Chapter 3. Forest plantations

ABSTRACT

Forest plantations covered 187 million hectares in 2000, of which Asia accounted for 62 percent. The forest plantation area represents a significant increase from the 1995 estimate of 124 million hectares. The reported new annual planting rate is 4.5 million hectares globally, with Asia and South America accounting for 89 percent. About 3 million hectares are estimated to be successful. Globally, half the forest plantation estate is for industrial end-use, one-quarter for non-industrial end-use and one-quarter not specified. Globally, the main fast-growing, short-rotation species are in the genera Eucalyptus and Acacia. Pines and other coniferous species are the main medium-rotation utility species, primarily in the temperate and boreal zones.

The potential for forest plantations to partially meet demand from natural forests for wood and fibre for industrial uses is increasing. Although accounting for only 5 percent of global forest cover, forest plantations were estimated in the year 2000 to supply about 35 percent of global roundwood. This figure is anticipated to increase to 44 percent by 2020. In some countries forest plantation production already contributes the majority of industrial wood supply. There is increasing interest in development of forest plantations as carbon sinks; however, failure to resolve international debates on legal instruments, mechanisms and monitoring remains a serious constraint.

In developing countries about one-third of the total plantation estate was primarily grown for woodfuel in 1995 - although it should be noted that planted trees on farmland, in villages and homesteads and along roads and waterways contribute significantly to fuelwood supplies, enabling the demand to be met in most instances.

INTRODUCTION

New forest plantation areas were reported as being established globally at the rate of 4.5 million hectares per year, with Asia and South America accounting for more new plantations than the other regions. Of plantations established, about 3 million hectares per year were estimated as being successful. Of the estimated 187 million hectares of plantations worldwide in 2000, Asia had by far the largest area. In terms of composition, Pinus spp. (20 percent) and Eucalyptus spp. (10 percent) remain dominant worldwide, although the overall diversity of species planted was shown to be increasing. Industrial plantations account for 48 percent, non-industrial plantations for 26 percent and plantations for unspecified use for 26 percent of the global forest plantation estate.

The results of the plantation assessment were the first global estimates with a uniform definition of forest plantations and can therefore not be directly compared to previous estimates. FRA 2000 country statistics on plantations may also differ from those reported in prior FAO publications (FAO 1981; FAO 1995), partly because of changes in definitions. Countries participated directly in the assessment, providing technical documentation and supporting analysis and validating the results generated by FAO. Several experts around the world were enlisted to provide detailed information on various aspects of the plantation situation in the form of special studies.

CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS

Between the extremes of afforestation and unaided natural regeneration of natural forests, there is a range of forest conditions in which human interventions occur. European forests have long traditions of human intervention in site preparation, tree establishment, silviculture and protection; yet these are not always defined as forest plantations. The traditional forest plantation concept tends to be applied to single species, uniform planting densities and even age classes. Terms such as "natural forest under management" or "assisted natural regeneration" are applied to stands of indigenous species in more heterogeneous management mechanisms in Europe and other industrialized temperate and boreal countries.

In FRA 2000 "forest plantations" are defined as those forest stands established by planting or/and seeding in the process of afforestation or reforestation. They are either of introduced or indigenous species which meet a minimum area requirement of 0.5 ha; tree crown cover of at least 10 percent of the land cover; and total height of adult trees above 5 m.

In country responses, terms such as "human made forest" or "artificial forest" were considered synonyms for forest plantations as defined in FRA 2000. Because of their increasing significance as a supply of fibre to the wood industries sector, rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) plantations were included as forest plantation resources.

METHODS

The area of existing forest plantations would ideally all have been derived from statistically designed inventories of forest plantations or statistics for planted areas reported by planting agencies or appearing in national reports. However, information also comes from many other sources including nursery production, seedling distribution and estimates derived from the goals of planting programmes. The vast range of agencies, industries and non-governmental organizations within countries engaged in planting programmes made the comprehensive collection of all relevant source documents a major logistical exercise. For FRA 2000, over 800 source documents were analysed to derive the forest plantation estimates. In most developing countries a national clearinghouse for collecting information on plantations is either lacking or ineffective owing to the enormity of the task and limited resources.

Data collection

To retrieve the source documents for the plantation study, FAO made formal requests to all developing countries, some of which contributed the necessary materials. Most of the reports were collected directly by FAO staff during FRA 2000 workshops and visits to national ministries. For consistency FRA 2000 prepared guidelines and questionnaires for the collection of forest plantation statistics in which the objectives, scope, definitions, sources of data and templates for specific data collection were supplied to each country. Parameters requested included:

• total estimated forest plantation area, 2000;
• annual area of new plantations;
• species groups: broadleaf (including Hevea spp.), conifer, non-forest like, African oil palm (Elaeis guineensis), coconut palm (Cocos nucifera) bamboo or unspecified;
• purpose and end-use objective of forest plantations: industrial (producing wood or fibre for supply to wood processing industry) or non-industrial (fuelwood, soil and water protection);
• ownership: public, private, other (e.g. traditional, customary) or unspecified.

Other data requested in the guidelines, which proved difficult for countries to provide by species group, included age class distribution; end-use by forest product (industrial plantations); growth and yield (mean annual increment); standing volumes; and rotation lengths. Despite the absence of these data, FRA 2000 is the most comprehensive forest plantation resources assessment that has been carried out.

