3.0 The exploitation of honey bees in The Gambia

"And from the fruit of date palm and the vine, ye get out strong drink and wholesome food: behold, in this is also for those who are wise", (67).

"And they lord taught the bee to build its cells in hills, on trees and in men's habitations", (68).

"Then to eat of all the produce (of the earth) and follow the ways of they lord made smooth, their issues from within bodies drinks of varying colours, wherein is healing for men: verily in this is a sign for those who give though", (69).

The Holy Quaran Sura 16 (An-Maw) Verses 67-69

In every part of The Gambia can be found natural habitat for the honeybee (Apis melifera). Bees are exploited in all parts of The Gambia for economic, social and cultural reasons. In general, nectar and pollen are abundant especially along riverbanks and its tributaries (fresh water bodies), within the mangrove forests and the agro-forestry systems. Locally, fresh water is the most important factor that determines the bee population in a particular place. According to Nikolaus Bieger (1998), the behaviour of the species Apis melifera, which is the species found in The Gambia, depends not only on its genetic characteristics but also external factors such as:

· Massive disturbance by humans, animals, menace of bush fire and other dangers, the bee colony absconds from their nests immediately or within a few days in order to find a safer place.

· Seasonal migration due to variation of forage - resources.

In The Gambia, bee colonies often migrate from the eastern part (drier part) towards the west during the dry season and go back eastward during the wet season.

3.1 Traditional methods of bees exploitation

3.1.1 Honey hunting

Honey hunting is widely practised all over The Gambia mostly by men who go and look for bee-colonies in their natural habitats (hollow trees, branches, termite hills). Because of the aggressive defence-behaviour of the bees, honey hunters kill the colony by smoking out the nests and burning the bees with fire. By burning the bees, the honey hunter avoids being stung. The use of fire by honey hunters is an important cause for bush fires.

3.1.2 Traditional beekeeping

Traditionally, the beekeepers in The Gambia use logs or grass (Baskets hives) to build their cylindrical hives (local kumbo). These can be found in all parts of the country. Grass hives are more common as useable logs are difficult to obtain in certain parts of the country. By comparison, log-hives are more durable and therefore more profitable than the grass-hives. Grass hives are only usable during the dry season.

Mostly, beekeepers site their hives at a safe distance from human settlements. This way, they can protect them from bush fires or theft. Honey theft is common practice in The Gambia. The beekeepers know very well that forage availability influences the behaviour of bees, therefore, they take account of this in siting their hives for ease of managing their colonies. Also important to them are flowering plants and season.

Protective cloth, smokers and other equipment are rarely used by traditional beekeepers due to the cost involved, even though they are locally produced in the country at the following prices:

Overall - D250

Smoker - D150

Boots q - D270 per pair

Gloves - D 70

Because traditional beekeeping is an off season activity practised by low income earners in the countryside, it does not attract much financial investment.

Due to the recognition of the important negative impact associated with traditional beekeeping (killing of bees, bush fires, deforestation) on the environment, the rural population is offered better opportunities by introducing new technologies and modern appropriate beekeeping methods by the Government through the Forestry Department and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). The Forestry Department has put the beekeeping section under the technical services unit. This section's mandate includes training of the rural population, awareness creation, information and technical support to individuals involved in beekeeping countrywide. Forestry department and other agencies have been providing training and material support to individuals and groups they work with. To date, the following NGOs and CBOs are involved with beekeeping in the country:

· The Action Aid

· The Christian Children fund (CCF)

· The National Beekeeper Association

· The Danida beekeepers Association

· The Gambia Co-operative beekeepers Association

· GAFNA - The Gambia Food and Nutrition Association

· The Gambia - German Forestry Projects

· Caritas

· Association of farmer Educators and Traders (AFET)

· Gambia Agricultural Rural Development Agency (GARDA)

· Catholic Relief Services (CRS)

· Peace Corps Volunteers (PCV)

· Gambia - German Forestry Projects

The actual number of persons trained and material supplied by these agencies could not be obtained due to lack of proper record keeping. The number of active beekeepers could also not be established due to time factor, information is not readily available from the office - records. Types of modern hives in use in The Gambia are:

· The Kenyan Top Bar (KTB) The objective of introducing the KTB was to provide the beekeepers with a more efficient hive that can be made from locally available materials and which has more advantages than the traditional hives. KTB costs three hundred dalasis (D300 = $30). This seems too costly to the small-scale farmer. The KTBs are usually supplied to individuals or groups by supporting agencies.

