1. DEMOGRAPHIC SITUATION
India is the second most populous country in the world. With 2.4 percent of world's land area, it supports 16 percent of world's population. Inspite of being one of the first developing country to adopt the family planning programme, the population explosion continues unabated, with population equivalent to Australia's being added every year. A small ray of hope is that the growth rate of population has declined for the first time in recent years from 2.2 percent to 2.14 percent during the decade 1981-1991. However, even if the growth rate is reduced to 1.6 percent, the population might cross one billion mark by 2000 AD. The main reason for such population growth has been, "the fall in the crude death rate from 22.8 (per 1000 population) in 1951 to 10.2 in 1989, is greater than the fall from 41.7 to 30.5 in the birth rate, during the same period." (RGI of India, 1991). "The fertility rate and mortality level on the one hand and age distribution of the population on the other are such that even after attaining NRR:1 by 2000 AD, the Zero growth rate of population may be achieved only after several decades". (Ministry of Health & F.W., Annual Report 1993-94). The burgeoning population not only marginalises the achievements that the nation has made on the economic front but also does not allow the country to substantially enhance the Food and Nutrition security of the people.
2. PER CAPITA INCOME
It is extremely important for household food security in a low income country like India, that the growth rate of per capita income is substantial and its distribution among households is commensurate with prevailing disparities in incomes. However, it is imperative that there is sustained and substantive growth in the first instance, otherwise the country can neither have distributive mechanisms nor can it find resources for poverty alleviation and food security programmes. The growth in per-capita incomes in India has not been what one would have desired, although it has also not been too insignificant. Index number of the per capita Net National Product, which was 100 in 1950-51 at 1980:81 prices is estimated to have risen to 196.6 during 1992-93, thereby registering an average increase of 2.36 percent per annum. During last five year period between 1988-89 and 1992-93, the average annual growth, however, declined to 1.0 per cent. In fact, 1990-91 was a year of crisis for Indian economy, with overall economic growth declining to 1.1 percent in 1991-92. The programme of stabilisation and economic reform measures helped restore economic growth to 4 percent in 1992-93". (Economic Survey, 1993 94) In any case, these modest growth rates in per capita income or in the economy as a whole, coming as they were on an already poor base were not good enough to leave a strong impact on the food and nutritional well being of the poor households and but for the existence of extensive rural development programmes backed with a massive public distribution system, the quality of life of the poor households could not have been maintained at the existing levels. Matters were certainly helped by a quantum jump in foodgrains production in 1988-89, when it reached the level of around 170 million tonnes against around 140-143 million tonnes high of previous two years. Foodgrains production thereafter remained between 170 to 180 million tonnes during the next four years. The index of industrial production also rose from 180.9
(Base: 1980-81) in 1988-89 to 212.4 in 1991-92, registering an average annual growth rate of 4.3 per cent. (Economic Survey, 1993-94)
3. FOOD SECURITY AT MACRO LEVEL
(i) Banishment of raw hunger and starvation
Famines, the extreme form of hunger and starvation, were a regular feature in India's history, the last one being the great Bengal famine, which is known to have consumed around 3.5 million lives. At the time of independence in 1947, India started with a handicap as far as food security was concerned, with India getting 75 percent of the cereal production and 82 percent of the population of the undivided country. However, the food and agriculture policy; the PDS and employment generation programmes; the enterprise and hard work of the Indian farmers; the development of new high yielding varieties by scientists and the transfer of new agricultural technology with arrangements for supply of inputs by agricultural administrators, saw to it that India was never again ravaged by famines. The country developed the capacity to meet the challenges posed by sharp decline in harvests due to droughts and other natural calamities. The last drought of 1987, considered one of the most severe of the century, was faced with country's own food and other resources and it was ensured that foodgrains were made available in each nook and corner of the country through public distribution system and food for work programmes. No part of the country suffered from starvation, even during the worst period of drought. The country has, thus, made substantial progress in improving the food security, at least in ensuring that no household is required to face hunger and starvation.