In previous assessments of forest plantation resources, plantation data were available up to the reference year for most countries, since the reporting followed the reference year. In FRA 2000, the reference year was 2000, so if data were not available to that date, then existing area and annual planting data were used to extrapolate the necessary information. For the few countries that have no data sets since 1990, the rate of planting in preceding years and future planting programmes were considered in projections to the year 2000.

FAO also enlisted the assistance of several experts around the world to make specific technical contributions on the forest plantation situation in the 1990s. These studies constituted an important part of the global results as well, and complemented the country information.

Analysis and interpretation

The quantity and quality of forest plantation data provided is dependent upon the capacity of the national forest inventory systems to collect and analyse data and to adjust the information to conform with global and regional reporting parameters. In many developing countries there is a lack of institutional capacity to carry out periodic national forest inventories, so data can be incomplete, inconsistent, outdated and of variable reliability. Because of this, it was necessary to derive and in some instances to verify forest plantation statistics through desk research using available country reports. All sources of country data were referenced and made available in a transparent manner. In addition, regional and national focal persons were appointed to assist in the forest plantation data collection, to ensure that the latest data were available and to maintain coordination and communication between FRA 2000, FAO regional offices and each participating country. On completion of the data sets, a formal verification process was undertaken with each participating country.

RESULTS

Regional forest plantation areas, species and annual plantings

The annual plantation rates and plantation areas by regions and species groups are summarized in Table 3-1.

According to global forest plantation area distribution, as depicted in Figure 3-1, Asia accounts for 62 percent of the total; Europe, 17 percent; North and Central America, 9 percent; South America, 6 percent; Africa, 4 percent; and Oceania, less than 2 percent.

Globally, broadleaves make up 40 percent of forest plantation area with Eucalyptus the principal genus. Coniferous species make up 31 percent of which Pinus is the principal genus (Figure 3-2).

In FRA 2000 the global rate of new planting was estimated at 4.5 million hectares per year. Asia accounted for 79 percent and South America for 11 percent (Figure 3-3).

Purpose and ownership within the global forest plantation estate

Purpose and ownership of forest plantations vary markedly among regions (Table 3-2). Industrial plantations provide the raw material for wood processing for commercial purposes, including timber for construction, panel products and furniture, and pulpwood for paper. In contrast, non-industrial plantations are aimed for example at supplying fuelwood, providing soil and water conservation, wind protection, biological diversity conservation and other non-commercial purposes.

In many countries, particularly in the developing world, the end purpose of the plantations is not clearly defined at the outset. In some of these cases, valuable tree resources are established which coincidentally match future needs. However, in other cases the lack of planning may result in plantations that have little commercial value and a low potential for local use.

Table 3-1. Annual plantation rates and plantation areas by region and species group

Region	Total area	Annual rate	Plantation areas by species groups (000 ha)
	000 ha	000 ha/yr	Acacia	Eucalyptus	Hevea	Tectona	Other broadleaf	Pinus	Other conifer	Unspecified
Africa	8 036	194	345	1 799	573	207	902	1 648	578	1 985
Asia	115 847	3 500	7 964	10 994	9 058	5 409	31 556	15 532	19 968	15 365
Europe	32 015	5	-	-	-	-	15	-	-	32 000
North and Central America	17 533	234	-	198	52	76	383	15 440	88	1 297
Oceania	3 201	50	8	33	20	7	101	73	10	2 948
South America	10 455	509	-	4 836	183	18	599	4 699	98	23
WORLD TOTAL	187 086	4 493	8 317	17 860	9 885	5 716	33 556	37 391	20 743	53 618

Figure 3-1. Distribution of forest plantation area by region

Figure 3-2. Distribution of plantation areas by genus

Table 3-2. Regional plantation areas by purpose and ownership

Region	Total area	Industrial purpose (000 ha)					Non-industrial purpose (000 ha)					Purpose unspec.
		Public	Private	Other	Unspec.	Sub-total	Public	Private	Other	Unspec.	Subtotal
Africa	8 036	1 770	1 161	51	410	3 392	2 035	297	611	330	3 273	1 371
Asia	115 847	25 798	5 973	27 032	-	58 803	17 177	17 268	9 145	72	43 662	13 381
Europe	32 015	-	-	-	569	569	9	6	-	-	15	31 431
North and Central America	17 533	1 446	15 172	118	39	16 775	362	58	16	35	471	287
Oceania	3 201	151	14	-	24	189	2	3	-	19	24	2 987
South America	10 455	1 061	3 557		4 827	9 445	251	528	-	225	1 004	6
WORLD TOTAL	187 086	30 226	25 876	27 202	5 871	89 175	19 836	18 161	9 772	680	48 449	49 463

Source: FRA 2000

Figure 3-4. Distribution of forest plantations end-use, worldwide

Figure 3-5. Ownership of industrial forest plantations, worldwide

Figure 3-6. Ownership of non-industrial forest plantations, worldwide

Globally, 48 percent of the forest plantation estate is for industrial end-use; 26 percent for non-industrial (fuelwood, soil and water, other); and 26 percent is not specified (Figure 3-4).

Globally, industrial plantations are 34 percent publicly owned, 29 percent privately owned and 37 percent other or unspecified (Figure 3-5). Within non-industrial plantations, 41 percent are publicly owned, 37 percent are privately owned and 22 percent are other or unspecified (Figure 3-6).

