HUGO MENDEZ CASARIEGO,
Instituto Nacional de Technologia Agropecuaria (INTA), Argentina.
Introduction
Patagonia is a 780. 000 km2 arid and semi-arid region. Strong winds, rainfall from 100 to 300 mm., skeletal soils and low vegetation cover determine an extremely fragile ecosystem.
Desertification: causes and effects
Since 1890 Patagonia, started to be colonized by extensive livestock grazing systems. Stocking rates were too high and livestock overgrazed Patagonian pastures. This circumstance produced a general desertification process affecting 70% of Patagonian surface.
In this region the sheep population used to be 22 million in 1952 and is now 12 million. The decrease in stock, sheep production, and wool yield and quality is a result of poor nutrition, structural problems of sheep breeding and damage by predators, which is a side effect of the desertification process.
Other impacts of the desertification process are:
Project for prevention and control of desertification in Patagonia-Argentina
Purpose
To accelerate the integral rural development and the adaptation and development of production systems and technologies based upon sustainable use of natural resources in Patagonia.
Strategy
Results
GEORGI PETKOV, GERGANA KOSTADINOVA
Department of Animal Hygiene, Faculty of Agriculture, Thracian University, Stara Zagora, Bulgaria
Abstract
In Bulgaria there are at present 48 pig production complexes (12 000 – 108 000 fattening pigs per year), 14 chicken-broiler complexes (3– 15 mln broilers per year) and 12 layer complexes with a capacity of 20 000 – 100 000 laying hens. One of the problems these large farms cause is the pollution of the air in the regions with large farms. The air is polluted with micro-organisms, dust, noxious gases and bad odour.
The aim of this presentation is to give the results of an investigation of the air pollution from some large farms, the impact of this pollution on the environment and the methods to minimise and prevent the pollution.
The investigations cover a period of 15 years in farms with different capacities for pigs, laying hens and broilers.
Routine methods were used to investigate the following parameters: type and capacity of farm and ventilation system, dust content and number of micro-organisms in the air, presence of toxic gases (NH3, H2S) and gases causing a bad odour.
It was established that:
Regardless of the farm type, the dust and microbial contamination of air in farm buildings and around them varies widely and depends on different abiotic (building size, rearing technology, systems and capacity of ventilation system, microclimate in buildings and external meteorological conditions, etc. ) an biotic (biomass in rooms, etc) factors;
To characterise the microbial contamination of air, the following basic criteria were suggested:
the number of micro-organisms released from the building per 24 h and their spreading into the surrounding atmosphere;
At a distance of 2–3 km from the large farms the microbial contamination of air reaches the permissible values for atmospheric air. The pollution of atmospheric air with dust from layer buildings keeps these values above the permissible limits to a distance of 300 m;
The pollution of atmospheric air with NH3, H2S, etc. is of local importance (below 10–15 m distance from farm buildings only traces have been observed);
In the variety of odours present around large farms more than 27 gaseous chemical compounds have been identified (the main ones are: ammonia, hydrogen sulphide, indol. scatol, mercaptans etc. );
The harmful effect of a combination of these gases on living organisms is ten times worse than their separate impact.
ZHANG XIWU, MA YENG,
Director of Division of Science, Technology, Quality and Standard, Department of Animal Husbandry and Health, Ministry of Agriculture, China, 100094 Beijing (Fax. : 0086 10 64192869)
China has made significant progress in livestock production since the reform of the farming system in 1978 (See Table), but it is facing a greater challenge in developing animal production in the future than ever before. The challenge results from the annual population increase of 15 million people and a reduction of 400, 000 hectare of arable land, which led to a decrease in annual grain production per capita from 393 kg to 373 kg in the past 10 years. If the animal production develops according to the present model, in which pig meat is up to 75% of the total meat production, it has been predicted that the feed grain shortage will be nearly 100 million tons in 2000 (Zhang, 1994).