(ii) Self Sufficiency in Cereals
The country has achieved self sufficiency as far as the requirement of cereals is concerned. The food policies, including maintenance of national buffer, have seen to it that year to year fluctuations in the production of cereals are taken care of, without any adverse impact on cereal availability and prices. Import of cereal has become an occasional affair, the last imports having been made in 1988 and 1992. Even when imports are required to be made, these constitute hardly 1.5 percent of the indigenous production. The comfortable situation, as far as availability of cereal is concerned, has been discussed in chapter IV. The requirement and availability of cereals has been determined under two scenarios. The first one uses the ICMR (1990) standards of deduction factor from production to availability for consumption and norms for daily per capita requirement and the second one uses the standards adopted by the Inter-Ministerial Working Group set up by the Ministry of Agricultural (April 1994) for the same two parameters. The data has been analysed for the triennial 1991-93; Under the first scenario, with stiffer standards, it is found that the total availability of cereal during the three years period was 369.60 million tonnes against the requirement of 389.91 million tonnes, the satisfaction ratio being about 95%. Under the second scenario, net availability of cereals has been found to be 412.79 million tonnes against the requirement of 364.38 million tonnes, giving a satisfaction ratio of 113.4%. Even if the mid-view is taken, it appears that availability of cereals during this latest biennium at the national level has been quite satisfactory.
(iii) Consumption of Cereals and Energy
The surveys conducted by the National Nutrition Monitoring Bureau (NNMB) of the National Institute of Nutrition (NIN) during the two sets of periods, 1975-79 and 1988-90, indicate that the daily per consumption unit intake of cereal has been more than recommended dietary intake of 460 gm/cu/day. It was found to be 504 gm during the first survey period and 490 gm during the second (1988-90). Even at 490 gms, the average intake of cereals is about 6.5 percent higher than RDI. The average intake of energy at 2280 kcal was, found to be slightly less than recommended 2400 kcal/cu/day (for male sedentary workers). The working group set up by the Min of Agriculture (April 1994) has, however, found that on an average, 1501 kcal of energy is. available from cereals alone. It has further been indicated that considering the availability of energy from other food stuffs, including food from animal source, the overall energy availability from all the food stuffs is 2400 kcal, against the weighted average per capita requirement of 2200 kcal for the entire population. It, therefore, appears that availability of energy also is quite satisfactory. The contradiction between adequate intake of cereals and energy on one hand and high proportion of people below poverty line as well as prevailing malnutrition on the others, has been discussed in detail in chapter 4.
(iv) Consumption of Pulses & Protein
The consumption of pulses, which is the most important source of protein in India's predominantly vegetarian society is, however, found to be less than RDI levels. The main reason for this is stagnating production of pulses and consequent decline in the per capita availability. Access to available pulses is further impaired due to their high cost. The intake of pulses between two NNMB surveys has come down from 36 gm to 32 gm/cu/day, against the ICMR norm of 40 gms/cu/day. The Working Group of Min. of Agriculture has, however, found that taking into consideration availability of protein from various food stuffs, the total per capita availability comes to 54.9 gm against the weighted average per capita requirement of 50 am. This may have happened due to substantial increase in the production of milk, eggs, mutton, fish etc. But unlike cereals, the average protein consumption at macro level does not indicate the required consumption at household levels also, as there could be over consumption of protein rich food stuffs unlike that of cereals. It is also necessary to look at Net Protein Utilization against the background of predominantly cereal based diets of Indians.
(v) Consumption of other food stuffs & nutrients
It has also been brought out from available data (Ref Chapter 9) that production, availability and consumption of other food stuffs like vegetables, milk/milk products, Fats/oils, roots/ tubers etc. is below what is nutritionally required. There has been hardly any change in the consumption of various food stuffs between 1975-79 and 1988-90, with marginal decline in pulses and slight increase in green leafy vegetables and fats/oils with substantial increase in sugar/jaggery. In case of intake of nutrients also, the situation remains more or less same between the two periods. Intake of energy, protein, iron and Thiamine remained more or less unchanged but equal to or higher than RDI levels. Vitamin 'A', Vitamin 'C' and Riboflavin remained below RDI levels and more or less unchanged except Vitamin 'A', which showed a welcome increase. The overall poor status of nutritional security thus did not show any marked sign of improvement, mainly because of burgeoning population and purchasing power of poor households not keeping pace with rising prices.
