1. This paper analyses the selection of livestock interventions aimed at the transformation of indigenous pastoralism. It is well known that the first generation projects implemented by newly independent African governments in the 1960s usually failed because of severe implementation problems. Among these were the low degree of commercialisation among producers, a high disease challenge, poor transport and communications, absence of technical staff, and low prices. There was also uncertainty about land rights and the choice of institutional setting to promote livestock development.
2. In the 1970s, however, it seemed that the earlier constraints were being overcome:
- techniques of range management seemed applicable to African dry lands;- disease control measures became operationally effective;
- there were new frameworks for group involvement of pastoralists (either associations, committees, or group ranches);
- the veterinary services emphasis of the delivery system was broadened to incorporate new technical packages for animal production;
- external credit was extended to the pastoral sector;
- infrastructure (communications and water) was greatly improved;
- training programs began to provide needed technical staff; and
- higher prices because of rising demand were anticipated.
3. The rapid expansion of government activities oriented towards Africa's pastoralists which took place in the 1970s assumed that these favourable trends would predominate in the production environment. It seemed that pastoralism was becoming commercialized, and that a production breakthrough was technically feasible. For a brief period, external lending by the World Bank, USAID, and other donors was greatly increased and many livestock projects were established throughout Africa's drier lands. Today, in contrast, external financing has largely dried up as project after project has failed to meet its targets. What went wrong?
4. Anyone analyzing the continuing low performance of African livestock projects, particularly those oriented towards modernizing pastoralism, can no longer blame the implementation constraints experienced earlier. Access to Africa's dry lands is now much better; large cadres of technical staff have been trained and appointed; pastoralists are now eager to find a more secure and profitable livelihood; and rapid urbanization has created an expanded market for livestock products. In short, the economic transformation envisioned in the early 1970s has occurred; and yet pastoralists have become further marginalized and most livestock interventions remain operationally and economically unsuccessful.
5. To explain why this should be so, one must begin by reviewing the characteristics of indigenous pastoralism as a system. Then the major technical and institutional interventions are described, along with the reasons why they have proved so difficult. A finding emerging from this review is that over and above these proximate considerations are emergent adverse trends with major implications for the performance of livestock projects. These issues are discussed in sequence under the relevant headings of the paper.