· The Dadant hive - This hive type could not be popularized in The Gambia because of its cost (D600 = $60) and the specialized method required for its management.

· Zambian Top Bar hive.

· Lantroth hive.

· Cylindric metal-sheet hive - This was recently introduced in the country by Nikolans Bieger for a trial period. It is so far the cheapest but its suitability to local conditions is yet to be known. (NBA 1999).

3.1.3 Socio-cultural aspects of bee exploitation

Until very recently in The Gambia, bee exploitation was an exclusively male oriented business. Thanks to the intervention of Government, NGOs and CBOs, women are now gradually being trained and entering into the business. Today, 25 women have been trained and all of them are active beekeepers (NBA 1999).

Honey and wax are important commodities in rural Gambia. Low cash income earners, especially in rural areas, use honey as sweetener instead of sugar. Newly born babies are given diluted honey, which is believed to make them more intelligent (group discussion, 1999). Honey is used for treatment of various diseases especially babies stomach pain, the antiseptic effect of honey is used to heal wounds (Baba Njie Bojang-Brikama 1999).

Honey is associated with pleasure. It is often said in the local language that he who has honey in his mouth always brings good news. Wax is widely used by cobblers as a waterproof in jujus and to smooth their needles.

3.1.4 Socio-economical aspects of bee exploitation

The production of honey and wax by honey hunters belongs to the supplementary traditional activities, such as game hunting, fishing, gathering and so on. These off-season traditional economic undertakings are complementary and are often combined.

Honey hunting in The Gambia is usually not for profit-maximization but a necessary risk-minimization for survival. This strategy of risk-minimization for survival has made the rural population specialize in honey hunting and beekeeping. For many small-scale farmers, the production of honey is the only source of off farm cash income. Therefore, honey hunting and beekeeping play significant roles in the rural household economy.

3.1.5 Annual honey harvest in The Gambia - 1996-1998

1996 40 tons

1997 48 tons

1998 60 tons

In The Gambia Honey is measured in volume 1 litre = 1.5 kg (source NBA 1999). The average producer price for honey is twenty Dalasis per kg (D20 = US $2).

3.1.6 Market and marketing of bee products

To date, many Gambians have not responded positively to the potential honey has in the country. The small scale structures of honey production have neither been able to satisfy the local market nor compete with the big and highly specialized producers in other parts of the world. A good part of the honey produced, is consumed by the producers themselves and surplus is sold locally.

Besides the problem of gathering and quality, the continuous supply of honey to the local market is a problem. This is because the honey flow is seasonal (dry season) and there are no appropriate storage facilities to bridge the seasonal gaps. Thus these numerous problems in beekeeping are important factors which hamper the further development of beekeeping in The Gambia.

3.1.7 Beeswax production

Wax production continues to be seen as a secondary objective by a majority of the Gambian beekeepers. Many are not even aware of the commercial value of beeswax and the selling point at NBA Headquarters.

Because most of the beekeepers have a limited number of hives to operate and their extraction method is not effective, the quantity and quality remains relatively low. A majority of them only produce enough wax to put in their new hive frames. Those who produce more than their domestic requirement sell to local markets.

The survey of 50 beekeepers revealed that 35 of them (70%) produced between 5-10 kg wax, 8 of them (16%) produced between 10-20 kg wax, 5 (10%) produced between 20-25 kg wax and only 2 (4%) produced above 25 kg wax.

The marketing of beeswax remains localized and uncoordinated. According to NBA, 80% of the wax produced in the country is traded locally within the production site, 15% is sold at the weekly markets ("Lumo") across the country, 3% of the total annual wax produced in the country is sold at the NBA and the remaining 2% could not be accounted for (NBA 1998). Beeswax could not meet the local demand. The price for a kilogram ranges between fifteen Dalasis (D15) and forty-five Dalasis (D45) depending on the location (NBA 1999).

