The seventh meeting of the PAAT Programme Committee was convened at the Headquarters of the World Health Organization (WHO), Geneva, Switzerland, 25-26 November, 2002. The following conclusions and recommendations were formulated.
Conclusions
A. The case for urgent action towards more productive agriculture and livestock systems is underscored by the projected need to import up to 50 percent of the required food in sub-Saharan Africa by 2025.
B. The meeting endorsed the outcomes of the PAAT-PATTEC harmonization workshop (Rome, May 2002), the associated press release and the statement issued by the PAAT community of the 8th PAG meeting (Nairobi, September 2002).
C. Tsetse and trypanosomiasis intervention must be part of an overall package of SARD and poverty reduction. In this regard, the potential impact of investing in tsetse and trypanosomiasis (T&T) intervention must be made obvious to donors.
D. The absence of adequate numbers of trained personnel is emerging as a constraint to the successful implementation of intervention strategies.
E. The four mandated organizations encourage - through PAAT - PATTEC to use its political role in Africa to promote T&T interventions.
F. In order to avoid further controversy, early clarification by PATTEC over the terminology and immediate and ultimate objectives of intervention against T&T would be beneficial. This would facilitate more effective public relations by the mandated organizations.
G. The Programme Committee commends WHO for entering public/private partnerships and welcomes the links with Aventis and Bayer. PAAT also commends MSF for its DNDi (Drugs for Neglected Diseases initiative) and encourages partners to provide support wherever possible.
H. The Programme Committee welcomes the initiative by IFAH (International Federation for Animal Health) to support PAAT in conducting investigations about the quality of trypanocides and by making recommendations towards the use of established standards products.
I. The development of new drugs does not constitute a complete solution to HAT, but there is a need to ensure that infrastructure is available for accurate diagnosis and access treatments.
J. Strong links between research and development and control activities are essential, as demonstrated by WHO and TDR.
K. The Programme Committee welcomed the recent involvement of PAAT in the GFAR/GPP (Global Forum on Agricultural Research/Global Partnership Programme) Tryps Initiative.
Recommendations
A. Countries affected by the T&T problem should recognize the impact of the disease and priority areas for national and regional intervention. In addition, T&T interventions need to be included in the national Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers, as emphasised by the AU Council of Ministers at its 76th Ordinary Session, Durban, July 2002 (CM/Dec.661).
B. Commitment towards T&T intervention should extend beyond governments and include local organizations and stakeholders.
C. The four PAAT mandated organizations should set in motion necessary concrete field action programmes in the agreed priority areas for HAT and AAT intervention. In addition, opportunities for synergies in vector control and implementation of concerted actions against HAT and AAT should be exploited.
D. PAAT should emphasize the complexity of the T&T problem and the need for integrated intervention packages tailored to the local situation and taking into consideration the predicted benefit/cost scenario.
E. High priority should be given to capacity building and linkages with ongoing intervention campaigns against HAT and AAT. The capacity building should also address the need for rural service building.
F. PAAT should make an effort to present the T&T problem and the harmonised international approach to the next EU Livestock Policy meeting.
G. The Programme Committee encourages PAAT and other organizations and partners to develop public/private partnerships. It also encourages the public and private sectors to make contributions to the international efforts against T&T.
H. Pharmaceutical companies are encouraged to assay new compounds for trypanocidal activity for potential use in HAT and AAT control/treatment and pursue their development.
I. Activities carried out by the private sector should include technical and environmental feasibility assessments on the SAT (sequential aerial spraying technique), better formulations and presentations of ULV insecticides and different formulations of insecticides.
J. Efforts should be pursued in the development of updated tsetse maps to facilitate strategic planning.
One of the most important textbooks in the area of tsetse and trypanosomiasis research and control has recently been published. This is The Trypanosomiases (eds. I. Maudlin, P.H. Holmes & M.A. Miles), published by CABI Publishing (price £99.50) pp. 614.
African, American and Asian trypanosomiases are covered. The book is organized into seven parts: Part 1. Biology of trypanosomes; Part 2. Vector biology; Part 3. Epidemiology and diagnosis; Part 4. Pathogenesis; Part 5. Disease impact; Part 6. Chemotherapy and disease control; and Part 7. Vector control.