| 1978 | 1991 | 1992 | 1994 | 1995 | Ratio 1995/1978 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Meat | 9.0 | 31.4 | 34.3 | 45.0 | 47.0 | 5.2 |
| Egg | 2.3 | 9.2 | 10.2 | 14.8 | 15.0 | 6.5 |
| Milk | 1.0 | 5.3 | 5.6 | 6.1 | 6.2 | 6.2 |
China has been trying to find a new way to solve the feed grain problem since 1990, not only to increase grain production, but also to put more emphasis on utilising local feed resources, especially crop residues, on developing herbivorous animal production and on better recycling in the whole agriculture system. This strategy has proved successful in recent years. The annual growth rates of cattle, and sheep and goats were 4.67% and 3.49%, the annual beef production growth rate was 25.0% since 1990, much higher than the growth rate between 1970 and 1989. The proportion of beef and mutton in meat production increased from 7% to 11% and the proportion of pork production decreased by 10% between 1990 and 1995.
International research co-operation is recommended on the use of crop residues as livestock feed. The following research topics are important:
DR B. R. MANGURKAR,
BAIF Development Research Foundation, Dr Manibhai Desai Nagar, PO: Warje, Pune 411 029, India
Summary
Cattle wealth in India is characterized by very large numbers and low productivity. Consequently, the majority of the bovines are maintained under an extensive system of management with a high stocking rate. Realizing the threat to environment through this system of cattle management, BAIF (NGO) undertook an integrated cattle development programme.
The programme aimed at sustainable cattle development through technology transfer using the available natural resources.
The approach for sustainabxility comprised of the integration of the A. I. services and the extension activity for crossbreeding of non-descript zebu cows with purebred Holstein or Jersey bulls, a preventive health cover, fodder production, biomass utilization, demonstration, on-farm training of rural communities and environmental awareness. All the services were made available at the door-step of programme participants.
A case study from the NGO's field operational area in Ahmednagar district of India showed that the programme resulted in large scale acceptance of cattle crossbreeding and its integration in crop-livestock mixed farming system. The significant outcome was adoption of stall-feeding of animals, protection of common property resources, use of sugarcane tops and crop residues in feeding of animals, increase the use of farm-yard manure, economic milk production and sustainability of development activity through people's participation.
It was inferred that an integrated crop livestock system with emphasis on cattle crossbreeding has the potential to ensure ecological sustainability in sugarcane growing areas.
TAKUO SUKIGARA, HENNING STEINFELD
Animal Production and Health Division, FAO, Rome, Italy
FAO has recently developed a radically revised version of the Livestock Development Planning System (LDPS2), a PC-based planning and training tool designed for livestock development planners to assist them in decision making. As a first case, livestock production in China was analyzed with LDPS2.
LDPS2 assists planners to (i) identify and quantify the herd/flock composition and size required to meet the given demand of meat and milk, (ii) identify the feed and livestock constraints in reaching demand levels, and (iii) assess various livestock development programs or technical interventions. The module is an Excel workbook and has three main calculation routines, Demand driven routine, Resource driven routine and Herd growth routine.
Livestock production in China was classified into 18 different production systems, according to agro-ecological zones, and analyzed with LDPS2. Main findings are;
ANGELIJA BUCIENE, SIGITAS-ANTANAS SILEIKA
Lithuanian Institute of Agriculture, Lithuanian Institute of Water Management
The environmental monitoring on different levels - field, farm, watershed, region or national - is one of the tools to get objective data on the problems and find possibilities to prevent or solve them. Since 1994 Lithuania was engaged in BEAROP - an international study project on agricultural run-off in the countries around the Baltic Sea, proposed by Swedish scientists The project focuses on transferring good agricultural practice, knowledge and technology, in the wide sense of farm management, monitoring and legislation to reduce pollution associated with run-off and ammonia emission from agriculture in Lithuania. Two demonstration watersheds were selected for monitoring purposes: the first - r. Vardas watershed in the hill country and the second - r. Graisupis watershed in the plains. With this paper we present data from r. Graisupis watershed in 1996.