4. HOUSEHOLD FOOD SECURITY
(i) Improvement in Poverty situation
There has been a progressive decline in the prevailing poverty in India, which must have left its positive impact on household food security. The proportion of population below poverty line declined from 51.5 percent in 1972-73 to 29.4 percent in 1987-88. The decline has been observed in both rural and urban areas, although it was substantially higher (51 percent) in urban areas as compared to rural areas (38 percent). It only confirms that the problem of household food security is much more serious in rural areas, requiring special and enhanced efforts for enabling the poor households in rural areas to generate a certain minimum level of income. Large variations have been seen within states, the range being from 7.2 percent in Punjab to 44.7 percent in Orissa. The decline in poverty has, however, been noticed in all states, the credit for which, in large measure, goes to various employment generation and asset building programmes in rural development sector, existence of PDS which helps in keeping a check on prices if not fully meeting the foodgrains requirement of poor and special nutrition programmes aimed at the most vulnerable groups.
(ii) Consumption of cereals & other nutrients
NNMB surveys, though a little outdated with last repeat survey having been done during 198890, show that inspite of more than RDI level consumption of cereals at macro level, certain groups of households like no-land and agricultural labourers in rural areas and slum dwellers in urban areas are able to consume much less than the national and even state level intake of cereals. However, situation may have improved now, with substantially stepped up outlays in rural development sector and agricultural production, including food from animal sources, having gone up substantially during last few years and fresh surveys, as and when published, may demonstrate this. However, the very absence of any reports of hunger or scarcity conditions from any part of the country indicate that the household food security, at least limited to cereals or staple diets, has improved significantly. As regards consumption of pulses, other food stuffs and various nutrients, the consumption of lower per capita income households in rural areas and low income occupation groups and slum dwellers in urban area is less than the averages at macro level. Thus, while security of cereals for even poor households seems to be quite satisfactory, the nutrition security at household level is still a distant dream.
(iii) Consumer expenditure on food
The per capita monthly consumer expenditure data generated by the National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO) indicates a healthy trend of decline in expenditure on cereals. Such decline has been noticed both in urban and rural areas as also in various income groups. However, the poorest households were still earmarking around 60 to 65 percent of their monthly consumer expenditure on food items, of which 42 percent in rural areas and 25 percent in urban areas was on cereals alone. There was pronounced variation amongst states. For example, while the share of expenditure on cereals in Punjab was only 17 percent during 1972-73 and declined further to 10 percent during 1980-91, it was as high as 52 and 40 percent respectively in case of Orissa. The structure of per-capita consumer expenditure corroborates the consumption picture that emerged from the surveys or NNMB and FNB. In any case, the overall picture indicates a shift of expenditure from cereals to other items which indicates an improvement in household food security. Since no income group was found to be spending 80 percent or more on food, it can be inferred that families at risk would be an exception.
(iv) Employment and asset generation
Recognising that unemployment is the real breeding ground for poverty and as an important part of the endeavour to launch a direct attack on poverty, India has been implementing employment generation and asset building programmes since eighties. A total of 4371 million mandays of work has been created since its inception till 1990-91 under programmes like National Rural Employment Programme, Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme and Jawahar Rojgar Yojna which would have provided 43 million poor households with at least 100 days of food security in a year. A new scheme, the Employment Assurance Scheme, has been started in 1750 Blocks covered by Revamped PDS to guarantee employment during lean agricultural season. The asset building programme, Integrated Rural Development Programme, has assisted another 42 Million families since its inception in 1980-81 and notwithstanding the inherent problem in transformation of a poor family into an entrepreneur-manager, quite a few of these families must have permanently come out of poverty zone and substantially improved their access to food and nutrition.
(v) Public Distribution System
This biggest grain distribution programme in the world, though it still suffers from non-targeting to poor and allowing some benefits to be used by non poor, has contributed substantially to assuring food security to trillions of households, especially during periods of stress. The programme has recently been revamped in 1750 Blocks, covering poor and disadvantaged tribal, hilly, drought prone and decertified areas. It is expected that with such revamping, no household will be left uncovered, monthly entitlement of rations will go up, they would get foodgrains at prices even lower than normal PDS and consequently the food security of households living in these poor areas will improve. The next step, strongly recommended by the author in a study report presented to the Minister, Civil Supplies, Consumer Affairs and Public Distribution in Sept. 1993, is to keep only poor households under the converge of PDS to make it a sharper instrument of household food security.
