ANNEXES

Table 1: Mixed Farming Systems Integrating Crops and Livestock

Mixed Farming System	Agro-Ecological Classification	Ruminant Livestock (%)		Regions	Important Crops	Livestock Species and Uses	Typical Examples
1. Rainfed temperate/tropical highlands. (MRT)	One or more months with mean monthly temperature, corrected at sea-level below 5°C (temperate). Tropical areas with mean daily temperature during the growing period in the range 5-20°C (tropical highlands).	Cattle Dairy cows Buffalo Sheep/goats	40 13 1 46	Sub-Saharan Africa (East African Highlands). Northeast Asia. Central/South America (Andean zone). North America and Europe.	Maize, wheat, barley, oats, buckwheat, finger-millet, upland rice, teff, lentils, chick-peas, beans, ensete, potatoes, sweet potatoes, taro, yams, tomatoes, onions, cabbage, coffee, tea, pyrethrum, cardamon, plantains.	Cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, camelids, poultry, pigs. Draught animal power, meat, milk, eggs, hides and skins, wool, manure.	Includes smallholder systems of Northern China and the Ethiopian highlands; the family farmers of Central and Northern Europe and North America; and the highlands of Central and South America with traditional ley farming systems based on potatoes, barley and pastures.
2. Rainfed humid/sub- humid tropics, and sub-tropics. (MRH)	Length of growing period > 270 days (humid), 180-270 days (sub-humid).	Cattle Dairy cows Buffalo Sheep/goats	54 10 6 30	Central/South America. Asia. Sub-Saharan Africa. Southern USA.	Maize, millet, sorghum, upland rice, ground-nuts, soyabeans, peas, beans, taro, yams, coco-yams, cassava, potatoes, sweet potatoes, bananas, plantains, tea, coffee, cotton, sugarcane, avocados, cashew, mangos, citrus, pineapples, cocoa, oil-palm, coconuts, rubber.	Cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, poultry, pigs. Milk, meat, eggs, draught animal power, manure.	Includes rice-buffalo systems of South-East Asia and the soyabean-maize-pasture systems of the central savannas of Brazil.
3. Arid/semi- arid tropics and sub- tropics. (MRA)	Length of growing period < 75 days (arid), 75-180 days (semi-arid).	Cattle Dairy cows Buffalo Sheep/goats	30 8 9 53	Asia (India). West Asia/North Africa. Sub-Saharan Africa (Sahel). South America (NE Brazil).	Millet, sorghum, maize, oats, wheat, barley, cowpea, groundnuts, lentils, chickpeas, vetch, cassava, tobacco, cotton, okra, sesame, citrus, melons.	Cattle, sheep, goats, camels, poultry, pigs. Meat, milk, eggs, draught animal power, wool.	Includes the dryland farming- sheep systems in North Africa and the Indian sub- continent; and the small ruminant- cassava systems of North- East Brazil.
4. Irrigated temperate/ tropical highlands. (MIT)	One or more months with mean monthly temperature corrected at sea-level below 5°C (temperate). Tropical areas with mean daily temperature during the growing period in the range of 5-20°C (tropical highlands).	Cattle Dairy cows Buffalo Sheep/goats	26 8 3 63	Mediterranean (Portugal, Italy, Greece, Albania, Bulgaria). Asia (Korea, Japan, China).	Olives, hazelnuts, cork, potatoes, barley, tomatoes, maize, rice, peppers, lettuce, beans, cabbage, onions, peas, wheat, plums, pears, peaches, apples, citrus.	Cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, poultry, pigs. Milk, meat, eggs, wool, manure.	Includes Southern European family farms combining irrigated cropping with livestock production based on the grazing of drylands, crop stubbles and some irrigated alfalfa. Asian farming systems are based mainly on irrigated rice and dairy cattle.
5. Irrigated humid/sub- humid tropics and sub-tropics. (MIH)	Length of growing period > 270 days (humid), 180-270 days (sub-humid).	Cattle Dairy cows Buffalo Sheep/goats	41 4 15 40	Asia. Central/South America.	Irrigated rice, dryland rice, maize, mung beans, beans, groundnuts, soyabeans, sugar-cane, cassava, sweet potatoes, kenaf, bananas, pawpaws, coconuts. Winter crops of wheat, cabbage, seed rape.	Cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, poultry, pigs. Draught animal power, milk, meat, eggs.	Includes irrigated rice-buffalo systems of South-East Asia.
6. Irrigated arid/semi- arid tropics and sub- tropics. (MIA)	Length of growing period < 75 days (arid), 75-180 days (semi-arid).	Cattle Dairy cows Buffalo Sheep/goats	28 5 11 6	South Asia. West Asia/North Africa. Central America. Western USA.	Irrigated sorghum, wheat, rice, maize, groundnuts, cotton, sugarcane.	Cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, poultry, pigs. Draught animal power, milk, meat, eggs, wool.	Includes lucerne - maize based intensive dairy systems in California, Israel, Mexico; small-scale buffalo milk production in Pakistan; and animal traction-based cash crop production in Egypt and Afghanistan.

TABLE 2: NUTRIENT YIELDS FROM FIVE PRUNINGS OF HEDGEROWS GROWN OF LEUCAENA AND GLIRICIDIA.

