The question as to what role forest plantations might play in meeting future wood demands is inextricably linked to past, current and future patterns in forest plantation establishment. Indeed, the area of trees already in the ground will determine production in the immediate future. Future planting is dependent on available resources, perceived rates of return, successes of previous planting programmes and perceptions of future supply-demand imbalances.
Unfortunately, however, as already noted, comprehensive forest inventory information about national forest plantation resources is generally scarce and virtually non-existent (at least in the public domain) at the global level. There are several reasons for this, not least the difficulties in differentiating between natural forests and forest plantations. As Solberg et al (1996) note:
"Estimating the area of forest plantations presents some challenges. The term "plantation" has varied meanings, and even where a precise definition is available, it is not universally applicable."
A forest plantation will generally be defined according to the extent of human intervention in the forest's establishment and/or management. In many instances, because there is an extensive range of silvicultural practices applied in intensive forest management, the difference between a semi-natural forest and forest plantation is essentially arbitrary. To coin a phrase, a forest plantation is in the eye of the classifier.
Within the framework of the FRA 2000 programme, forest plantations in the tropical and sub-tropical regions are defined as:
Forest stands established by planting or/and seeding in the process of afforestation or reforestation. They are either:
- of introduced species (all planted stands), or
- intensively managed stands of indigenous species, which meet all the following criteria: one or two species at planting, even age class, regular spacing.4 (FAO, 1998).
For the countries already examined in the temperate and boreal forest component of FRA 2000, the following specification (related to the intensity of management) has been added to the above definition:
- Excludes: stands which were established as plantations but which have been without intensive management for a significant period of time. These should be considered semi-natural. (UN, 1997).
The above definitions include several ambiguities. For example, how should "regular spacing" be defined, particularly when a stand has been established by broadcast seeding? Similarly, the definitions of "intensively managed" and "a significant period of time" are open to interpretation and the area dimension for the even age class requirement is not specified (i.e. should it be applied to compartments, forest blocks or a whole management unit?).
In general, a degree of ambiguity is necessary to ensure that the definition can be applied to a comprehensive range of forests across the globe and to ensure that the definition remains stable through time. There is, however, a necessary trade-off between specificity and robustness. Thus, under these definitions, a number of significant forestry countries including, for example, Finland, Germany and Canada, report having no forest plantations. Conversely, neighbouring countries with seemingly similar forestry practices and philosophies report significant plantation areas.
In the final analysis forest management and silvicultural systems exist on a continuum with "natural" and "artificial" forests occupying different, but perceptually overlapping, portions of the spectrum. In many respects then, especially in the temperate and boreal forest zones, attempting to demarcate between natural forests and forest plantations is an inexact and equivocal exercise.5
The 1990 Global Forest Resource Assessment (FAO, 1995a) estimated that the world's total forest area in 1990 was 3,511 million hectares. This figure was updated in the 1997 State of the World's Forests (FAO, 1997) to give an estimate for 1995 of 3,454 million hectares. However, forest plantations account for only a very small proportion of the global forest area. The most recent estimate of the global area of forest plantations in 1995 is 123.7 million hectares, or approximately 3.6 percent of the estimated global forest area in 1995 (see: Pandey (1997) for tropical and subtropical countries; and UN (2000) for temperate and boreal countries).
The geographical distribution of the estimated global forest plantation area in 1995 is shown in Figure 1. This figure shows that Asia contains the largest proportion of the world's forest plantations, with just under half of the total.
Figure 1 The global distribution of forest plantations by region in 1995
Principal sources: UN (2000); Pandey (1997); and FAO (1995a).
More revealing however, is the total share of the global forest plantation resource held by just a handful of countries. Five countries have each established more than 10 million hectares of forest plantations: China (21.4 million ha); United States of America (18.4 million ha); Russian Federation (17.1 million ha); India (12.4 million ha); and Japan (10.7 million ha). Together, these five countries account for 65% of the global forest plantation resource.
The overall concentration of forest plantation resources in a handful of countries is further demonstrated by the fact that only an additional 13 countries have an area of forest plantations exceeding one million hectares. Thus, 18 countries account for 87% of the world's forest plantations. Of the countries with less than 10 million hectares of forest plantations, the largest forest plantation resources are in the Ukraine (4.4 million ha), Brazil (4.2 million ha) and Indonesia (3.0 million ha).