The chapters of particular interest to those concerned with African trypanosomiasis are as follows: Stevens, J.R. & Brisse, S., Systematics of trypanosomes of medical and veterinary importance [13072]; Barry, D. & Carrington, M., Antigenic variation [12996]; Melville, S.E., Majiwa, P.A.O. & Tait, A., The African trypanosome genome [13052]; Nolan, D.P., Garcia-Salcedo, J.A., Vanhamme, L. & Pays, E., Communication in trypanosomatids [13059]; Hide, G. & Tait, A., Genetics and molecular epidemiology of trypanosomes [12921]; Gooding, R.H. & Krafsur, E.S., Tsetse genetics: applications to biology and systematics [12897]; Hargrove, J., Tsetse population dynamics [12903]; Rogers, D.J. & Robinson, T.P., Tsetse distribution [12906]; Büscher, P. & Lejon, V., Diagnosis of human African trypanosomiasis [12937]; Welburn, S.C., Fèvre, E.M., Coleman, P.G. & Maudlin, I., Epidemiology of human African trypanosomiasis [12936]; Eisler, M.C., Dwinger, R.H., Majiwa, P.A.O. & Picozzi, K., Diagnosis and epidemiology of African animal trypanosomiasis [12918]; Luckins, A.G. & Dwinger, R.H., Non-tsetse-transmitted animal trypanosomiasis [12923]; Pentreath, V.W. & Kennedy, G.E., Pathogenesis of human African trypanosomiasis [12950]; Taylor, K. & Authié, E. M.-L., Pathogenesis of animal trypanosomiasis [12968]; Shaw, A.P.M., Economics of African trypanosomiasis [12893]; Burri, C., Stich, A. & Brun, R., Current chemotherapy of human African trypanosomiasis [12955]; Holmes, P.H., Eisler, M.C. & Geerts, S., Current chemotherapy of animal trypanosomiasis [12976]; Barrett, M.P., Coombs, G.H. & Mottram, J.C., Future prospects in chemotherapy for trypanosomiasis [12954]; Murray, M., d’Ieteren, G.D.M. & Teale, A.J., Trypanotolerance [12971]; Allsopp, R. & Hursey, B.H., Insecticidal control of tsetse [12908]; Vale, G.A. & Torr, S.J., Development of bait technology to control tsetse [12915]; Van den Bossche, P. & de Deken R., The application of bait technology to control tsetse [12916]; Dransfield, R.D. & Brightwell, R., Community participation in tsetse control: the principles, potential and practice [12910]; Feldman, U., The sterile insect technique as a component of area-wide integrated pest management of tsetse [12911]; Hall, M.J.R. & Wall, R., Biting flies: their role in the mechanical transmission of trypanosomes to livestock and methods for their control [12920]. All of these chapters are abstracted in the current issue of TTI as indicated in bold in square brackets.
The book is an essential reference for all those concerned with the trypanosomiases, whether as researchers, control personnel, medical, veterinary and entomological staff in Africa, or as administrators in government and in funding agencies. It has also to be reported that the book presents nothing on tsetse anatomy or on new ideas as to the origin of tsetse flies from the ephydroids. There is little on the side effects of tsetse and trypanosomiasis control (e.g. on land use change), which is an area where there is a considerable literature. The nature of the international effort against the trypanosomiases is touched upon in the Preface, but more information here would have been helpful.
With important exceptions, to do with both human and animal trypanosomiasis in which topics much field work is ongoing and described here, the book broadly reflects the switch in attention by those concerned with these diseases from the field to the laboratory; great emphasis on molecular biology is a feature of the volume. The book thus should not be seen as a replacement of earlier texts, but as an addition to them, covering many but by no means all new areas.
The book’s price is very high for field staff. Heads of departments should endeavour to find the means to distribute copies to all who might benefit from gaining access to this important text.
PAAT Technical and Scientific Series, No 6. Hendrickx, G., de la Rocque, S., & Mattioli, R.C., 2004. FAO, Rome. pp 57.
