruvian Sierra.
In: Journal of Development Economics. 1991, 37: 1-2, pp 265-287
1991
AB: Both men and women represent important sources of labour in Peru's rural economy but each have distinct and separate roles. This paper estimates the productivity of men and women in the peasant agriculture of the Peruvian Sierra, using recent household survey data. A sexual division of labour on the farm implies that male and female labour are not perfectly substitutable. Evidence is found for female specialization in livestock production. A translog production function reveals that the use of animal traction and land affect the marginal productivity of male and female labour differently, suggesting that the two types of labour cannot be aggregated. Overall, adult male labour is found to contribute more to farm output at the margin than adult female labour, though the extent of the difference is sensitive to how farm output and the labour inputs are measured.
Key words: Female labour, Men; Livestock farming; Peasant farming labour productivity; division of labour; sexual roles; productivity; rural development; Latin America; Developing Countries; South America; Peru
Harry, I.S.; Thorpe, T.A.
Agriculture in Trinidad: A Comparison of Male and Female Participants
In: Social and Economic Studies; 1990, 39, 2, June, pp 79-103
1990
AB: Gender differences in labor contributions to agriculture in Trinidad are investigated, based on questionnaires administered to 130 Trinidad households measuring 184 agriculture 8 work-related variables. Most farmers originated from the East Indies. Though both husbands & wives had similar social & economic backgrounds men tended to be older & have more education. Farm land was owned by both spouses 8 both shared the responsibility for major & minor crops; however, overall responsibility for the family farm 8 crop selection tended to be the task of the husband. Men 8 women worked similar hours during the day 8 similar numbers of days in both slow 8 busy times, but women spent more time caring for animals, while men dominated sugar cane production. In households in which husbands had off-farm employment, women assumed the responsibility for daily care 8 maintenance of plants & animals. 6 Tables, 3 Figures, 16 References. D. Generoli (Copyright 1991, Sociological Abstracts, Inc., all rights reserved.)
Key words: Trinidad And Tobago; Sex Differences; Agricultural Production; Farmers; Working Women; Womens Roles
Hakangard, A.
Women in shifting cultivation, Luang Prabang Province, Lao PDR
Report Development Study Unit, Department of Social Anthropology, University of Stockholm; No. 18; pp 29
1990
AB: The report presents the findings of a consultancy in Luang Prabang Province, Lao, concerning women's roles and the significance of gender in farming systems based on had, shifting cultivation. Data were collected from 8 villages in May/June 1990 on living conditions, employment and productive activities of women; on women's uses of the forest and forest products; and on the role of the forest in women's contribution to family, economic and social life. Women are the primary collectors of fuel and food for home consumption. Because of their traditional reliance on forestry resources, women are often major repositories of essential knowledge concerning the range of forest products available in their area, the seasonality of product availability and the uses of such products. Their food base has become less varied as the habitat for many game and plant species has been destroyed by increased forest clearing. Women's general health status is low. They go through many childbirths and they know nothing about birth control. Child mortality is unacceptably high (33%) and women and children do not get the medical attention they need. Women's working tasks are manifold and their working-days are long. Most women do not think about the future and have difficulty in seeing what to do to change their living conditions. The women have very few choices. Their activities revolve only around the subsistence needs of the household, most particularly food production.
Key words: Female labour; shifting cultivation; women; roles; forest products; subsistence; rural development; South East Asia; Developing Countries; Lao
Diokno, G.R.
Participation of upland women: a determinant in the success of forestry programs
In: Vergara, N.P.; Fernandez, R.A. (eds), Social forestry in Asia: factors that influence program implementation; SEARCA; College, Laguna (Philippines); pp 135-153
1989
Key words: Philippines; forestry development; role of women; clearing; planting; weeding; harvesting;
Storm-Furru, I.; Vandsemb, B.H.
Agricultural intensification in the dry zone of Sri Lanka. Impacts on farming practices, welfare and women's work
In: Norsk Geografisk Tidsshrift (Norway); Norwegian Journal of Geography (Norway); 1989; vol 43(2) pp 55-65; Trondheim Universitet, Dragvoll (Norway). Geografisk Inst.