Physical-geographical conditions on the demonstration watershed are typical for the Middle Plain of Lithuania, the most intensively used agricultural region. Watershed enfolds the Graisupis upstream drainage area of 13.65 km2 consisting of: arable land (including ley) 934 ha or 68.4% forests 413 ha or 30. 3% wetlands, swamps 18 ha or 1.3%. The quorternary sediment layer consists of sandy loam. The landscape is flat and 62–65 m above sea level. The main soil type is soddy gley or soddy gleic sandy loam of neutral reaction, rather well supplied with available phosphorus and medially provided with available potassium.
There are three large farms - “Ausra” agricultural company, Lipliunai agricultural company and the Experimental farm of Lithuanian Institute of Water Management, 14 private farms and about 90 homelands. Total number of inhabitants is about 200.
The most common crops cultivated within the watershed are winter wheat and spring barely for grain, different mixtures of forage crops, sugar beets, ley. According to the data from 1996 the average weighted annual rate of FYM and mineral fertilizers on arable land within the watershed was as follows: 17.6 t/ha and 87.4 kg/ha N, 3.5 kg/ha P, 28.1 kg/ha K.
Water quality monitoring was conducted at the barn and manure pad, the drainage post, the pond, the buffer strip of V. Liutkevicius demonstration farm and at the monitoring station on the main stream of the river Graisupis. Rainfall data were collected from the nearest Dotnuva Agrometeorological Station. Data show that the water quality in the river depends on the uptake of nutrients. The increase of nitrogen concentration in the period of spring floods is the most dangerous phenomena for the environment. In the period of plant growth, when the uptake of nutrients is highest, nitrogen load is lowest. Therefore, the best way to reduce water pollution is to expand the period of plant growth, especially in the period of spring flood. Another way to reduce it is the change of agricultural management. NO3-N concentration of drainage water in autumn 1996 and in spring 1997 was much larger than in the river but still more data are needed to make well-founded conclusions concerning the influence of land use and fertilization on nutrients leaching. The nitrogen concentration of ground water before and after construction of manure storage changed very little and values were small. The nitrogen concentration in an old dug well at the barn was very high compared with the nitrogen concentration in the new one. One of the reasons might be heavy fertilization of the greenhouse at the old well.
Soil nutrient balance data obtained in two agricultural companies and two private farms within the watershed in 1996 reflect the situation with nutrients in 84 % of watershed's agricultural land. According to these data there is no real nutrient deficiency in the soil yet. However, on P. Civilka's farm, which annually grows 25 % of sugar beets in rotation, and about 70 % of cereals, and applies annually in the form of mineral fertilizer about 30 kg N, 10 kg P and 10 kg K per ha and about 5 t/ha of FYM, the available nitrogen and potassium in soil might be deficient in the long run. There is no problem with phosphorus, since the soil in the watershed is still rather well supplied: it has 121.4 mg/kg of available P in the top-soil on average.
L. REYNOLDS1 (Livestock Systems specialist), E. F. THOMSON (Livestock Systems Specialist), M. PALA (Wheat Agronomist), J. RYAN (Soil Scientist), M. BOUNEJMATE (Pasture Agronomist), F. BAHHADY (Livestock specialist), T. NORDBLOM (Agricultural Economist), A. TERMANINI (Livestock specialist), N. NERSOYAN (Pasture Agronomist), A. V. GOODCHILD (Ruminant Nutritionist) and S. Christiansen (Pasture Agronomist)
International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), P. O. Box 5466, Aleppo, Syria.
Introduction
Traditional systems in semi-arid rain-fed areas of West Asia and North Africa are characterized by cereal/fallow rotations, integrated with small ruminants. However, demographic and economic pressure has led to increased use of cereal monocropping. Since the early 1980s, the International Centre for Agricultural research in the dry Areas (ICARDA) has studied the use of legumes (lentil, vetch, chickling and medic) in place of a fallow year in wheat and barley systems, with or without a sheep-grazing component.