Table 1 provides aggregated estimates of industrial6 and non-industrial plantation areas in 1995 and includes statistics for the countries with the largest forest plantation areas. A summary of forest plantation area data for all of the individual countries included in this study is given in Appendix III.
Table 1 The distribution of forest plantations by main countries and region in 1995
Country or region |
Forest plantation area (in million ha) | ||
Industrial |
Non-industrial |
Total | |
North and Central America |
18.9 |
0.3 |
19.2 |
United States |
18.4 |
0.0 |
18.4 |
South America |
5.4 |
2.8 |
8.2 |
Asia |
41.8 |
15.1 |
56.9 |
China |
17.5 |
3.9 |
21.4 |
India |
4.1 |
8.3 |
12.4 |
Japan |
10.7 |
0.0 |
10.7 |
Oceania |
2.7 |
<0.1 |
2.7 |
Africa |
3.6 |
2.2 |
5.7 |
Europe |
8.7 |
0.0 |
8.7 |
Countries of the former USSR |
22.2 |
0.0 |
22.2 |
Russian Federation |
17.1 |
0.0 |
17.1 |
Total |
103.3 |
20.4 |
123.7 |
Principal sources: UN (2000); Pandey (1997); and FAO (1995a).
Several countries with major forest plantation resources stretch across both temperate and tropical zones. Difficulties in clearly distinguishing between tropical and temperate forest plantations in these countries means that the countries have been classified as belonging wholly to one group or the other, usually (but not exclusively) depending on whether the country is classified as developed or developing. This results in a slight bias toward putting those countries that bridge the tropical and temperate divide into the tropical and subtropical category.7 Figure 2 shows the broad classification of countries used for this paper.
Figure 2
Countries classified as tropical and subtropical or temperate and boreal
At the broadest level, global plantations can be separated into tropical and subtropical plantations and temperate and boreal plantations. These areas can then be further subdivided into forest plantations of hardwoods and softwoods. Tropical and subtropical forest plantation resources in 1995 are estimated8 to cover 55.4 million hectares, 44.7 percent of the global resource. Hardwood species are estimated to cover 31.4 million hectares, about 56.7 percent of tropical and subtropical plantation area. Softwood species cover 24 million hectares. Plantation forests in temperate and boreal countries are estimated to cover 68.3 million hectares. Softwood species dominate temperate and boreal plantation forests and are estimated to cover 60.7 million hectares or 88.9 percent of the temperate and boreal plantation resource. Temperate and boreal hardwood plantations are estimated to cover 7.6 million hectares. These figures are summarised in Figure 3.
Figure 3 Global forest plantation resources by type and area in 1995
Sources: tropical and subtropical forest plantations - Pandey (1997); temperate and boreal forest plantations - compilation from various sources.
Tropical plantations are dominated by two genera: Eucalyptus and Pinus. Collectively, these two species groups account for 43.4 percent of tropical plantation areas. Other important species include Acacia species, Tectona grandis, and Gmelina arborea. Pandey (1997) notes, however, that there is a broad range (of more than 100) of species utilised in tropical and subtropical plantations. Table 2 gives an estimated breakdown of tropical plantation areas by species group in 1995. The significance of minor species in tropical and subtropical plantations is demonstrated by the area of species classified as "Other softwoods" or "Other hardwoods", which account for 41.6 percent of the total (though in some instances these plantations could be unidentified Pinus or Eucalyptus plantations). Around 6 million hectares of "Other softwoods" comprise plantations of Cunninghamia lanceolata in China. This species is not planted on a large scale elsewhere, but the large area in China makes it one of the world's most extensively planted species. Leucaena species and similar multi-purpose and fodder species comprise a significant proportion of "Other hardwoods".