1989
Key words: Sri Lanka; land use; intensification; small scale farming; farming systems; shifting cultivation; role of women; households; monsoon climate; labour, social welfare
Fernandez, M.E.; Fernandez, M. (eds)
The technical role of women in livestock farming.
Original title: El dominio technologico de la muter en la ganaderia.
In: El trabajo familiar y el rol de la mujer en la ganaderia en comunidades alto-andinas de produccion mixta. Serie Comunidades Reporte Tecnico, Instituto Nacional de Investigacion y Promocion Agropecuario. 1989, No. 101, pp 11-21, Lima; Peru
1989
AB: It is generally recognized that, in rural communities, there exists a definite division of labour between the sexes which implies that men and women must possess the necessary technical know-how and ability to manage their area of responsibility. In the Andes region of Peru women are responsible for cattle and other stockbreeding. The article offers a study of the organization of rural communities in the Upper Andes, using Aramachay as an example, and examines the responsibilities faced by women there. Amongst the conclusions reached it is suggested that extension agents should recognize the division of labour that exists so as to ensure that, when making contact with a rural community, they speak to the right group rather than automatically addressing the male members.
Key words: Mountain areas; Women; Division of labour; sexual roles; livestock farming; rural development; Peru
Von Braun, J.; Webb, P.J.R.
The Impact of New Crop Technology on the Agricultural Division of Labor in a West African Setting
In: Economic Development and Cultural Change; 1989, 37, 3, Apr. pp 513-534.
1989
AB: The introduction of centralized pump irrigation technology in rice production in the Gambia is examined, especially with regard to its impact on gender roles in farming, as part of a larger study in which villagers (N = 1,414 women & 1,395 men) were interviewed. One effect was that rice changed from a "woman's crop" grown on individual farms to a male-controlled crop produced communally. The whole organization of household, or "compound, production, as well as patterns of consumption, were transformed in the process. The relative contributions of men 8 women to domestically consumed & marketed crops are traced over this period of changing technology. As the proportion of communal agriculture increased, the woman's burden of work increased. The adaptability of Gambian farmers to new technology 8 production arrangements is noted. 9 Tables, 1 Figure. A. Waters (Copyright 1989, Sociological Abstracts, Inc., all rights reserved.)
Key words: Gambia; Agricultural Production; Womens Roles; Sexual Division of Labor; Agricultural Technology; Irrigation
Tembo, M.N.; Phiri, E.C.
The impact of modem changes in the chitemene farming system in the Northern Province of Zambia
In: Poats, S.; Schmink, M.; Spring, A. (eds.), Gender issues in farming systems research and extension; Westview Press; Boulder (USA); pp 361-372.
1988
Key words: Zambia; farming systems; shifting cultivation; division of labour; female labour; diet; food consumption;
Kaur, S.; Punia, R.K.
Work participation of women in rural households: an empirical study.
In: Guru Nanak Journal of Sociology. 1988, 9: 2, pp 51-77
1988
AB: The participation of women in home dairy and farm activities was examined using data from three districts in Haryana, one highly developed (Karnal), one moderately developed (Hisar), and one least developed (Mohindergarh). From each district, one block and from each block, two villages were selected as representative of the level of rural development of that district. Households were selected using stratified random sampling, selecting 10% households of each caste. Wife of the functional head of the household was interviewed personally on a pre-tested structured interview schedule. All the respondents (380) were found to be engaged in household chores, spending on average 8-10 hours, with most time devoted to cooking. Level of rural development, caste, per capita income, socioeconomic status and level of household technology were found to be positively and significantly related with the time spent in household chores. Women were the mayor performers of tasks related to the dairy sector and the time spent in these activities was negatively and significantly related with level of development, age of the respondent and size of land holding. About 60% of the respondents were involved in activities related to agriculture and maximum time was spent in harvesting. Paddy transplanting, winnowing and weeding emerged as female dominated activities, while women were equal partners in harvesting and threshing. Level of rural development, age, caste, size of land holding, per capita income, socioeconomic status and level of farm mechanization were found to be related negatively and significantly with participation and time spent in agriculture.