Results
Over a two-year rotation, continuous cereal produced more cereal grain and straw than the fallow system where half the land remained unproductive each year, but the yield gap declined over time. Wheat, but not barley, grain production was higher with fallow than with legume rotations. Wheat following medic produced 30% less grain than the fallow system, largely reflecting lower levels of residual moisture after medic. However, barley, with its lower demand for moisture due to a shorter growing period, was less affected by medic. In most years, reductions in cereal output were more than compensated for by legume grain and straw, providing better yield stability.
Cereal and food-legume straws and barley grain are important animal feeds in the region. Crude protein and metabolizable energy availability for animal feed from barley or wheat rotations with legume were about twice as high as from the fallow systems. Over an 11-year period, high intensity short-term grazing of vetch by lambs in wheat/vetch rotations allowed annual offtake of 284 kg animal gain/ha. Medic pasture grazed by lactating ewes and suckling lambs produced 159 kg lamb gain/ha, and the ewes, hand-milked for a further 10 weeks, then produced 550 kg/ha of milk for human consumption.
Soil fertility is a key factor in system sustainability. In wheat rotations, without organic N fertilizer total soil N levels were significantly higher in medical and vetch rotations, and increased at a faster rate than in fallow or continuous wheat cropping treatments. In grazing systems where sheep returned to shelters overnight, about one-third of the plant biomass N consumed was returned to the soil in urine and faeces. Stocking rate in the medic system therefore had an effect on soil N levels, with total soil N rising fastest at the lowest stocking rate.
1 Manor Farmhouse, Huish Champflower, Taunton, TA4 2EY, United Kingdom
All the legume rotations provided significantly higher gross revenues than continuous cereal or fallow rotations, and the inclusion of animals gave further increases. However, a linear programming model to optimize farm income for wheat rotations indicated that medic would only be included on larger farms. Optimal allocations of land to medic were positively related to prices of sheep and milk, but negatively related to lentil price.
Conclusions
The inclusion of legumes in cereal rotations stabilized or improved soil fertility, increased biomass production, and could raise gross revenue. Inclusion of animals added value to the legume component and improved income stability. Further research is needed on the relative benefits of harvesting forage legumes for use as winter feed or use by grazing animals, particularly ewes with high milk yields, and on the constraints to adoption of cereal/legume rotations.
FRITZ SCHNEIDER, JÜRG VON NIEDERHÄUSERN, CHRISTIAN VÖGELI,
Swiss College of Agriculture, Department for International Agriculture, Länggasse 85, CH-3052 Zollikofen, Switzerland
Introduction
Livestock and animal husbandry are economically essential for farmers basing their income on marginal areas. In such areas, however, it is of utmost importance, that the production capacity of the available land is kept in balance with the animal pressure on the same land. Carrying capacity estimations are important for policy makers to plan activities in rural development, especially in areas where overstocking occurs. Different approaches for the estimation of the livestock carrying capacity with their potentials and weaknesses are illustrated and discussed in the poster.
Material and Methods
The personal experiences of the authors gained in southern India, an extensive literature review and discussions with resource persons were the basis for this work.
Definition of Livestock Carrying Capacity
Livestock carrying capacity expresses the number of livestock in a defined area of land which can be sustained in a long-term perspective. Normally, reference is made to ruminants only. Economic carrying capacity can be defined as the stocking rate that results in maximum economic returns. It is determined by the economic objectives of the producer, respectively his definition of productivity. The ecological carrying capacity can be defined as the stocking rate that leads to a long-term sustainable land use. While the economic carrying capacity may lead to degradation, the ecological carrying capacity often does not allow the farmer to earn an adequate income.
Plant-Oriented and Animal-Oriented Approach
The plant-oriented approach is based on the dry matter production in a defined area. The dry matter production often is estimated empirically based on climatic data, pedological parameters, composition and density of plant cover. The animal-oriented approach is based on the estimated consumption of the animals in a defined area. The consumption is defined in terms of dry matter, crude protein and energy (TDN). A combination of both, plant and animal oriented approaches, leads towards an accurate and detailed carrying capacity estimation. Carrying capacity should be regarded as variable over time and in space, depending on fodder availability and stocking rate and should be defined over a period of several years.