	Nutrient Yield (kg/ha/year)
Legume	N	P	K	Ca	Mg
Gliricidia	169	11	149	66	17
Leucaena	247	19	185	98	16

SOURCE: Modified from KANG et al. (1990)

Leucaena Prunings	pH (H2O)	Organic Carbon (mg/kg)	Exchangeable Cations (c molec/kg)
			K	Ca	Mg
Removed	6	6.5	0.19	2.9	0.35
Retained	6	10.7	0.28	3.45	0.5

SOURCE: Modified from KANG et al. (1990)

Mulch Applied		pH (H2O)	Soil Characteristics		Available P (meq/100 g)
%	kg/ha		Organic Carbon (%)	Total N (%)
0	0	5.3	0.7	0.078	9.4
50	3.88	5.4	0.87	0.082	14.3
100	7.89	5.4	0.99	0.097	19.7

SOURCE: Modified from LARBI et al. (1993)

POTENTIAL POSITIVE IMPACTS 1. Animal traction for undertaking soil conservation practices and for savings on fossil fuel use. 2. Use of leys containing grasses and legumes in rotation with arable crops to improve soil fertility. 3. Manure and urine for use as fertiliser to enhance soil fertility and for fuels to reduce cutting of trees. 4. Cash from livestock and their products to increase farm incomes and for the purchase of soil fertility-enhancing inputs such as fertilisers. 5. Crop residues for livestock feed to reduce grazing pressure on rangeland or for use as mulch to enhance soil fertility.

TABLE 6: A SUMMARY OF POTENTIAL NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF CROP-LIVESTOCK INTERACTIONS ON ENVIRONMENT AND MITIGATING MEASURES.

POTENTIAL NEGATIVE IMPACTS	MITIGATING MEASURES
1. Degradation of vegetation resources due to overgrazing.	· Limitation of animal numbers. · Control of grazing. · Mixing of livestock species to maximise use of vegetation resource. · Reseeding and use of improved forages. · Introduction of stall-feeding systems. · Strategic placement of watering points and salt to control animal distribution.
2. Increased soil erosion due to removal of vegetation and trampling causing sedimentation of surface waters.	· Restriction of livestock access to unstable areas such as steep slopes. · Soil erosion control measures (Table 7).
3. Deterioration of soil fertility and physical characteristics through removal of vegetation, increased soil erosion and compaction.	· As for 1 and 2.
4. Increased rapid run-off due to vegetation removal and soil compaction (decreased infiltration capacity).	· Water conservation measures and water spreading. · As for 1 and 2.
5. Displacement or reduction of wildlife populations by reduction of habitat; disruption of migratory routes; competition for food and water resources; introduction of diseases; impact of burning; increased poaching and killing of wildlife considered as pests or predators of livestock.	· Planning and implementation of range management strategies that minimise negative impacts on wildlife. · Establishment of wildlife reserves. · Ranching of wildlife to protect wildlife resources.
6. Pollution, environmental disruption and health hazards from disease and pest control measures.	· Use of chemicals that are species-specific and have low impact on other forms of life. · Use of spraying methods that minimise potential for water pollution. · Selection of disease-resistant or disease-tolerant livestock. · Fertiliser and manure management strategies to minimise water pollution. · Use of legume nitrogen.
7. Increased soil erosion resulting from the re-allocation of crop residues from mulch to livestock feed and fuel.	· Use of alternative crops for mulching e.g. herbaceous and woody legumes. · Use of alternative sources of fuel such as biogas and the planting of trees.

TABLE 7: SOME TECHNOLOGICAL OPTIONS FOR ACHIEVING SUSTAINABILITY IN CROP-LIVESTOCK SYSTEMS.

TECHNOLOGY	USEFUL FOR
	Soil-Moisture Conservation	SOIL EROSION		Soil Fertility Improvement
		Prevention	Control
1. Land-use management	X	X	X	X
2. Conservation tillage	X	X	X	X
3. Ground cover management	X	X	X	X
4. Bench terracing	X		X
5. Water harvesting	X		X
6. Legumes for green manuring	X	X		X
7. Vegetative hedges	X	X		X
8. Strip cropping	X	X
9. Contour bunding and farming	X	X
10. Fertiliser and organic matter use	X	X	X	X

SOURCE: Modified from SRIVASTAVA et al. (1993).

PROBLEM AREA	LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
	TEMPERATE & TROPICAL HIGHLANDS		HUMID & SUBHUMID TROPICS		ARID & SEMIARID TROPICS
	RAINFED (MRT)	IRRIGATED (MIT)	RAINFED (MRH)	IRRIGATED (MIH)	RAINFED (MRA)	IRRIGATED (MIA)
CROP - LIVESTOCK INTERACTIONS	1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7. A, B, C, D, F, G.	1, 2, 4, 5, 7. A, B, C, F, G.	6, 7, 8. A, B, C, F.	4, 5, 6, 7, 8. B, C, F.	1, 2, 5, 7. A, B, C, D, E, F, G.	3, 4, 5, 6, 7. A, F.

INDICATORS
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS	ECONOMIC IMPACTS
1. Botanical composition (%).	A. Availability of grazing resource.
2. Bare ground (%).	B. Availability of crop residues.
3. Salts in soil/water.	C. Labour availability for cropping.
4. Nitrate/faeces in water.	D. Manure availability and use for fuel or fertiliser.
5. Soil bulk density.	E. Food security especially in drought conditions.
6. Soil nitrogen/phosphorus contents.	. arm income.
7. Organic matter content.	G. Animal numbers.
8. Cation exchange capacity.