Key words: Women; Dairy farming; Female labour; agricultural manpower; family labour; Economics; labour; Cows; Dairy farms; rural development; India; Haryana
Holcombe, S.
Profiles of women agricultural producers: a tool for development planners. A Sudan example
UNlFEM-Occasional-Paper (UNIFEM).no. 7, pp 35
1988
AB: This study, part of a series documenting women's economic role in various countries, focuses on the Darfur and Kordofan regions of western Sudan. It has 3 main sections. In the first, a concise and schematic profile is made of rural women's activities in the region. The second section opens with a series of activity profiles, describing the customary division of tasks between men and women in various rural activities: millet and sorghum cultivation, household gardens, cash crop production, irrigated horticultural production, the production of gum arable, livestock maintenance, household maintenance and reproduction, various forms of home industry, and wage income. Subsequently, access to and control over resources and benefits in the agricultural systems of western Sudan are documented and the factors influencing male and female activities and the control over resources and benefits are analysed. Finally, a number of needs of female producers in the region are described. The third section includes a bibliography on women in western Sudan.
Key words: women's role; agricultural production; division of labour, resources utilization; Sudan; Darfur; Kordofan
Banzon-Bautisb, C.; Dunga, N.G.
The differential impact of farm technology on men and women: a case-study of two Philippine villages.
In: Heyzer, N. (ed), Women farmers and rural change in Asia: towards equal access and participation. Kuala Lumpur: APDC, pp418; p.257-312
This paper starts from the statement that there are very few researches on the impact of agrarian reform on farm households which mention the areas of work were women are displaced (for example transplanting and threshing). The agenda of this research is to explore the differential impact of new rice technology on men and women in two agrarian villages in theprovince of Bulacan. It focuses on technical changes in rice production, the impact of these changes ondemand of female labour and on the impact of technical changes in rice production on the social and economic conditions of farm households and on the roles of men and women in these households
Key words: agriculture; agricultural technology; crops, rice, women, Philippines
Dak, T.M.; Sharma, M.L.; Jain, R.
Social and Institutional Framework of Female Participation in Agriculture
In: Indian Journal of Social Work; 1986, 47, 3, Oct. pp 285-291.
1986
AB: Structured interview data obtained from women in 160 farm households in 4 Haryana, India, districts are used to ascertain the contribution of women in farm production activities, 8 to examine the effects of social & institutional framework on the same. The analysis shows that widespread participation of women in core as well as preparatory & supportive agriculturaI activities.. In nearly 50% of the activities considered, particularly labor participation, most women play a monopolizing or dominating role; in others, particularly decision making, they assume supportive roles. Social 8 institutional factors, particularly caste, landholding status, family education, & mechanization, exert more adverse influence on F labor participation than on their decision-making role. Interestingly, two modernizing forces-farm mechanization, & adoption of improved farm practices-affect F labor participation in the opposite direction. The findings point toward steps for promoting the dignity of manual work. 3 Tables, 4 References. Modified HA (Copyright 1988, Sociological Abstracts, Inc., all rights reserved.)
Key words: India; Decision Making; Agricultural Production; Working Women; Haryana; India;
Saunders, L. Wood; Mehenna, S.
Unseen Hands: Women's Farm Work in an Egyptian Village
In: Anthropological Quarterly; 1986, 59, 3, July, 105-114. New York
1986
AB: The ways that women's work in agriculture reflected changes in local economic conditions from the early 1960s to the late 1970s in an Egyptian Delta village are examined, based on qualitative field research data, a questionnaire survey of a random sample of village households (N not provided), & village censuses. During these years, women's participation decreased in agricultural labor 8 increased in animal husbandry, as the village economy expanded. Also at issue is the extent of rural women's participation in production, which seems to be undercounted in national statistics.. Factors suggested for women's underreporting of agricultural activity include the seasonality & occasional character of women's work in agriculture, the low prestige of women's work in cultivation, & the inclusion of cultivation as an aspect of womens' roles as wives & daughters. 2 Tables, 12 References. Modified HA (Copyright 1987, Sociological Abstracts, Inc., all rights reserved.)