In The Gambia at present, only one person (Paul, from Sukuta) specializes in wax utilization for making shoe-polish and production of various medicines that are sold locally. According to him, his home industry is constrained by both the quality and quantity of wax available.

3.2 In-country information on food plants in The Gambia

From the Garden of Eden to the Wild, mankind has been plucking ripe fruits from trees, eating succulent roots/tubers, fresh nuts, seeds and tender leaves as a source of food. Wild plants in the forest are a very important source of food security for many Gambians, especially those living in the countryside.

Due to the limited survey area, time factor, financial constraints, lack of well-documented material on this subject, only the most important and widely known food plants are mentioned. An additional list of less widely known but important plant species is also presented.

1. Adansonia Digitata - Sito(m) Bin(w) Boki(f) Bubak(j)

Family: Bombaceae

Food uses: Young fresh leaves are cooked as a vegetable. Dry leaves are pounded into a powder which is used in soup and also mixed with sorghum, leaves are also used in sauce preparation. The fruit is either eaten raw, soaked in water and taken as an appetizer used for ice making.

2. Anacardium Occidentale - Kasuowo(m) Kassu(w) Bukagu(j)

Family: Anacordiaceae

Food uses: The cashewnut is roasted and the kernel is extracted and eaten. The ripe apple (fruit) is eaten raw or juice is extracted for preparation of beverages and liquor. The seeds are roasted and eaten also cooked as soup. The fruits and nuts are important commodities for the local market.

3. Annona Senegalensis - Sunkungo(m) Digor(w)Butor(j) Dokami(f)

Family: Annoneceae

Food uses: The ripe fruit is eaten raw.

4. Balamites aegyptiaca - Sumpo(m)(w)

Family: Balanitaceae

Food uses: The ripe fruit is eaten raw or dried and eaten. The nut is roasted, and kernel extracted and eaten. The fruit pulp is used as a beverage.

5. Bombax costatum - Bunkungo(m) Kattupa(w) Jomi(f) Bunabu(j)

Family: Bombacaceae

Food uses: The young leaves are dried and pounded, then used with coos. Also the young flower is dried and pounded, then used with coos.

6. Borassus Aethiopium - Sibo(m) Sibi(w) Dubbe(f) Dul(j)

Family: Palmae

Food uses: The young fresh shoots / roots are eaten raw or cooked. The juice in the immature seed is consumed, the young fresh terminal bud is eaten raw. The fruit pulp is eaten raw or roasted.

7. Ceiba Pentandra - Bantango(m) Benteng(w) Bategehi(f) Busana(j)

Family: Bombacaceae

Food uses: The young leaves are cooked and used as soup, or dried and pounded and used with coos.

12. Detarium Senegalensis - Tallo(m) Detah(w) Boto(f) Bungungut(j)

Family: Caesalpiniaceae

Food uses: The fresh ripe fruit is eaten raw.

13. Detarium Mierocarpum - Wonko(m) Wanta(w) Mobdey(f) Mounhayona(j)

Family: Caesalpmiaceae

Food uses: The fresh ripe fruit is eaten raw.

14. Dialium Guineanses - Kosito(m) Solomsolom(w) Mako(f) Butara(j)

Family: Caesalpinaceae

Food uses: The mature ripe fruits are eaten raw. The young fresh leaves are chewed.

15. Elaeis Guineensis - Tego(m) Tir(w) Tuguhi(f) Bunak(j)

Family: Palmaceae

Food uses: The seeds are eaten raw. Palm Oil is produced from the seeds. Oil is extracted from the seed (Palm Kernel Oil). Palm wine is tapped from the base of the fruit or terminal bud.

16. Ficus Gnaphalocarpa - Sotokoyo(m) Bot(w) Jiben-yadeh(f) Bupundum(j)

Family: Moraceae

Food uses: The ripe fruits are eaten raw or cooked in soup.

17. Moringa Oleifera - Nedebayo(m,w) Nebeday(f)

Family: Moringaceae

Food uses: Though an exotic species, Moringa is widely planted in many forest types in the Gambia. The leaves are cooked for soup. The young leaves and fruit are prepared as vegetable.

