24. Possible approaches which might reduce this tendency towards overstocking require urgent consideration in planning the development of the Zambezi Valley. Control of livestock numbers is generally problematic, particularly under compulsion, but village-level management of livestock numbers through grazing schemes may have an impact in appropriate circumstances (Abel and Blaikie, 1988). Social cohesiveness appears characteristically weak within the communities of new settlement schemes and government intervention may be valuable in encouraging the formation of farmer associations concerned with livestock. Agricultural extension workers are already involved in established farming areas in assisting cattle owners groups, grazing management committees and other forms of village-level natural resources management institutions.
25. Communal grazing schemes have had varying degrees of success elsewhere in Zimbabwe (Cousins, 1987 and 1988a) but have not yet been tried in any of the areas recently freed of tsetse flies. Ideally, grazing management should be planned and implemented in anticipation of an overstocking problem rather than in response to its actual development. This should be a priority in the Zambezi Valley in view of the fragility of the environment and the severe consequences which appear likely should overstocking occur. It may prove difficult to get farmers to cooperate effectively in communal resource management before the resource is under substantial and immediate threat, but no effort should be spared in this direction.
26. Overstocking may not be directly related to the number of animals required to provide adequate draught power for a given peasant farming community but to the large proportion of the overall cattle herd which is represented by breeding and unproductive animals: typically draught animals account for 30% or less of a communal cattle herd (Danckwerts, n.d.; Sandford, 1982; GFA, 1987). The tendency towards overstocking might be stemmed by measures to reduce the size of the total herd required to sustain a given draught capability. Such measures include oxenization schemes - for example, exchange of cows for oxen or sale of trained oxen with associated equipment on a soft loan basis. Encouragement of greater use of cows for draught purposes, already in practice to some extent, is another possibility (GFA, 1987). Schemes to promote draught sharing could be considered in newly emerging settlements (Muchena, 1988). Indirectly, reduced tillage farming methods could help mitigate the draught constraint (Shumba, 1984).
27. Promotion of the sale of unproductive or surplus cattle to the Cold Storage Commission by establishment of local sales pens could be feasible in some locations. Some of the difficulties associated with the present marketing system include the high cost of the sales pens and the fact that organized sales often do not coincide with the time the farmer needs to sell. A fresh look at alternative approaches to cattle marketing in rural areas appears needed.
28. Financial disincentives such as cattle taxes, grazing fees or charges for veterinary services could encourage removal of surplus animals from individual herds but this approach is likely to prove controversial. Another approach of doubtful social acceptability is the reform of land tenure to privatize the ownership of grazing land (Cliffe, 1986).