Tsetse-transmitted animal trypanosomiasisis is a complex disease that directly and indirectly has an impact on Africa’s crop and livestock agricultural development. In this issue of the PAAT Technical and Scientific Series of handbooks, state-of-the-art spatial tools are applied to study the variety of agro-ecological settings in West Africa with a view to providing decision support to the management of the tsetse and trypanosomiasis (T&T) problem according to the prevailing agro-ecological conditions.
Based on the analytical mapping of dominant livestock systems, land-use patterns, integration of livestock and crop agriculture (mixed farming) and geoclimatic factors affecting tsetse ecology (northern dry band with fragmented tsetse populations and southern humid band where tsetse are widespread), priority areas for T&T intervention have been identified. These areas are situated in the northern band of the tsetse belt where:
tsetse populations are fragmented (and therefore vulnerable) or confined only to suitable vegetation along main river courses;
fly reinvasion risk is minimal due to land pressure and adverse climatic conditions for tsetse; and
integration of crop and livestock agriculture prevails.
In these areas, the elimination of the fly and the disease may be achievable and consolidated through the expansion and intensification of mixed farming, leading to maximal yield benefits when expressed in terms of sustainable agriculture and rural development.
The spatial analysis, including spatial epidemiology of T&T (vectors, pathogens, host) and the impact of T&T on people, their environment and their livestock production systems, showed that, in the southern and more humid parts, the most viable option remains an integrated approach combining vector suppression in epidemiological hotspots and disease management at the herd level through the strategic use of trypanocides and/or genetic improvement of local trypanotolerant breeds.
There are chapters on: Systems analysis, a spatial approach; Tsetse ecology bands, a north-south gradient; Case studies (Togo and Burkina Faso); Towards integrated tsetse and trypanosomiasis management; Conclusions. There are 57 references. The booklet contains 15 useful figures, of which nine are colour maps illustrating the text.
The Second FAO/IAEA International Conference on Area-Wide Control of Insect Pests: Integrating the Sterile Insect and Related Nuclear and other Techniques, will be held in Vienna, Austria, 9-13 May 2005. This Second Conference will address both the technical and managerial issues related to area-wide operational programmes and will have as its theme the “Effective Implementation of Area-wide Operational Programmes”. It aims to foster a broad exchange of information between regulatory authorities, operational programme managers, scientists, animal and plant protection specialists, public health practitioners, as well as the private sector.
In line with the theme of the Conference, contributed papers are especially welcome on operational area-wide programmes, management of area-wide programmes, commercialization, public health, biodiversity, biotechnology, and regulatory and trade issues. Invited speakers, supported by contributed papers and posters, will review these topics. In addition, contributions are welcome on the topics indicated below.
List of Topics
The Conference will include issues faced by the international community dealing with area-wide and trans-boundary insect pest problems:
1. Advances in Areawide Control since the 1st International Conference
2. Experiences in Management of Area-wide Programmes: Successes and Failures
3. Non-Technical Requirements for Successful Area-wide Programmes
4. Commercialization and the Role of Agro-industry
5. Economic and Environmental Assessments and Decision-Making Tools
6. Regulatory Control, Trade Issues, Systems Approaches
7. Integration with Augmentative Biological Control, Mating Disruption or other Environment-Friendly Technologies
8. Attractants, Monitoring, Mass Trapping and Suppression Techniques
9. GIS, Aerial Release and Guiding Systems
10. Colony Maintenance, Mass Rearing and Shelf-life
11. Radiation Biology/Dosimetry/Dose Optimization
12. Behaviour/Ecology/Quality Control/Competitiveness
13. Genetics and Molecular Biology
14. Population Genetics/Cryptic Species Complexes
15. Cytoplasmic Incompatibility, Hybrid Sterility and Inherited Sterility
A major report has been published: Hargrove, J. (2002) Tsetse eradication: necessity, sufficiency and desirability. Available as pdf file in Tsetse control: the next 100 years. Report of meeting organised by the DFID Animal Health Programme, 9-10 September 2002, Edinburgh, UK. Dr. J. Hargrove: 9, Monmouth Rd, Avondale, Harare, Zimbabwe [[email protected]]. See the abstract under Section B, 12912.