(vi) Direct attack on malnutrition
It is also necessary to launch a direct attack on malnutrition by providing supplementary nutrition to vulnerable groups like children up to 6 years of age, expectant and nursing mothers. Of the many important programmes in this area discussed in detail in Chapter VIII, the Integrated Child Development Services Programme is the most important and biggest and seeks to provide a package of integrated services consisting of supplementary nutrition, health check up and educational services to children up to six years and expectant/nursing mothers. The programme now includes 3066 projects with 19.5 million children and mothers receiving supplementary nutrition. An evaluation of the programme has revealed that in ICDS areas IMR, immunisation coverage, Vit 'A' prophylaxis programme, the nutritional status of children and percentage of low birth weight children was significantly better than other areas. The programme, therefore, appears to be contributing significantly to food and nutrition well being of the poorer household, although there are many areas where the programme needs to be improved. The other programmes like Special Nutrition Programme, Balwadi Nutrition Programme, Creches for Children of working and ailing women, Wheat based nutritional programme, World Food Programme, CARE assisted nutrition programme, Tamil-nadu Integrated Nutrition Project etc. are all attempting to directly intervene and improve the food and nutritional status of the vulnerable categories in poor households.
5. HEALTH AND NUTRITIONAL RELATED INDICATORS OF FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY
(i) Nutritional Status of Children and Mothers
The nutritional status of children in 1 to 5 years group has improved. Severe malnutrition amongst them has declined from 15 percent during the NNMB surveys of 1977-79 to 8.7 percent during 1998-90. Simultaneously, the percentage of normal children has gone up from 5.9 percent to 9.9 percent. However, there has not been a substantial change in the infant mortality, the decline being from 129 per 1000 live births in 1971 to 80 in 1991. Below 5 mortality, has came down from 53 per 1000 children in 1970 to 35 in 1987. It is considered necessary to pay special attention to children, when they are 6 to 8 months old, since it is the time when they are likely to be more vulnerable to infections. Role of education and extension becomes very apparent in tackling these problems.
Birth weight of infants is an important indicator of the nutritional status of a society. It has a direct bearing on chances of survival of the child and this indirectly influences the adoption of family planning by couples. NIN has indicated that infants weighing less than 2.5 kilogram can be considered low birth weight and of the children born, as high as 30 percent fall in such category. However, from our practical experience in field, including ICDS, it seems that the standard of 2.5 kg. in Indian conditions for birth weight appear to be high and 2 Kg. seems to be nearer the average and only those with birth weight less than that may be considered as low birth weight babies. It is felt that focus and programmes should be on such babies.
Birth weight of infants also exhibits a pronounced relationship with the nutritional status of the mothers. As the Body Mass Index (BMI defined as weight in kg. divided by square of height in metres) of mothers increases, the mean birth weight of children was also increasing. The incidence of low birth weight babies was highest (53 percent) amongst the nutritionally poorest mothers falling in CED Grade III (BMI less than 16). It gradually declined and was only 14.7 percent amongst normal mothers (BMI 18.5 to 25). (NIN, 1993)
Infant morality, child morality, birth weights and overall nutritional status of children is closely linked with mothers nutritional status and this clearly brings out the relevance of tackling at risk children and mothers together, which a programme like ICDS should be able to do.
Child rearing practices also influence the nutritional and health status of both children and mothers. In India, child bearing begins early, with 8 percent births at age less than 18 years. On the average, there are 6/7 pregnancies of which there are 5/6 live births and 4/5 children survive. (Ready, Vinodini & others, 1992). Such early and heavy child rearing naturally affects the health & nutrition status of mothers & babies.
(ii) Life expectancy at birth
India has made steady progress in the matter of life expectancy, which indicates overall improvement in the health conditions of the people. It was 45 years during the decade ending 1971, 54 years in 1981 and 62 years in 1991. During the earlier decades, female life expectancy was less than male, but since 1981-86, the females are enjoying better life expectancy than males ( 59.1 years as compared to 58.1 years for males) and thus balancing to some extent, higher mortality rates among women. ( Reddy, Vinodini and others, 1992).