Discussion
Case-studies from India show that large surpluses on fodder are available from August to February, during the wet season. The critical period - from March to July - has to be bridged with adapted management. The main aim of these management measures is to avoid stocking rates which exceed the carrying capacity during drought periods. Farmers in drought prone areas already make use of a number of methods to bridge the fodder shortage gap during the dry period: animals are loaned on a temporary basis for the duration of the fodder shortage period to an area with better fodder availability; animals are sold to avoid fodder shortage; fodder is being bought; fodder conservation bridges the critical period; losses in body weight are accepted and during the subsequent rainy season the weight loss is compensated, fodder trees are cultivated to increase the availability of forage during the dry season; the quality of roughage is improved, for example by urea treatment of crop residues.
Conclusions
Approaches for the estimation of carrying capacity are substantially influenced by management measures already practised by farmers to bridge the dry season and drought periods. Estimation methods need to consider such management practices and must be adapted to area-specific conditions and practices. Standardised procedures, without corrections, may lead to wrong results.
International Service for National Agricultural Research (ISNAR)
Introduction
This 30 month action-oriented project has been jointly executed by ISNAR, Humboldt Universität zu Berlin (HUB) and Kenyan Agricultural research Institute (KARI) and was financially supported by the German Government (BMZ).
Objectives and Accomplishment
The project aims to improve priority-setting methods for livestock research at programme level, by developing better ways to estimate technology adoption. The project analyses and quantifies the factors influencing technology adoption, correlates technology diffusion and adopters' characteristics, and integrates adoption rate into decision-making models for research priority setting.
Specific objective 1: To identify the determinants of technology adoption and quantify their effects using ex post data from a technology user's perspective.
Econometric models were developed. Complexity, profitability, and initial costs were identified as determinants to explain the adoption of dairy technologies. The major finding was, that the speed of adoption was more important than the final ceiling of adoption.
Specific objective 2: To analyse the diffusion process of different technologies by using data from the case project. Groups of adopters will be defined and characterised in order to target research and development activities better to specific users.
Technology adoption is extremely slow. The speed determines the research benefits. The low speed of adoption is determined by the nature of technology supply. Dairy technologies are often diffused in packages. The dairy farmers adopt only components of the packages in an ad-hoc fashion. Adoption behaviour was considerably different among coffee and tea zone farmers.
Specific objective 3: To develop and empirically test a priority-setting model for livestock research that specifically considers the role of technology adoption in research priority setting at the project level.
A decision support model was developed and applied. The model allows for the inclusion of policy, financial, physical and human resources constraints, and allows for geographic targeting.
In addition to the specific objectives, the project undertook research on the definition of priority-setting objectives and the project established a repeatable priority-setting procedure. The priority-setting procedure was developed in interaction with other KARI projects.
For further information:
Dr. W. Janssen, ISNAR, P. O. Box 29975, 2509 AJ The Hague, The Netherlands.
Prof. Dr. K. J. Peters, Humboldt Universität zu Berlin, Institut für Tierzucht in den Tropen und
Subtropen, Lentzeallee 75, 14195 Berlin.
Mr. Michael Waithaka, Humboldt Universität zu Berlin, Institut für Agrarpolitik, Marktlehre
und Agrarentwicklung, Luisenstrasse 56, 10099 Berlin - Mitte GERMANY.
ENRIQUE MURGUEITIO R, MAURICIO ROSALES M
Fundación Centro para la Investigación en Sistemas Sostenibles de Producción Agropecuaria - CIPAV A. A. 20591, Cali, Colombia, South America
The environmental and social crisis caused by extensive cattle production
The dominant model of accelerated transformation of the natural ecosystems and traditional agroecosystems is the largest challenge for countries like Colombia, where extensive cattle ranching occupies nearly 90% of man-affected landscape (40 millions ha), but only contributes to 4.3% of the national GDP, 22% of agricultural GDP and 60% of livestock GDP. This activity causes one of the most uneven distributions of land in the world, with a coefficient of ownership concentration of more than 0. 800 since 1950.