Leaders in forest plantation development (top ten countries by area)

As detailed in Table 3-3, the ten countries with the largest forest plantation development account for 79 percent of the global forest plantation development area. Six of these countries, accounting for 56 percent of global forest plantations, are in Asia.

The top ten countries according to area are China, 24 percent; India, 17 percent; the Russian Federation, 9 percent; the United States, 9 percent; Japan, 6 percent; Indonesia, 5 percent; Brazil, 3 percent; Thailand, 3 percent; Ukraine, 2 percent and the Islamic Republic of Iran, 1 percent (Figure 3-7).

Within the top ten, an estimated 52 percent of forest plantations are grown for industrial purposes to supply raw material for industry; 26 percent for non-industrial uses (fuelwood, soil and water protection, biodiversity conservation); and the purpose was not specified in 22 percent (Figure 3-8). The industrial forest estate in these top ten countries was owned publicly, 33 percent; privately, 26 percent; and other or unspecified, 41 percent (Figure 3-9).

Table 3-3. Plantation purpose and ownership by reported area for the ten largest plantation development countries

Country	Total area	Industrial purpose 000 ha					Non-industrial purpose 000 ha					Unspecified purpose
	000 ha	Public	Private	Other	Unspecified	Subtotal	Public	Private	Other	Unspecified	Subtotal
China	45 083	10 182	-	26 994	-	37 176	102	-	7 805	-	7 907	-
India	32 578	8 258	3 749	-	-	12 007	11 370	8 641	560	-	20 571	-
Russian Federation	17 340	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	17 340
United States	16 238	1 185	15 053	-	-	16 238	-	-	-	-	-	-
Japan	10 682	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	10 682
Indonesia	9 871	4 531	1 228	-	-	5 759	358	3 754	-	-	4 112	-
Brazil	4 982	-	-	4 802	-	4 802	-	-	180	-	180	-
Thailand	4 920	850	314	-	-	1 164	1 219	2 537	-	-	3 756	-
Ukraine	4 425	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.		n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	4 425
Islamic Republic of Iran	2 284	241	-	-	-	241	1 938	105	-	-	2 043	-
Top 10 Total	148 403	25 247	20 344	31 796	-	77 387	14 987	15 037	8 545	-	38 569	32 447
Top 10 %	79%					87%					80%	66%
WORLD TOTAL	187 086	30 226	25 876	27 202	5 871	89 175	19 836	18 161	9 772	680	48 449	49 463

Source: FRA 2000

Figure 3-8. End-use of forest plantations, top ten countries

Figure 3-9. Ownership, industrial plantations, top ten countries

SELECTED GLOBAL TRENDS, 1980-2000

Comparisons

FRA 2000 country statistics on plantations may differ from those reported in prior FAO publications (FAO 1981; FAO 1991), partly because of changes in definitions. For example, rubber (Hevea spp.) plantations were not previously considered as forest plantations but are included in FRA 2000 plantation data. Previous assessments also used regional reduction factors to indicate the successful proportion of plantations remaining after establishment. The FRA 2000 assessment applied reduction factors according to the best available data from each country independently. There have also been changes in the information base from which the estimates were derived. The statistics now include data from many industrialized countries, none of which were included in the prior global assessment reports. Despite these differences, comparison of FRA results from each decade allows analysis of some trends including planting rates, genera, areas and purpose (end-use).

Global forest plantation estate

The global forest plantation estate has increased from 17.8 million hectares in 1980 and 43.6 million hectares in 1990 to 187 million hectares in 2000 (Table 3-4).

Table 3-4. Forest plantation purpose trends by region, 1980-2000

Region	Plantation area by purpose 000 ha
	Total	Industrial	Non-industrial	Unspecified
2000
Africa	8 036	3 392	3 273	1 371
Asia	115 847	58 803	43 662	13 381
Oceania	3 201	189	24	2 987
Europe	32 015	569	15	31 431
North and Central America	17 533	16 775	471	287
South America	10 455	9 446	1 004	6
GLOBAL TOTAL	187 087	89 175	48 449	49 463
1990
Africa	2 990	1 366	1 623
Asia	31 775	8 991	23 119
Oceania	189	167	22
Europe
North and Central America	691	457	234
South America	7 946	4 645	3 301
GLOBAL TOTAL	43 590	15 625	28 300
1980
Africa	1 713	939	780
Asia	11 088	3 487	7 601
Oceania	88	41	47
Europe
North and Central America	287	272	15
South America	4 604	2 261	2 348
GLOBAL TOTAL	17 779	7 000	10 791

Source: FAO 1981, 1995, 2000

Species trends by region - a graphic illustration

Species trends from FRA 1980, FRA 1990 and FRA 2000 are graphically illustrated by region in Figures 3-10 to 3-15 (FAO 1981; FAO 1995). The graphics are not to scale but illustrate relative growth within the region over the period and show trends in species used.