Progress in South Africa (SAF/5/005)
Details have been given of the progress made in combating trypanosomiasis in KwaZulu-Natal (KZN), South Africa, where a long-term control strategy has been developed to prevent a resurgence of the problem. The infested area is estimated to cover 15 000-20 000 km2. It is believed that the sustainable solution to this would be the elimination of the two species Glossina austeni and G. brevipalpis from the area. Experimental colonies of these two species have been established at the Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute using material from existing colonies elsewhere. Attempts are being made to establish colonies of these two species from local (KZN) material, and to test if there are mating barriers between these local flies and flies derived from the main breeding colonies which originated in other countries.
A trial of the blue and black insecticide impregnated targets on the two local species was initiated in May 1999 in St Lucia Park. Using targets at a density of 4 per km2 gave results that were not encouraging; accordingly, in January 2002 the target density was increased to 8 per km2, and to 12 per km2 in January 2003. A control area left untreated was designated. Interim results appear to suggest that targets would have to be deployed at 8-12 targets per km2, which would incur high expense to cover the whole area. Problems are also envisaged deriving from the cutting of numerous access roads to service the targets, which might encourage poaching, lead to erosion and to other problems. Attention is turning to the possibility of applying the SIT to the area. Remote sensing and on-the-ground surveys have been used to identify potential habitats on a wide scale, and to assist in the planning of vector suppression strategies. Glossina austeni appears to be more amenable to study in this way than is G. brevipalpis.
A socio-economic study of the impact of trypanosomiasis on the farming community has been undertaken. A detailed questionnaire has been developed and has been applied in the field. Data-handling is still continuing.
An environmental impact assessment was commissioned, having in mind that the tsetse infestation covers eighteen gazetted protected areas. Topics covered included the potential direct and indirect environmental impact, the impact of tracks and roads required for setting up and servicing the control method of choice, impact of insecticides, impact of camps to be set up, impact of the use of targets including the clearance of vegetation around them, and possible effects on wildlife due to their not being raised under the challenge of trypanosomiasis.
A feasibility study was undertaken to assess different tsetse suppression techniques in relation to different vegetation types and locations within KZN. The conclusions were: that the existing cattle dips would be very useful in tsetse suppression, though refurbishment will be necessary in many cases; that the deployment of targets would be too expensive; that the use of fixed wing aerial spraying by the serial application technique would be feasible for about 90 percent of the terrain, with the remainder dealt with by helicopter; and that the sensitivities of the environmental lobby could be crucial in the selection of an overall strategy to eliminate the fly. A sustainable control option remains the SIT-based area-wide integrated pest management approach.
Burkina Faso and Mali: Concept Note
Debate concerning the best tsetse intervention strategy to follow in Burkina Faso and Mali continues. The common ‘cotton belt’ is retained as a priority area. A workshop (February, 2004, at Ouagadougou) was organized by FAO to consider a concept note for the development of integrated intervention strategies in West Africa. The following conclusions were arrived at. Any intervention campaign in West Africa should be considered within the context of Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development (SARD). Within the ‘cotton belt’ two river systems are of particular importance, but the existing tsetse distribution extends to the more northern reaches of these river systems, and such areas would have to be dealt with first, and the southern areas later. Much more information concerning the present tsetse distribution and mobility is needed, including: detailed land-use/land cover maps, as well as vegetation classification maps; entomological surveys with special attention to discontinuities in the tsetse distribution and which species are present; and the effectiveness of watersheds as barriers to the movement of tsetse from one drainage basin to the next. The selection of the appropriate intervention strategy will follow only when such data becomes available.
We regret to announce that Desmond Lovemore has died on 19th July 2004, in Harare, Zimbabwe. The world of tsetse and trypanosomiasis control has lost one of its greatest practitioners, and colleagues in Zimbabwe, as well as the many experts from elsewhere who worked with him on various projects over the years, will mourn his passing. His broad vision was matched by a meticulous care over detail, and by the energy and determination to complete the task in hand to his own high standards.