Table 2 Net area of tropical and subtropical forest plantations by species in 1995
Species |
Percentage of total area |
Area (in ha) |
Acacia auriculiformis |
1.4 |
757,655 |
Acacia mangium |
0.8 |
454,370 |
Acacia mearnsii |
0.6 |
325,292 |
Other acacias |
4.2 |
2,366,990 |
Casuarina species |
1.4 |
787,200 |
Dalbergia sissoo |
1.1 |
626,020 |
Eucalyptus species |
17.7 |
9,949,588 |
Gmelina arborea |
0.7 |
418,050 |
Swietenia macrophylla |
0.3 |
151,214 |
Terminalia species |
0.5 |
303,957 |
Tectona grandis |
4.0 |
2,246,559 |
Other hardwoods |
24.7 |
13,920,826 |
Fast growing pines |
10.5 |
5,923,754 |
Other pines |
15.3 |
8,614,480 |
Other softwoods |
16.8 |
9,479,495 |
Total |
100.0 |
56,325,450 |
Note: This total derives directly from Pandey (1997). It differs slightly from the total area of tropical plantations cited in the remainder of the paper, because updated information on the total plantation area has been collected for several tropical countries. Fast growing pines include: Pinus caribaea and Pinus oocarpa (in tropical areas); Pinus radiata and Pinus elliottii (in subtropics and temperate parts of tropical and subtropical countries); and Pinus patula (in tropical highlands).
Eucalyptus species are planted extensively throughout the tropics and particularly in subtropical regions. The countries with the largest Eucalyptus plantation resources are: India (3.1 million hectares); Brazil (2.7 million hectares); South Africa (557,000 hectares); and Vietnam (479,000 hectares), which collectively account for 69 percent of the total Eucalyptus plantation resource.
Fast-growing pine species, particularly Pinus caribaea, are also widely planted. The most extensive Pinus plantations are, however, in the temperate regions of countries included in the tropical and subtropical classification. Forest plantations in Chile (1.4 million hectares), Australia (833,000 hectares) and South Africa (757,000 hectares), are dominated by Pinus radiata. These countries, along with Brazil (1.1 million hectares), have the largest pine plantations in countries classified as tropical or subtropical. Pinus patula occupies more than 1 million hectares in Southeast Africa. Slower growing pines occupy around 6.4 million hectares in China.
Other species are less widely distributed. Acacias are planted mainly in Africa, Indonesia and on the Indian subcontinent. Teak (Tectona grandis) is predominantly grown in India, Southeast Asia, and parts of Central America and the Caribbean, while Indonesia and Fiji have the largest introduced mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla) plantations. Comprehensive information about the main species used in plantations in China (which accounts for 38 percent of the tropical and subtropical plantation area) is not available. However, the most widely planted species in China have been Cunninghamia lanceolata (as discussed above), Eucalyptus species, Populus species and Pinus elliottii.
Plantation areas in temperate and boreal countries are generally less easily defined than in tropical countries. For example, Pandey (1995) notes:
Forestry plantations in the developed/industrialised countries are quite different from most of the developing countries. Except for Australia, New Zealand, Portugal, Spain and UK where exotics (eucalypti and/or pines) dominate the plantations, in all other cases, species indigenous to the countries are used mostly in the plantations. The results of the plantations in these countries are often not much different from the results of active natural regeneration. After about 20% of the rotation period, the difference between the planted and naturally regenerated forests almost disappears and often it becomes difficult to assess the actual area under forest plantations.
The UNECE-FAO temperate and boreal forest component of FRA 2000 classifies forests as being natural, semi-natural or plantations. In many instances, forests established as plantations are now classified as being semi-natural, and it is often unclear exactly where, or how, demarcations have been drawn. Because of difficulties in differentiating between natural and plantation forests, particularly in European countries, the temperate and boreal species distribution presented here is only indicative9.
Compared with tropical and subtropical forest plantations, softwood species comprise a greater proportion of temperate and boreal plantations. The most important species fall into the Spruce-Pine-Fir (SPF) category with 66.9 percent of temperate plantations comprising SPF species. Pines are, by far, the most common plantation species, constituting around 54 percent of the temperate and boreal plantation resource. Pines are widely distributed throughout temperate regions with the largest resources in the United States of America (almost 17 million hectares, mainly the south) and countries of the former-USSR (11.5 million hectares). A number of other countries have, however, significant pine plantations. Spain, New Zealand, Japan and the Republic of Korea have each planted more than one million hectares of pines in forest plantations (as has Chile, included in the tropical and subtropical grouping).