IMPACTS OF THE FOREST PLANTATION ESTATE

The potential for forest plantations to partially meet demand for wood and fibre for industrial uses is increasing. According to FRA 2000, the global forest plantation area accounts for only 5 percent of global forest cover and the industrial forest plantation estate for less than 3 percent. However, as an indication only, forest plantations were estimated in the year 2000 to supply about 35 percent of global roundwood and an increase to 44 percent anticipated by 2020 (ABARE and Jaakko Pöyry 1999) (Figure 3-15). If plantation development is targeted at the most appropriate ecological zones and if sustainable forest management principles are applied, forest plantations can provide a critical substitute for natural forest raw material supply. In several countries industrial wood production from forest plantations has significantly substituted for wood supply from natural forest resources. Forest plantations in New Zealand met 99 percent of the country's needs for industrial roundwood in 1997; the corresponding figure in Chile was 84 percent, Brazil 62 percent and Zambia and Zimbabwe 50 percent each. This substitution by forest plantations may help reduce logging pressure on natural forests in areas in which unsustainable harvesting of wood is a major cause of forest degradation and where logging roads facilitate access that may lead to deforestation.

Figure 3-10. Plantation areas by genus, Asia

Figure 3-11. Plantation areas by genus, North and Central America

Figure 3-12. Plantation areas by genus, Africa

Figure 3-13. Plantation areas by genus, Oceania

Figure 3-14. Plantation areas by genus, South America

Figure 3-15. Predicted contribution of plantation wood to regional wood supply

Source: ABARE and Jaakko Pöyry 1999

Table 3-5. Mean annual increments for selected species used in industrial forest plantations*

Species	MAI
	/ha/yr
Eucalyptus
E. deglupta	14-50
E. globulus	10-40
E. grandis	15-50
E. saligna	10-55
E. camaldulensis	15-30
E. urophylla	20-60
E. robusta	10-40
Pinus
P. caribaea var. Caribaea	10-28
P. caribaea var. Hondurensis	20-50
P. patula	8-40
P. radiata	12-35
P. oocarpa	10-40
Other species
Araucaria angustifolia	8-24
Araucaria cunninghamii	10-18
Gmelina arborea	12-50
Swietenia macrophylla	7-11
Tectona grandis	6-18
Casuarina equisetifolia	6-20
Casuarina junghuhniana	7-11
Cupressus lusitanica	8-40
Cordia alliodora	10-20
Leucaena leucocephala	30-55
Acacia auriculiformis	6-20
Acacia mearnsii	14-25
Terminalia superba	10-14
Terminalia ivorensis	8-17
Dalbergia sissoo	5-8

Source: Webb et al. 1984; Wadsworth 1997.
* Some promising trials are included.

Not all forest plantation development has positive economic, environmental, social or cultural impacts. Without adequate planning and without appropriate management, forest plantations may be grown in the wrong sites, with the wrong species/provenances, by the wrong growers, for the wrong reasons. Examples exist where natural forests have been cleared to establish forest plantation development or where customary owners of traditional lands may have been alienated from their sources of food, medicine and livelihoods. In some instances poor site/species matching and inadequate silviculture have resulted in poor growth, hygiene, volume yields and economic returns. In other instances, changes in soil and water status have caused problems for local communities. Land use conflicts can occur between forest plantation development and other sectors, particularly the agricultural sector.

The negative impacts of forest plantations can draw the focus away from the fact that forest plantation resources are totally renewable and can be economically, socially, culturally and environmentally sustainable with prudent planning, management, utilization and marketing.

SELECTED FOREST PLANTATION TOPICS

Mean annual volume increment (MAI) of select industrial species

For plantation planning and modelling, data from FRA 2000 need to be supplemented by growth and yield information. Average growth rates of frequently planted species are summarized in Table 3-5.

On average Eucalyptus and Pinus species, which dominate industrial plantations in developing countries, have similar MAIs of 10 to 20 m³ per hectare per year. However, many of the popular species of both genera frequently achieve much faster growth rates. Thus Eucalyptus grandis, which is the most widely planted Eucalyptus species, can achieve 40 to 50 m³ per hectare per year and in very exceptional conditions with advanced tree improvement 100 m³ per hectare per year. Other widely planted tropical hardwoods including Casuarina equisetifolia, Casuarina junghuhniana, Tectona grandis and Dalbergia sissoo have MAIs of less than 15 m³ per hectare per year and frequently under 10 m³ per hectare per year (FAO 2001h).

Climate and site have a very large impact on growth rates. The humid tropics and more fertile sites are more conducive to higher growth rates than locations with long dry seasons or infertile or degraded soil. Teak on many sites in India, for example, frequently has an MAI of 4 to 8 m³ per hectare per year, partly because of drought combined with poor soils. Some species such as Gmelina arborea and some of the Eucalyptus species are very site sensitive. Pinus spp., in contrast, generally tolerate adverse conditions better and are more flexible with respect to site.

Both tree breeding and silviculture have improved growth rates. Good examples are Eucalyptus grandis and E. urophylla in Brazil and Pinus radiata in some countries of the Southern Hemisphere. Advanced silviculture typically includes improved nursery and establishment techniques such as good site preparation, weed control and judicious use of fertilizer. It has been suggested that growth of teak (Tectona grandis), for example, could be doubled in Kerala, India and Bangladesh, and increased sixfold in Indonesia by adopting these practices. With coppice species productivity varies with rotation, the first and second coppice rotations usually being more productive than the seedling one.

The growth patterns vary among species. For example, very fast growing species such as Gmelina arborea can reach a peak MAI in less than 10 years, while Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis grown in Trinidad reaches maximum MAI at about 25 years and P. radiata at over 40 years. With Cupressus lusitanica in Costa Rica, the MAI maximum is reached at about 30 years (FAO 2001h).