Key words: Egypt; Rural Women; Working Women; Agricultural Workers; Agricultural Production
Odie-Ali, S.
Women in Agriculture: The Case of Guyana
In: Social and Economic Studies; 1986, 35, 2, June, pp 241-289.
1986
AB: An examination of women's role in farming in Guyana, based on interviews with 62 women & 10 men who worked on farms in 4 areas of Guyana. All of the women claim to contribute income toward their households, 66+% claim to have sole control over how it is spent, & all exercise great influence on short-term & middle-term management decisions. However, ownership of land 8 buildings remains with men rather than women. Women feel compelled to perform domestic tasks for their husbands, to be responsible for child care, & to pull F children out of school to help out, thus perpetuating the role of women in agriculture. These women face problems including availability of supplies, tools & equipment, support services, management, training, 8 credit. A need is seen for government policy to be developed to meet these women's needs. 5 Tables, 1 Figure, 41 References. W. H. Stoddard (Copyright 1987, Sociological Abstracts, Inc., all rights reserved.)
Key words: Guyana; Working Women; Rural Women; Agricultural Workers; Sexual Division of Labor
Whitehead, A.
The Green Revolution and women's work in the Third World.
In: Faulkner, W.; Arnold, E., Smothered by invention: technology in women's lives. London [etc.] Pluto Press, (276 p) pp 182-199
1985
Introduction of new technologies often bring changes in the work of men whilst the work of women increases.
Key words: women's work; technology; women; Third World
Fortmann, L.
Economic status and women's participation in agriculture: a Botswana case study
In: Rural sociology 1984 vol 49 (3), pp 452464
Lexington, Ky The University of Kentucky
1984
AB: Extract: Data from 358 households in 12 sites representative of climatic, geographical, and agricultural variations in the eastern communal areas of Botswana show that differences in the agricultural practices and extension contact of male- and female-headed households largely disappear when economic stratum is controlled. Female-headed households are shown not to be a homogeneous group. There appear to be greater similarities between farmers within the same economic stratum regardless of gender than between farmers of the same gender in different strata.
Key words: rural women; economic situation; economic development; heads of families; status; agricultural manpower; agricultural households; agricultural production; land ownership; labor; ploughing in lands; Botswana
Riss, M.D.
The woman's place in African rural economy: an example in Senegal, [Questions on rural development. Landscapes, rural areas, farming systems. Maghreb, Black Africa, Melanesia]
La place de la femme dans les mutations internes de l'economie curate a partir d'un example senegalais; Le developpement rural en questions. Paysages, espaces ruraux, systemes agraires. Maghreb, Afrique noire, Melanesie
In: Memoires ORSTOM; ORSTOM; Paris (France); no. 106, pp 417-431
1984
Key words: Senegal; role of women; social change; agricultural development; farm management; cultivation; rural population
Himchmann, D.; Vaughan, M.
Women farmers of Malawi: food production in the Zomba District
Research Series Institute of international Studies, University of California (USA). no. 58, 154 p
1984
AB: A study was undertaken of the economic role of women in Zomba, Malawi, showing that they have assumed increasing responsibility for agricultural production thereby becoming more dependent on cash flow and increasingly so on men and marriage, a considerably risky situation in an area with a traditionally high divorce rate. Most households investigated were primarily involved in production of food for domestic consumption. In the study almost 50% of the women took primary responsibility for all agricultural tasks so a necessary consideration for those concerned with extension and training policies should be to take particular care to direct extension services towards women. The study includes 12 case studies.
Key words: women; food production; economic aspects; agricultural products; cash flow; household; domestic consumption; agricultural extension; Malawi, Zomba
Rive Box - Lasocki, B. de la
Female participation in rice production and cassava processing in the Dominican Republic
Santiago, CENDA, pp 23
1983
Key words: farming sytems; women's work; crops; postharvest technology; agriculture; women; Dominican Republic.