Integrated farming production systems: a sustainable solution for livestock production in the tropics
An intensive livestock production system developed in Colombia, and proposed as a sustainable solution for the humid tropics is an example of integration and multiple use of local resources. The system is based on the use of sugar cane (planted at high density) inter-cropped with multipurpose trees and water plants, as sources of biomass to provide feed for different animal species and food and fuel. It is directed at resource-poor farmers but has been adapted to commercial scale. The components of this model are biomass, monogastrics, ruminants and fuel subsystems. In this model the sugar cane is, after removal of the tops, fractionated into juice and bagasse in a three-roller mill. The juice is fed as a complete replacement of cereals for pigs and ducks and supplemented with fresh water fern Azolla filiculoides and whole soybean grain. Local fodder tree species are used: Gliricidia sepium, Trichanthera gigantea or Erythrina fusca, depending on which adapts better to local conditions. The tree foliage is harvested and leaves are used as source of protein to supplement the sugar cane tops for feeding sheep. In this integrated system, waste products are minimized and the local resources are efficiently used. Fuel production is an added benefit of integration for the family and the environment.
The model has also been adapted to a larger scale (entrepreneurial) farming system. At this level, a 40 ha. farm is divided into four biomass production subsystems (Sugar cane 5 ha, silvopastoral component 5 ha, grasslands 26 ha and aquatic plants 1 ha). The cattle is a crossbred Zebu × Holstein used for both milk and meat production. The agroforestry subsystem consists of grass (Cynodon nlemfuensis), associated with a legume tree Erythrina fusca (total fresh biomass production is 51 tons/ha/year from trees and 96 tons from grass). Leaves from E. fusca are harvested, wilted and used as supplement. Grazing is practised though always together with fodder trees. Naturally regenerated trees can be browsed ad libitum. (Guazuma ulmifolia, Pithecellobium dulce, Attalea butyracea, Albizzia saman and Enterolobium cyclocarpum). Grazing is rotational and pastures are fertilised with manure and effluent from the biodigesters. Given the high productivity of the system, a small area covered by wetlands remains unaltered as a bird sanctuary.
CATTLE
Meat Production: Total No. animals: 88 cows; parturition interval: 13 months; weight at weaning : 199 kg; and 6.2 tonnes/year of live weight.
Milk Production: F1 cows Holstein x Zebu produce 2,546.9 litres of saleable milk per year; F2 cows (F1 × F1) produce 1,852 litres of saleable milk per year; population: 37 F1 cows and 51 F2 cows; the farm produces 188,687 of saleable milk per year; milk for restricted suckling: 58,875 litres (calf rearing); and total milk: 247,562 litres/year.
PIGS
120 breeding sows; 85% fertility; 2.33 farrowings/sow/year; weaned piglets per sow/year: 21.46; post—weaning mortality: 2.3%; Annual replacement rate: 25%; and 145.5 tonnes of prime quality pork and 4.2 tonnes of pork from surplus animals are produced per year.
POULTRY
174,000 fattened chickens per year; mean live-weight: 1.82 kg; 285 tonnes of poultry meat per year
Conclusions
This system is ideal for the humid tropics in Central and South America and Asia, where biomass production is not a limiting factor, but conservation of natural resources and the environment (protection of cloud and humid forests) is a priority. For the last 10 years these systems have been tested, adapted and adopted (either all or some of the components) by small farmers in different climatic conditions in Colombia. Currently this technology is being transferred and adapted to the Philippines, Vietnam, El Salvador, Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago under FAO-assisted projects.
Figure: Integrated family farming system based on high biomass production
N. ZITSANZA,
Chief Agricultural Economist for Marketing and Trade, Ministry of Agriculture, Harare, Zimbabwe
The poster highlighted the issues essential for the development of a sustainable livestock industry in Zimbabwe covering the structure of the industry, policy objectives, the major constraints facing the subsector and recommendations on the way forward.