Rotation lengths can reflect both end-use and economics. Many fast-growing Eucalyptus, Acacia and Casuarina species and Gmelina arborea are grown on short rotations of under 15 years as they are used primarily for pulp or woodfuel. Usual rotations in Kenya for E. grandis are 6 years for domestic woodfuel, 7 to 8 years for telephone poles and 10 to 12 years for industrial woodfuel. In Brazil this species is largely grown for pulp or charcoal on 5 to 10 year rotations. Species being grown for high-value sawlogs usually have longer rotations; teak (Tectona grandis) is grown on 50 to 70 year rotations and high-value conifers such as Araucaria angustifolia on 40 year rotations. Generally pines are grown on medium-length rotations of 20 to 30 years, unless grown solely for pulpwood, when shorter rotations may be adopted.

Modelling of growth, rotations, harvest yields and product mix by species is important for decision-making in forest management. One of the major obstacles to model development for planners and managers is a lack of suitable data. Data can come from a range of sources, including temporary and permanent sample plots and experiments. Experiments and protocols for obtaining data need to be carefully designed so that reliable information is obtained over the complete range of conditions to which the model is to apply. Tree Growth and Permanent Plot Information System (TROPIS), sponsored by the Centre for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), seeks to coordinate and improve access to tree growth information.

A growth and yield model developed for Pinus elliottii plantations in coastal Zululand, South Africa, predicts height, basal area, total stem and merchantable volume and stocking, with age on a stand level for harvest planning. In New Zealand several simulation models have been developed for P. radiata which predict similar variables but also include wood quality, harvesting and marketing aspects, which make it possible to link the silvicultural options to industrial use.

Sustaining productivity

It is possible not only to sustain but also to increase productivity in successive rotations. This requires clear definition of the end-use objective for forest plantation development and a holistic view in their management. There is a need to integrate strategies for genetic improvement programmes, nursery practices, site and species/provenance matching, appropriate silviculture (site preparation, establishment, weeding, fertilizing, pruning, thinning), forest protection and harvesting practices with prudent management. New Zealand and the southern United States have shown that substantial gains can be made by adopting this holistic approach. In developing countries where resources may be constrained, highly technical solutions may not be essential but it is critical to get the fundamentals correct: careful species and provenance choice, good nursery stock, site preparation, planting techniques, weed control and, less frequently, fertilizer inputs. Once fast-growing, uniform plantations have been established, later silvicultural tending may become increasingly important, depending on the end-use objective (FAO 2001e).

Current evidence suggests that plantation production can be sustainable if foresters implement prudent genetic and silvicultural tree improvement programmes and sound management practices (Evans 1999). There has been, however, limited long-term research on the subject; there are few definitive studies, limited to few species. In one of the most promising studies, with Pinus patula in Swaziland grown intensively on about 15 year rotations, site productivity was maintained or increased over three rotations. The question of declining growth in teak (Tectona grandis) plantations in Indonesia and India remains unclear (FAO 2001b).

How forest plantations are managed affects the chemical and physical properties of the soils and site. However, only recently have long-term studies been undertaken to evaluate these critical factors or processes. The methods adopted for site preparation (ripping, ploughing, scarifying, bedding, windrowing, controlled burning), establishment (manual, mechanical), weeding (manual, chemical, mechanical), fertilizer application, pruning and thinning (manual and mechanical, for commercial to waste), forest protection and harvesting (manual, mechanical, clear-fell or selection) all affect the pool of nutrients in the ecosystem. Interference with the drainage, litter and recycling of organic matter and change in the physical conditions of soils during these operations are critical to long-term sustainability. Because of litter recycling and the rapid development of tree roots, plantations are used for rehabilitation of fragile and degraded lands prone to soil erosion and excessive water runoff. Tree plantations often have higher evapotranspiration rates than grassland or agricultural crops, and thus change the hydrology of the site. This can be either beneficial (for example by reducing salinity problems in some dryland conditions) or detrimental (if it reduces water required for other uses) (FAO 2001b).

The rare studies of changes of productivity between rotations have concluded that negative changes have primarily been due to inappropriate or inadequate management practices or weed invasions rather than a result of the plantations themselves.

Burning and excessive cultivation in site preparation, soil compaction from mechanical operations, inappropriate harvesting techniques and poor forest protection can contribute to loss of nutrients and soil erosion, with a resultant loss in productivity of forest plantation sites. This cannot be addressed solely by addition of fertilizer, but by the adoption of the whole range of tree improvement, silviculture, protection and harvesting techniques in an integrated forest management strategy.

Valuable hardwood plantations

Long-rotation, slow-growing but valuable hardwood species have special technical properties, such as strength, natural durability, hardness and easy machining, and appearance (grain, figure, texture, colour and other aesthetic qualities) that make them suitable for high-value end-uses such as furniture. These high-grade hardwoods contrast with short-rotation, fast-growing, lesser-quality woods used for woodfuel, pulpwood or reconstituted products and less demanding building timbers. In tropical countries teak (Tectona grandis), mahogany (Swietenia spp.) and rosewood (Dalbergia spp.) are the main hardwood plantation species, while in temperate countries oak (Quercus spp.), ash (Fraxinus spp.), cherry (Prunus spp.), walnut (Juglans spp.), tulipwood (Jacaranda spp.) and hard maple (Acer spp.) predominate.