Spruce and fir species are also mainly planted in the Russian Federation and the United States of America. European countries, most importantly the United Kingdom and Ireland, also have significant spruce resources. Japan has the largest plantation resources of cypress, cedar and larch species, plus significant areas of indigenous sugi (Cryptomeria japonica) and hinoki (Chamaecyparis obtusa). The most important temperate and boreal hardwood species groups are Quercus and Fagus species. These genera are estimated to account for 6.8 percent of temperate and boreal plantations. Table 3 presents a species breakdown for temperate and boreal forest plantations in 1995.
Table 3 Areas of temperate and boreal forest plantations by species in 1995
Species |
Percentage of total area |
Area (in ha) |
Pinus species (pines) |
54.3% |
37,068,804 |
Picea and Abies species (spruce/fir) |
12.6% |
8,632,269 |
Larix species (larch) |
3.9% |
2,644,438 |
Cupressus and Chamaecyparis species (cypress) |
3.5% |
2,375,260 |
Cedrus and Cryptomeria species (cedar) |
7.8% |
5,355,310 |
Other softwood species |
6.8% |
4,659,592 |
Eucalyptus species |
0.6% |
382,228 |
Quercus species (oak) |
5.6% |
3,839,151 |
Fagus species (beech) |
1.2% |
820,357 |
Betula species (birch) |
0.3% |
238,230 |
Other hardwoods |
3.4% |
2,297,497 |
TOTAL |
100.0% |
68,313,135 |
Source: Author.
Changes in the area of forest plantations vary between years and between countries. This variation is driven by a number of factors, including: government finances; general economic conditions; incentives offered to the private-sector to establish forest plantations; perceptions of the profitability of forest plantation investments; and levels of promotional activities.
In the long-run it would be expected that the absolute area of new planting will decline as countries and investors reach a saturation point (i.e. in economic terms when the marginal benefits of establishing more forest plantations equals the marginal costs of doing so). In the short-run however, changes in planting rates may occur as a result of structural changes in the economic environment or investor perceptions. For example, in New Zealand, annual new planting for the period 1993-1997 averaged 75,000 hectares compared with 23,000 hectares in the previous five-year period. This occurred largely because of changes in the perceived value of forest plantations. Similarly, changes in social or environmental factors may generate short-run changes in forest plantation establishment activities or may move the rate of new planting onto a different trend line. For example, if forest plantations become a viable option for carbon sequestration projects, there may be an upward shift in annual rates of new planting in a number of countries.
Historical estimates of the global forest plantation area are not generally comparable with the current analysis, due to difficulties in defining and classifying forest plantation resources and the generally weak data on areas of new planting, restocking and mortality. As noted earlier, the definition of a forest plantation is problematic in developed countries, while data discrepancies tend to distort statistics for developing countries. Consequently, even recent estimates of the global forest plantation area vary markedly and there are significant discrepancies in reported areas for a number of countries. For example, Solberg et al (1996) produced an estimate of the global forest plantation area in 1990 of 129.6 million hectares10 and Pandey and Ball (1998) produced an estimate of 138 million hectares for 1995.11
In terms of earlier estimates of forest plantation areas, a study by Lanly and Clement (1979), which estimated trends in industrial forest plantation areas in tropical countries to the year 2000, is of particular interest. Lanly and Clement developed "baseline" estimates of forest plantation areas for 1970 and 1975 (from the best available data at the time) and produced projections from these of forest plantation area by five-yearly intervals through to 2000. Comparing the estimated industrial forest plantation area in 1995 with their projections (for the same set of countries), their projections appear to have been remarkably accurate (see Figure 4). Therefore, it seems reasonable to assume that, for these countries, forest plantation development since 1970 has roughly followed their projections.