Desmond was born at Hwange, Zimbabwe, on 27th November 1928. His early life was spent in this area, and he went to Plumtree School, Zimbabwe, for his secondary education. After this he attended the Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa, obtaining distinctions at BSc and MSc levels. His undergraduate subjects were Botany and Zoology, and his MSc thesis was on aquatic beetles. After this he went to study tsetse flies under Dr C.H.N. Jackson and Mr W. Potts, with the Colonial Insecticide Research Unit and EATRO in Uganda and Tanzania, on a Beit Railways fellowship. Desmond transferred some of the routines used in East Africa to Zimbabwe for the monitoring of tsetse there. He joined the Government’s Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis Control organization in 1951, and was based in Hurungwe and Sebungwe Districts. By 1964 he was promoted to the post of Chief Entomologist, supervising all tsetse control work in the infested areas of the country; the fullest use of aerial photographs and an efficient mapping unit were regarded as essential, and throughout his career Desmond planned each campaign far in advance of its implementation in the field, with detailed maps produced based on aerial photographs, that indicated each access road to be cleared and each area to be sprayed, even down to individual thickets. Great emphasis was placed on the training of field staff in numerous field routines, to exacting standards. He became Assistant Director, Department of Veterinary Services in 1972, when tsetse control work was placed under that department. Various control methods were tried out and improved, including bush clearing, ground spraying, aerial spraying and the use of natural and artificial baits. In 1975 he left to become Director of the new Department of Natural Resources, but maintained links with the tsetse control personnel. He retired from Government service in 1980, to work on a contract basis searching for new strategies against the tsetse.
At the time of Zimbabwean independence in 1980, Desmond saw an opportunity to secure much needed funding, mainly from the EU, for a programme for tsetse and trypanosomiasis control in the region as a whole, rather than just for the one country. The reasoning was that since as far as tsetse distribution was concerned national boundaries were largely irrelevant, the mode of attack against this vector of disease should be an international one. Ideally, the natural limits of the great tsetse belts would be established, then co-ordinated international campaigns would eliminate the fly from the belts one by one; recovery of the tsetse populations would be impossible if the fly had been truly eliminated from every part of the respective belt. Donors were impressed by Desmond’s manifest qualities, his drive, experience and professionalism, and eventually he was appointed as Regional Co-ordinator of the Regional Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis Control Programme, covering mainly Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe, although other countries were added later to this initial list. The programme led to very valuable improvements in the design of traps and targets for the detection and control of tsetse; to major advances in the understanding of tsetse population dynamics; to the transfer of expertise from Zimbabwe to neighbouring countries and even further afield; and to many subsidiary projects concerning, amongst other matters, the ecological impact of tsetse control measures, tsetse behaviour, remote sensing, and training. Great gains were made in all these areas although for practical reasons (especially funding, logistics and political unrest) the aim of eliminating entire tsetse belts proved to be beyond reach. Much land, especially in Zimbabwe and Zambia, was reclaimed from the fly. Many research papers of high merit and of practical value emerged from this activity, and Desmond was a co-author of some of these. His main written contributions have otherwise been mainly in the form of unpublished reports arising from consultancies and from the office of the Regional Co-ordinator; these were of great importance in setting up the funding and infrastructural framework within which other workers could most effectively operate. A great number of meetings were convened during this period, and all concerned gained an insight into the advantages as well as the problems resulting from the international approach. On his retirement in 1994 from the post of Regional Co-ordinator, Desmond devoted much of his time to recording and consolidating the history of tsetse and trypanosomiasis control in Zimbabwe.
Tsetse control was the main focus of this unusually gifted individual. However, Desmond also served as a Council member of the Zimbabwe Scientific Association for two and a half decades, and was President for 1967-1968 and 1978-1979. He also served on the board of the National Botanic Garden’s Development Fund, reflecting his life-long interest in native plants, of which he was a collector; during his career he placed many specimens in the National Herbarium and made many new locality records in the process. He helped to raise funds for improvements to the National Botanic Gardens, including construction of the Interpretive Centre, Tea Room, Car Park, Shade House and Desert House. He also maintained a beautiful garden at his home in Chisipite, Harare.
Desmond loved his country and throughout his life served it, its citizens and his fellow workers with loyalty and unstinting industry. He is survived by his wife Mary, whom he married in 1956, and by his three children.