Because many valuable hardwood species are difficult to establish because of their ecological requirements or disease or insect susceptibility, focus has been on the easier species to grow, including teak (Tectona grandis), Indian rosewood (Dalbergia sissoo) and mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla). In 1995 the global areas of these species were 2 254 000, 626 000 and 151 000 ha, respectively. They accounted for about 10 percent of total hardwood plantations in the tropics. More than 90 percent of teak plantations were located in Asia, mainly in Indonesia, India, Thailand, Bangladesh, Myanmar and Sri Lanka. About 95 percent of rosewood plantations are located in India and Pakistan. The largest mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla) plantations are located in Indonesia and Fiji, which together make up about 80 percent of the established area (FAO 2001g). A summary of the main characteristics of valuable hardwood species commonly grown in tropical areas is given in Table 3-6.

The market preference for large piece sizes, slow growth and very long rotation lengths (e.g. 50 to 70 years for teak) combine to reduce the attractiveness for commercial investment in these species. This is only partially counteracted by their value. The low return on capital investment, coupled with the long wait period for this return, has made it difficult to interest private investors without supportive, secure and stable government policies.

Table 3-6. Characteristics of valuable hardwoods used in tropical areas

Use categories	Desirable wood properties	Main end-uses	Matching valuable hardwood species	Comments
Decorative timbers	Appearance, consistent quality, dimensional stability, durability, good machining, staining and finishing properties	Quality furniture and interior joinery	Tieghemella spp.; Entandophragma cylindricum, Chorophora spp., Aucoumea klaineana, Afrormosia spp., Entandophragma utile, Mansonia spp., Lovoa spp., Khaya spp., Swietenia spp., Dalbergia spp., Aningeria spp.	Highest value, competition from temperate hardwoods and MDF
High to very high-density timbers	Appearance, strength, high natural durability, availability in large sizes	Principally in construction	Dipterocarpus spp., Lophira spp., Chlorophora spp., Ocotea rodiaei	Small share of total tropical timber use
Low to medium-density utility timbers	Appearance, clear grain, natural durability, good machining properties	External joinery, shop fittings, medium-priced furniture	Shorea spp, Hevea brasiliensis, Terminalia spp., Heritiera spp.	Most commonly used, prone to competition from substitutes

Source: Based on FAO 1991.

Projections for supplies of timber from existing valuable hardwood plantations indicate that because of the age class distribution and long rotations there will not be a significant increase in supply in the next 20 years (FAO 2001g).

Future promotion of quality hardwood plantations needs to emphasize choice of species with versatile end-uses, market research and development to hold on to niche markets and maintained high standards from production to marketing. Careful site selection, use of high-quality planting materials of superior genetic origin and good silviculture are important. Planting programmes should be economically viable, environmentally appropriate and socially desirable. Incentives may also be necessary to stimulate private investment because of the long rotations.

Even though valuable hardwood plantations have the potential to reduce the pressure on natural forests, they will not prevent deforestation resulting from agricultural encroachment. The supply of large quantities of high-value timber could perhaps undermine the value of natural forest stands and so lead to more rapid destruction. Hence it is advisable, where possible, to manage plantations and forest resources and forest products in a complementary manner.

Plantations and wood energy

Woodfuels from plantations or natural or semi-natural forests are particularly important in developing countries, providing about 15 percent of their total energy demand (WEC 1999). Woodfuel provides about 7 percent of energy demand for the world as a whole and in industrialized countries only 2 percent. Woodfuel provides more than 70 percent of energy needs in 34 developing countries and more than 90 percent in 13 countries (including 11 in Africa). Woodfuel makes up about 80 percent of total wood use in developing countries and about 89 percent in Africa (FAO 2001f).

The prediction of a woodfuel crisis in developing countries in the 1980s was based largely on looking at supply and demand from forest plantations and natural forests. The reaction to the expected woodfuel crisis was to plant trees for this purpose, often in the form of traditional plantations. Many programme failures resulted from lack of appreciation for the complexities of bioenergy supply and demand, failure to take into account social aspects and people's needs and poor programme structures. The importance of planted trees on farmland, in villages and homesteads and along roads and waterways as a source of woodfuel supply was underestimated.

Rural communities harvest stems, branches, stumps, twigs, leaves and litter for woodfuels in chronic woodfuel supply areas. In these instances the nutrient recycling process is broken, resulting in degradation of forest plantation sites. In many rural communities in developing countries, woodfuel is considered a public free good, to be foraged from public natural and plantation forests. Often women and children collect the woodfuel at little or no cost. As a result, the growing of private forest plantations specifically for woodfuel, in which development costs and rotation cycles are involved, can be a foreign concept.

Asian studies show that forest-based supply can range from 13 percent in the Philippines to as high as 73 percent in Nepal. In many countries less than 50 percent of fuelwood is from forests.

Globally, non-industrial forest plantations in 1995 were estimated to cover about 20 million hectares (FAO 2000). This was almost 17 percent of the world's total plantation area in 1995. A significant proportion of these plantations were planted for woodfuel, and 98 percent were in developing countries. These plantation figures do not account for trees planted outside the forest on farms or in villages, etc., nor do they consider plantations that were considered agricultural plantations, such as Hevea or palm plantations.

In developing countries about one-third of the total plantation estate was grown primarily for woodfuel in 1995 (Table 3-7). Three-quarters of these plantations were in Asia (excluding Japan), where they accounted for 60 percent of total plantation production. In Latin America more than half of plantation production went to woodfuel; in Africa and Oceania a larger proportion of plantation production was as industrial wood. However, plantations, in general, provided only a small proportion of total woodfuel used. Uruguay is an interesting exception (FAO 2001f).