Table 4 shows some estimates of industrial forest plantation establishment in selected countries and highlights several discernible trends that characterise forest plantation establishment in many other countries. Japan and Korea for example, are both countries with relatively high population densities, which have replenished their diminished forest estates. In both countries, rates of plantation establishment have declined quite rapidly as national targets have been achieved. Conversely, forest plantation establishment in Myanmar has accelerated significantly since 1980, with the implementation of a large-scale centralised forest planting programme. Rates of planting in Australia, Chile and New Zealand have fluctuated according to various institutional, legislative and economic changes. Planting rates in Australia show a modest downward drift, while interestingly, planting rates in New Zealand and Chile follow a similar pattern of peaks and troughs.
Figure 4 Projected area of industrial forest plantations in the tropics 1970-2000
Sources: Lanly and Clement (1979); Pandey (1997); and Author.
Table 4 Estimates of industrial forest plantation establishment in selected countries
Country or region |
Area in |
Estimated annual rate of establishment | ||||
1970 (`000 ha) |
1971-75 ('000 ha) |
1976-80 ('000 ha) |
1981-85 ('000 ha) |
1986-90 ('000 ha) |
1991-95 ('000 ha) | |
All tropical countries |
3,100 |
322.0 |
364.0 |
456.0 |
524.0 |
472.0 |
Myanmar |
70 |
2.8 |
6.3 |
26.8 |
28.9 |
29.7 |
Australia (conifers only) |
n.a. |
33.9 |
35.0 |
32.6 |
32.3 |
18.6 |
New Zealand |
465 |
30.2 |
46.0 |
49.8 |
33.2 |
43.4 |
Chile |
n.a. |
49.0 |
78.4 |
84.8 |
77.0 |
116.5 |
Republic of Korea |
1,480 |
167.9 |
150.9 |
107.3 |
66.7 |
39.7 |
Japan |
8,260 |
274.8 |
190.2 |
133.0 |
79.0 |
53.6 |
Notes: The total for tropical countries is from Lanly and Clement (1979) and the author has compiled other estimates. The estimates for Myanmar, Australia, Chile and Republic of Korea include replanting.
Pandey (1997) reports annual rates of plantation establishment in tropical and subtropical countries of slightly more than 4 million hectares in 1995 (see Table 5). About 1.7 million hectares of this is in the tropics and 2.4 million hectares occurs in the subtropics. However, some of this planting is replanting of harvested or failed areas.12 Pandey notes a general decline in the annual rate of planting in most tropical countries compared with the 1990 Forest Resource Assessment (which estimated annual planting of 2.6 million hectares in the tropical zone).
Table 5 Estimated annual planting in 1995 in tropical and subtropical countries with major planting programmes
Africa |
South and Central America |
Asia | |||
Country |
Area ('000 ha) |
Country |
Area ('000 ha) |
Country |
Area ('000 ha) |
Algeria |
100 |
Argentina |
30 |
Australia |
25 |
Morocco |
30 |
Brazil |
100 |
China |
2,000 |
South Africa |
20 |
Chile |
100 |
India |
750 |
Sudan |
40 |
Cuba |
25 |
Indonesia |
250 |
Tunisia |
20 |
Peru |
20 |
Malaysia |
20 |
Uruguay |
40 |
Myanmar |
32 | ||
Venezuela |
30 |
Pakistan |
30 | ||
Philippines |
22 | ||||
Thailand |
40 | ||||
Vietnam |
120 | ||||
Total |
288 |
Total |
400 |
Total |
3,329 |
Source: Pandey (1997).
Aggregated global statistics on historical trends plantation establishment in the temperate and boreal zone are not available, particularly because of difficulties with the definition of forest plantations in North America, Europe and countries of the former-USSR. Nonetheless, it is fair to say that, with a few exceptions,13 there is a longer history of the establishment and management of forest plantations in the temperate and boreal zone than in the tropical and subtropical zone. For example, Figure 4 shows that the bulk of forest plantations in the tropics and subtropics have been planted since 1970. In contrast to this, several European countries, such as the United Kingdom14 and Germany (see Box 1), have two centuries or more of plantation experience. The United States of America, New Zealand, Australia and South Africa all established significant areas of forest plantations before 1930. Japan commenced the bulk of its reforestation programme in 1946 and several North African countries commenced planting around the same time. The Republic of Korea started establishing large areas of forest plantations in 1962. The main exceptions in the temperate and boreal zone are the countries of the former-USSR, where the majority of forest plantations appear to have been established since 1970.