(iii) Nutritional status of adults
There is slight improvement in the nutritional status of adults as per NNMB data of the surveys done between 1975-79 and 1988-90. Adopting a BMI value less than 18.5 to indicate chronic energy deficiency (CED), it has been found that 42.1 percent of the adult males were normal during 1975-79 while their percentage increased to 48.4 during 1988-90. In case of female adults, the percentage of normal females declined marginally from 44.8 to 46.6 percent during the same period. However, in the severest category CED with BMI less than 16, the percentage improved both for male and female adults-declining from 11.4 to 8.8 percent in case of males and from 12.7 to 11.3 percent for females. (N.I.N., 1993). It has also been found that only 39.2 percent of the landless agricultural labourers were normal with 60.3 percent having CED. Cultivators and artisans had better nutritional status than the landless agricultural labourers but variation was not more than 15 percent.
6. MICRONUTRIENT DEFICIENCIES
(i) Vitamin A deficiency
Deficiency of Vitamin A in conjunction with Protein-Energy malnutrition is estimated to cause nutritional blindness amongst millions of children and "it has been estimated that around 60 thousand children get blind, "(NNP, 1993). Starting with no manifestation in infants, its prevalence increases with age with school age children from all income groups showing high incidence. Government of India has been implementing a Vitamin A prophylaxis programme whereunder children between 9 months and 3 years age are administered a massive dose of Vitamin-A every 6 months. However, the menace has also to be fought by educating and encouraging people to consume more of Vitamin-A rich foodstuffs, both vegetative and animal source. In a country like India, promotion of horticulture, kitchen-gardening and nutrition education can also play an important role.
(ii) Iron deficiency
Iron deficiency anaemia impairs physical work capacity, mental development and enhances maternal morbidity and mortality. It is widely prevalent, especially amongst pregnant women and children. In India, although the consumption of iron has been found to be above RDI levels, the inadequate and poor absorption of iron creates the problem. In case of pregnant women, if Haemoglobin levels below 11 g/dl in considered anaemic, as many as 87 percent would be anaemic. If, however, 7-9 g/dl are considered as normal, 46 percent pregnant woment will fall in this category. About 13% having less than 7 g/dl hemoglobin are very much at risk. Around 56 percent of pre school children have also been categorized by NIN as anaemic. National Anaemia Prophylaxis Programme, targeted on these vulnerable groups, and based on distribution of iron folate tablets has been in existence since 1970 and is being now given a new thrust. Efforts are also on to double fortify edible salt with iron also besides iodine.
(iii) Iodine Deficiency
Prevalence of goitre and, even worse, cretinism due to iodine deficiency disorders in endemic form is another serious public health problem in India. Nearly 54 million persons are estimated to be suffering from goitre in known endemic areas covering entire Himalayan and sub-Himalayan belt. An ICMR survey (1989) of 14 districts in India recorded an overall goitre prevalence rate of 21 percent and cretinism rate of 0.7%, (NIN, 1993). "In these areas, apart from cretinism, children show varying degrees of thyroid deficiency and developmental defects. In villages of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, where goitre prevalence was high, deaf mutism, mental retardation and other clinically detectable problems of environmental iodine deficiency were found in 4 percent of the children." (Ready, Vinodini and others, NIN, Dec. 1992). Realizing the seriousness of the problem, Government of India has revamped the Iodine Deficiency Disorders control programme.
7. MATERNAL AND CHILD CARE
It hardly needs any emphasis that within the overall health services in a country, it is the extent and spread of maternal and child care that greatly influences the status of household food and nutrition security. The type of care received at child birth is often critical for the health and survival of both infant and mother. A significant proportion of neo-natal deaths is attributed to poor birth practices. During 1987, only about 32% of births in rural areas and 74% in urban areas were in institutions or attended to by a trained personnel. "Recent reports show that tetanus toxide immunization coverage is 77% for the pregnant women in India. Started in 1960 and boosted in the second half of 1980s by the Immunisation Mission, this intervention is picking up. The national average of tetanus toxide coverage however masks the variations between states ranging from 16% in Assam to 99% in Kerala". (Ready, Vinodini and others, NIN, 1992). Illegal abortions is yet another big problem. A UNICEF report (1990) has estimated that only around half a million pregnancy terminations were performed through health services in the fiscal year 1987-88, which is around 9% of the induced abortions likely to have been performed. As far as family planning is concerned, the trends are not very encouraging. Present protection of couples by all methods is only 41%. The National Health Policy seeks to raise it to 60% by 2000 A.D.