Production of woodfuel from plantations currently makes only a small contribution to energy requirements, although it is very important in some localities and countries. Plantations currently supply 5 percent of woodfuel. Production from these non-industrial plantations is likely to double over the next 20 years, even with little expansion in area, because the age class distribution is heavily concentrated in young plantations. In an optimistic scenario where planting continues at the same rate as in the past ten years and then gradually declines, a 350 percent increase in woodfuel production would be anticipated by 2020. By-products from wood-using industries will also contribute to increased fuelwood supply. The situation is less positive in Africa, where for a few countries declines are projected in plantation-based woodfuel production (FAO 2001f).

Table 3-7. Areas and production of non-industrial forest plantations in selected developing countries by region

Region	Area of woodfuel estatea 000 ha	% of total plantation estate	1995 estimates			2020
			Plantation woodfuela million m3	% of plantation production	% of total woodfuel useb	Predicted woodfuelc million m3
Africa	2 154	37	12.2	34	3	20.6
Ethiopia	135	88	1.5	93	3	1.6
Madagascar	122	52	1.5	84	16	1.7
Sudan	233	78	1.1	76	7	3.2
Asiad	15 090	33	53.8	60	5	334.8
China	3 854	18	5.5	20	2	56.7
India	8 308	67	30.2	92	11	137.7
Indonesia	399	13	4.2	52	5	8.2
Oceaniae	14	10	<0.1	12	<1
Latin America	3 123	35	20.4	55	8	47.0
Brazil	1 946	47	12.6	51	12	25.1
Peru	210	72	1.5	70	9	3.6
Uruguay	232	67	2.1	71	95	5.9
Developing countries	20 380	33	86.4	47	5	302.4

^a Assumes non-industrial plantations are primarily for woodfuel.

^b Based on estimates in WEC (1999) and FAO (2000).

^c Scenario 3 from FAO (2000) - for 10 years new planted area same as recent years, followed by a gradual decline - an optimistic estimate.

^d Asia includes Turkey but excludes Japan.

^e Oceania excludes Australia and New Zealand.

Since FRA 1990, advances in wood utilization technology have resulted in increasing importance of new sources of fibre - rubber (Hevea brasiliensis), coconut palm (Cocos nucifera) and African oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) - especially in the Southeast Asian subregion. These species account for 9.7, 12.0 and 6.0 million hectares of plantations, respectively. All grow in the humid tropics. In terms of plantation area, Asia has 92 percent of the world's rubber, 86 percent of the world's coconut palm and 78 percent of the world's African oil palm. Indonesia, Thailand and Malaysia have almost three-quarters of the rubber plantations; Indonesia and the Philippines have about half the coconut resources; and Malaysia has 55 percent of the oil palm resource. All three species are grown principally for other products rather than wood, so when overmature they are available for fibre-based industries at minimal cost (FAO 2001c).

Rubberwood is harvested when latex productivity declines (beyond 30 years) and yields 100 m³ per hectare of roundwood, but recovery for lumber is only 25 to 45 percent because of poor form and small size. Most of the planted stands in Southeast Asia are owned by smallholders and are geographically dispersed, with poor accessibility and poor-quality stems. Currently the major proportion of industrially utilized rubberwood comes from large-scale plantations. Quality furniture, parquet, panelling, reconstituted panels, general utility timber and woodfuel, including charcoal, are made from rubberwood. However, the rubberwood must be processed within days of harvesting to minimize sapstain attack. The most developed downstream industries are in Malaysia, where the production of sawn rubberwood timber rose from 88 000 m³ in 1990 to 137 000 m³ in 1997 and medium density fibreboard (MDF) production from rubberwood reached 1.16 million cubic metres per annum by 1999. Exports of rubberwood furniture have grown from about US$74 million in 1991 to US$683 million in 1998. Rubberwood has become a substitute for light tropical forest hardwoods. Its acceptance as a sustainable plantation-grown, environmentally friendly timber has given it wide appeal (FAO 2001c).

Coconut palms are harvested as the copra yields decline (beyond 60 years) and yield 90 m³ per hectare of coconut wood. Coconut palm has variable properties and is intrinsically difficult for conversion but can yield a relatively low-cost, general-utility timber for construction, panelling, stairs, door jambs, furniture, flooring and power poles. In 1993 Indonesia had 65 million cubic metres of overmature coconut stems which needed disposal before replanting. There is increasing interest in this raw material in European and North American markets. It is unlikely to replace conventional timber, but likely to find its way into niche markets. It will continue to be used as a low-cost construction timber (FAO 2001c).

Oil palm plantations are harvested for fibre beyond the 25 to 30 year rotations and yield about 235 m³ per hectare. It is estimated that over 1.6 billion cubic metres of fibre will be available in the years to come from established resources in Southeast Asia. From 1996 to 1999 the area increased by 18 percent. In Malaysia the area has increased by 3 million hectares in the past 30 years.

Most oil palm plantations (unlike rubber and coconut) in the main growing countries, Malaysia and Indonesia, are managed by plantation companies or cooperatives. Oil palm by-products such as kernel shells, pressed fibres and empty fruit bunches are currently used in heat generation at the extraction plants. Water in the stems can reach five times the weight of dry matter. The high moisture content as well as the high amounts of parenchyma tissue rich in sugar and starches make conversion into quality forest products a challenge. An MDF plant in Malaysia is currently being planned to utilize oil palm stems (FAO 2001c).