Box 1 A brief history of plantation forestry in Germany
In Northern Germany, oaks have been planted around farmsteads since medieval times, providing acorns for pig-feed, bark for tanning, and construction timber for future generations. In the 13th century, this experience was applied on a larger scale, in an attempt to reproduce forests on clear-felled areas.
The first recorded forest plantations in Germany were plantations of oak, for example: in 1343 near Dortmund; in 1357 on the Dresden Heath; and in 1398 in the City Forest of Frankfurt. The sowing of oak and beech continued in all parts of Germany up to the early 17th century. To cope with depleted soils and to provide timber for construction, mining and other industrial uses, conifers growing on shorter rotations were introduced as early as 1368, when several hundred acres of the Lorenzer Forest near Nuremberg was sowed with Pinus sylvestris. This was the starting point for a large-scale conversion of Germany's mixed broadleaf-forests (oak-beech) into pine, spruce or fir monocultural forests. Most of Germany's forests of today have their origins in this reforestation.
Since the beginning of the 20th century, monoculture stands have been encouraged to revert into mixed stands with uneven age-structures. Germany now regards all of its forests to be "semi-natural" in terms of the definitions of different types of forest used in the temperate and boreal forest component of FRA 2000.
Source: Killmann (1999).
4 Oil palm and rubberwood plantations are classified by FAO as agricultural tree-crops rather than as forest plantations. For the purpose of the GFPOS these resources will be analysed as part of the sixth working paper in this series: The potential contribution of trees outside of forests to future wood supplies.
5 In fact, in terms of wood supply analysis, studies that differentiate between natural forests and forest plantations are of only minor interest in themselves. They can be used to enhance the understanding of how changes in forest management intensity can increase the wood and fibre productivity of forests and the differences between species that grow in forest plantations and the natural forest are important factors to consider. The main purpose of concentrating on the future split between forest plantations and the natural forest is much more likely to be to enrich the debate about the environmental and social implications of changing forest types.
6 The classification of forest plantations into industrial plantations and non-industrial plantations follows that of Pandey (1997): "Plantations for the supply of roundwood for sawntimber, veneer and pulp have been classified as "industrial plantations" in this study. Sometimes they were identified from the source, but often the area had to be inferred on the basis of species composition. All other plantations are denoted as "non-industrial plantations" and include those for fuelwood, soil and water protection and amenity purposes."
7 Countries with significant forest plantation resources that have been classified as tropical and subtropical, but have a (sometimes major) temperate forest plantation component, include: Argentina; Australia; China; Chile; India; and South Africa.
8 Tropical and subtropical plantation areas are drawn from Pandey (1997). The areas quoted throughout this paper are Pandey's Net Areas as opposed to Reported Areas. In an attempt to provide more accurate assessments of actual plantation areas Pandey, in some instances, applies a reduction factor to the area of plantations reported to be present in particular countries. "Estimation of the net area, that is, the actual area of the stocked plantations excluding failed, harvested or doubly counted plantations, has been done by applying a reduction factor/success rate derived from inventory or survey of plantations". A more complete description of the process is provided in Pandey (1997).
9 In countries where difficulties arise in differentiating between plantation and natural forest data it has been assumed the plantation species distribution mirrors the overall national species distribution. This assumption is not anticipated to markedly skew the global summary presented in Table 3, because broad species breakdowns are available for all of the countries with the largest forest plantation resources.
10 The bulk of variation between the Solberg et al estimate and the figures presented here is in the estimated areas of forest plantations in China and some countries in Europe and the former-USSR.
11 Including significant additional areas of forest in the United States of America and Canada as forest plantations, but excluding some areas in Western Europe.
12 The proportion of this planting that is replanting is uncertain, but believed to be quite large in some countries.
13 For example, teak plantations in India, which were first established in 1840.
14 For example, in 1698, the United Kingdom passed an Enclosure Act: for the Increase and Preservation of Timber in the New Forest. This Act authorised the establishment of 2,000 acres of forest plantations in Southern England.