1. Production structure and trends
More than 70% of Zimbabwe is pastoral land best suited to raising of livestock. This area falls in the drier natural regions which receive no more than 800 mm of rainfall annually. The livestock industry comprise the following enterprises:
1.1 Beef
Approximately 6 million cattle make up the beef herd. Production takes place by both large
scale commercial farmers and the smallholder section with the latter contributing to 80% of
beef production and 25–30% of the national herd. In the smallholder sector cattle have
multiple uses including draught power, milk production, manure production, beef etc. . The
smallholder sector is characterized by communal grazing and low
offtake rates (24% compared to 9% in the large scale sector) and this has led to land
degradation, low productivity rates, high pre-weaning mortality and low growth rates.
1.2 Dairy
The production system is dominated by the large scale commercial sector which accounts for
95% of the herd. The system is intensive with supplementary feeding. Total annual milk
production average around 200 million litres.
1.3 Other livestock - this includes pigs, poultry, sheep and goats
They are increasingly becoming important substitutes for beef. The majority of sheep and
goats are found in the smallholder areas.
1.4 Support services
Support services to the livestock sector are provided by various Government institutions and
the private sector.
2. Policy objectives
The specific objectives for the livestock sector are: to increase the national cattle herd through breeding and sustainable grazing systems particularly in smallholder areas; to increase milk production primarily through the development of viable self-sustaining smallholder dairy schemes; increase offtake from smallholder farmers; integrate wildlife production into viable farming operations and the development of a fully sustainable farming system throughout the country which reverses the current environmental degradation and soil erosion.
3. Constraints to the development of a sustainable livestock production
These include: poor grazing and resource management in smallholder areas, high input costs, recurrent droughts, incidence of diseases epidemic in tropical area, limited finance for cattle production, limited access to lucrative markets and inadequate funding for agricultural services.
4. Way forward
There is need for the development of a comprehensive livestock policy which should outline strategies to solve the complaints. This should be done with the involvement of stakeholders. A reversal of overgrazing in communal areas through the dissemination of appropriate resource management and sustainable utilisation techniques is required. Implementation of drought mitigation strategies and improving the financing of service institutions are also critical. These aspects are already being pursued to try and address the problems. It is also essential to pursue the development of broad- based export markets.
ROBERT S. THWALA
Director Veterinary Services, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Swaziland
SUMMARY
1. Introduction
Livestock, especially cattle, have been blamed extensively by many as being the major culprits responsible for land degradation with its consequent soil erosion, donga formation, earth-filling of dams and sometimes desertification. Whether this has been done out of ignorance or self-exoneration by man it is still not very clear.
Are these animals capable of making sound decisions regarding environmental issues, or is it man's failure to understand his environment, the ecological balance and its interactions, or better still, is it just man's greed, interested only in personal gain?
2. Livestock impact on the environment
Livestock has both a positive and a negative impact on the environment in many ways depending on how it is managed. In a natural situation cattle will follow greener pastures and thus the negative impact will be minimized. When they are restricted for various reasons e. g. intensive production or quarantine, then the worst can be expected. It is those who restrict them that should be blamed and not livestock.
3. Implementation of possible interventions
Many interventions have failed in the past because strategies, action plans and programmes have been implemented without policies and policy guidelines which is a signpost for political endorsement, direction and commitment.
3.1 Policies
Policies must be in place to ensure the sustainability of any intervention and they must be understood and appreciated by all stakeholders.
3.2 Strategies
Strategy options based on the analysis of the prevailing environment and conditions on the ground, taking into account resource availability and the established policy guidelines and objectives must be put in place and be endorsed by all stakeholders through consultations, awareness campaigns and workshops. Strategies should include monitoring and evaluation systems.
3.3 Action plans and programmes
These are essential to ensure that targets are set to be met within given time frames and resources are mobilized and committed to implement the chosen strategy options or interventions with the full involvement of all the stakeholders. These should include review and evaluation time frames for the strategies and programmes.
4. Conclusion
Swaziland's Livestock Development Policy addresses the issue of Livestock-Environment interactions albeit not in detail and has “Ecological sustainability, economic viability and an understanding of the socio-economic implications of any policy intervention” as one of the key policy guidelines. Resource constraints are, however, making it difficult for strategies and Action Plans to be developed for implementation at national level.