Plantation substitutes for natural forest products

With growing concerns about the status and loss of natural forests, the rapid expansion of protected areas and large areas of forest unavailable for wood supply, plantations are increasingly expected to provide substitutes for products from natural forests, particularly in Asia and the Pacific.

In Asia and the Pacific it is estimated that 52 percent of natural forests are not available for wood harvest because they are inaccessible or uneconomic to exploit. Of the unavailable forest in the region, it is estimated that about 38 percent is legally reserved. In addition, logging bans have been imposed on large areas of natural forest covering about 10 million hectares. The reasons for these bans vary but were related to deforestation and forest degradation causing environmental problems in Thailand, the Philippines and China and to conservation requirements in Sri Lanka and New Zealand (FAO 2001a).

As a result of the net effect of deforestation and removal of natural forests from wood production, some areas in the Asia and the Pacific region have wood deficits and roundwood harvesting is exceeding sustainable levels of cut. The worst affected areas are South Asia and insular Southeast Asia, with continental Southeast Asia also under strain. In contrast, New Zealand has surplus plantation wood available for export.

Of six examples studied in the Asia and the Pacific region, New Zealand is more than self-sufficient in wood production based on plantations. In China and Viet Nam, the importance of plantations will increase as planted resources mature. There have been serious problems with implementing plantation development programmes in Sri Lanka, the Philippines and Thailand. In Sri Lanka, India and elsewhere in the tropics, trees outside the forest are playing a critical role in roundwood and woodfuel supply (FAO 2001a).

Most countries in the region are becoming importers of wood, with imports expected to rise. Sometimes logging bans have shifted the problem to other countries. Problems with acquiring large areas of land in some countries make it difficult to implement industrial plantations. In the Philippines, Thailand and Viet Nam there have been social conflicts with local indigenous people or between traditional forest use and development, as well as between the rich and the poor. Sometimes incentives and the development of social forestry programmes are being used to help resolve such problems.

While it is clear that plantations will have an increasingly significant role in substituting products from natural forests, the impact will be felt on a case-by-case basis as governments and investors determine where and how plantations can be technically, economically and socially feasible as well as environmentally friendly. In the near term, plantations in Asia and the Pacific can make a contribution but cannot replace harvests from natural forests. It is likely that both in the region and globally the current pace of industrial plantation development will barely keep pace with losses from deforestation and transfer of natural forests to protected status. While it would be theoretically possible, actual plantation development is at present not sufficient to offset both growing consumption and declining harvest from natural forests (FAO 2001a).

Plantations and carbon sequestration

In the past ten years, the development of forest plantations as carbon offsets has evolved towards a market mechanism, although an organized market with carbon prices defined according to supply and demand forces is still a long way off. The adoption of the Kyoto Protocol in 1997 triggered a strong increase in investment in plantations as carbon sinks, although the legal and policy instruments and guidelines for management are still debated. A number of countries have already prepared themselves for the additional funding for the establishment of human-made forests. The 1997 Costa Rica national programme was the first to establish tradeable securities of carbon sinks that could be used to offset emissions and the first to utilize independent certification insurance.

To date, greenhouse gas mitigation funding covers about 4 million hectares of forest plantations worldwide (FAO 2001d). The recognition of afforestation and reforestation as the only eligible land use, land use change and forestry activities under the Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol, as agreed in Bonn during the second part of the Sixth Conference of the Parties to UNFCCC in July 2001, will lead to a steep increase in forest plantation establishment in developing countries. The sink decision of the Bonn Agreement is expected to funnel additional funds into forest activities in developing countries and thus to strengthen the international efforts in this field. However, it will also require a monitoring and verification system to ensure that these plantations will not be established at the expense of the local population or efforts to conserve biological diversity. Thus the decisions taken in Bonn to make the Kyoto Protocol ratifiable will also bear new challenges for forest plantation development.

CONCLUSIONS

New forest plantation areas are reported to be increasing globally at the rate of 4.5 million hectares per year, but net areas may be much less. Asia and South America account for more new plantation development than other regions. The Asian region has the largest areas in forest plantations.

Broadleaf species account for 40 percent of forest plantations, coniferous species 31 percent and unspecified species 29 percent.

Industrial plantations account for 48 percent and non-industrial 26 percent of global forest plantations. Industrial plantation resources are dominated by China, India and the United States, while non-industrial plantation resources are dominated by China, India, Thailand and Indonesia. Forest plantation ownership in both industrial and non-industrial plantations is evenly balanced between public and private.

Data on forest plantations remain weak, however, for detailed analysis.

Forest plantations can provide critical environmental, social and economic benefits. Sound forest plantation management, tree improvement and silviculture can sustain and/or enhance productivity of forest plantations. To do so, however, it is important that forest plantations be managed in accordance with a defined end-use objective.

Forest plantations provide a critical substitute for raw material supply from natural forests, including industrial roundwood and fuelwood. In addition, non-forest species such as rubber (Hevea brasiliensis), coconut (Cocos nucifera) and oil palm (Elaeis guineensi) are becoming important sources of wood and fibre. Finally, there is increasing potential for forest plantation investment to offest carbon emissions.

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