Exclusive breast feeding of child up to at least 4 months is now being vigorously promoted. Lot of progress is yet to be made regarding timely and adequate supplementation with proper weaning food. Gender bias in breast feeding, weaning and supplementation practices, apportionment of quality food etc., reported by some experts and recent reports of foetal killings are also new areas to be tackled.
8. FEMALE LITERACY
It is often said that education is the source for all development. It's impact on food and nutritional well being of people cannot be ignored, Kerala being the shining example. Within education, it is the female literacy that is one of the very important indicators of food and nutrition security. Progress of literacy in India has been quite impressive, both for males and females. At the time of independence in 1947, the female literacy in India was just 6 percent. Now in 1991, it is 39.4 percent. However, the growth in female literacy has been lower than that for males. This needs to be corrected. There is also great variation among states in female literacy rates. It was as high as 79 percent in Kerala but between 20 to 32 percent in the four most populous and poor states of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. A massive endeavour to improve female literacy rates, especially in states having very large populations and low rates, needs to he undertaken since female literacy is known to have close correlation with early marriages, fertility rates, child mortality and even optimum use of food and nutrition already available at the household level. Literacy must include functional literacy and awareness building, without which optimal utilization of available resources and services is also not being achieved.
To sum up food security seems to have improved in India, both at the national and the household levels. The trends in consumption of energy and protein during the fifteen years covered by surveys conducted by NNMB, FNB and NSSO have been positive but modest. This progress, especially in consumption pattern of poorest households like landless agricultural labourers and in reduction in proportion of severely malnourished pre-school age children has been achieved in the face of burgeoning population. These surveys covered a period only up to 1988-90. A recent exercise undertaken by the Ministry of Agriculture (April. 1994) has indicated that because of an improvement in the availability of various food stuffs, including those from animal source where a major breakthrough seems to have been achieved, a comfortable picture is noticeable as far as availability of energy and protein is concerned. India can legitimately take pride in the fact that inspite of a history of famines and 16 to 18 million people being added to its already huge population, it has developed the capacity to ensure that no household is again required to face famines, widespread hunger and starvation. Whatever the data and their analysis may indicate, the fact remains that no manifestation of raw hunger and starvation is there since it just cannot go unnoticed in India with a press and host of political parties out to pull up the government at the very first opportunity. The food, at least of cereals, availability is thus, quite comfortable, even though poor households may have achieved this security at a certain social cost, like many children going to work rather than to schools; labourers being forced to work at wages less than statutory minimum wages; people having to migrate to agriculturally more prosperous states or to urban areas with all the attendant socio-health-sanitational problems; people having to work with no leisure; men women and children forced to work in unhealthy and hazardous environment and so on. While these problems are receiving the attention of government at different levels, the fact remains that availability and consumption of at least staple diets and through them at least energy, appears quite satisfactory at this juncture. Unfortunately such an optimistic picture is not available when one looks at the nutritional well being of all the households. A nutritionally balanced diet is still a far cry for millions of poor families, their present income levels are too low to register their demands on agricultural sector and induce that sector, which still has tremendous untapped potential, produce all in food stuffs required. The policy options that emerge, very briefly could be:
- Rapid economic growth with steep rise in per capita incomes, backed by effective redistributive policies;
- A second green revolution in crops other than rice & wheat and in areas other than present ones;
- Maintaining and further increasing the tempo in growth of horticulture, animal husbandry and fisheries sectors.
- Special programmes for development of agro and fruit processing industries especially in States/areas with concentration of poverty;
- Technical education and development of human resources.
- Sharply focused and people-led and implemented employment generation and asset building programmes in rural areas;
- Legislation to safeguard interests of agricultural workers who form the hard core of poor in rural areas;
- Targeting of public distribution system to provide an effective safety net, only for identified poor households;
- Integration of nutrition programme with health and education;
- Higher investment on health care, especially maternal and child care as also on elementary education;
- Better utilisation of existing health and educational facilities through awareness development programmes;
- Sanitation and environmental improvement, essentially through people's own efforts;
- Expansion of training and extension in nutrition to achieve optimum use of available and easily producible food stuffs;
- Finally, and the most important, an effective population control programme.
India appears on the threshold, ready to move on to total food and nutrition security for all. First phase of battle against raw hunger is more or less won. The battle ahead is still more difficult; it must be waged with great resolve on the part of everybody concerned, including of course, the affected people themselves.