18. Parinari Excelsa - Mampato(m) Mampata(w) Mopatade(f) Busongay(j)

Family: Rosaceae

Food uses: The fresh fruit when ripe is eaten raw or pounded and cooked as porridge.

19. Parinari Macrophylia - Tamba(m)Nyau(w) Naudi(f) Bei(j)

Family: Roaceae

Food uses: The fresh ripe fruit is eaten raw. The nut in the seed is eaten raw.

20. Parkia Biglobosa - Neto(m) Nette(w) Netteh(f) Boutifa(j)

Family: Mimosaceae

Food uses: The ripe fruit is processed into confectionery - The dried pounded fruit is used as flour. The pulp when soaked in water, and salt or sugar added gives a nice drink.

21. Sclerocarya Birrfa - Kuntang jawo(m) Birr(w) Beri(f) Findibaga(j)

Family: Anacardiaceae

Food uses: The fruit when ripe is eaten fresh. Can intoxicate when eaten in larger amounts.

22. Sopondias Mombin - Ninkongo(m) Ninkon(w) Chaleh(f) Bulila(j)

Family: Anacordiaceae

Food uses: Ripe fresh fruits are eaten raw.

23. Tamarindus Indica - Timbungo(m) Dakhar(w) Dabe(f) Budahar(j)

Food uses: The fruit pulp is soaked in water and squeezed to make a drink. The pulp is added to soup. It is of high commercial value.

24. Ziziphus Mauritiana - Tomborongo(m) Sedem(w) Dobi(f) Busedem(j)

Family: Rhamnaceae

Food uses: Fruits are eaten fresh or dried.

NB The source of information in this section is obtained from the same group discussion (GD) at the same time as that of the medicinal plants. Therefore they are not indicated to avoid repetition.

3.2.1 Less widely known food plants in The Gambia

1. Family - Amaranthaceae, species - Philioxeras rermialavis - Singindo(m)

2. Family - Anacordiaceae, Bembo(m) L F

3. Family - Anacardiaceae, species - Lannea Microearpa F

4. Family - Anacardiaceae, species Pseudospondias Mccroarpa - Mendiko(m) F

5. Family - Annonaceae, species -Hexalobus monopetalous - (some(m) F

6. Family - Asclepiadaceae, species - Leptadenia hastata - sora(m) L shoot

7. Family - Boraginaceae, species - Cordia senegalensis - Tamboran(m) Fruits

8. Family - Caesalpinaceae, species - Cassia occidentalis - (Kassala(m) seeds, species - Cassia tora - Jambanduro (m) L

9. Family - Capparidaceae, species - Crataera religiosa L

10. Family - Celastraceae, species - Maytenus senegalensis F,FL

11. Family - Combretaceae, species - combretum tomentosum (kuboo (m) FR

12. Family - Combrelaceae, species - Guierea senegalensis - kunye(m) L

13. Family - Cacarbitaceae, species - cacamis melo - F

14. Family - Euphorbiaceae, species - Antidesnia venosum F

15. Family - Fabaceae, species - Taphrosia platycarpa F

16. Family - Hypericaceae, species - Psorospermum senegalensis L

17. Family - Loganiaceae, species - strychnos spinosa L

18. Family - Moraceae, species - Treculia africana F S

19. Family - Palmae, species - phoenix reclinata: (Palmwine) F

20. Family - Rutaceae, species - Fagara zanthoxyloides L

21. Family - Sapindaceae, species - Aphania senegalensis F

22. Family - Sapindaceae, species - Paulinnia pinnata L

23. Family - Simaroubiaceae, species -Hannoha undutlata F

24. Family - Verbenaceae, species - Lippia chevalieri L stem

Sources: (from the listed literatures Reviewed)

F = Fruits, FL = Flowers, L = Leaves, S = Seeds

3.3 In-country information on bushmeat

Bushmeat has become a very important source of protein in our diet. In The Gambia, the source of bushmeat could be categorized in four groups: terrestrial, primates, avi-fauna and marine. The most important and commonly eaten ones are listed below:

Bushmeat:

Terrestrial

· Warthog/Bushpig

· Antelopes (sitatunga, duikers, guzelles, bush buck, water buck)

· Equana lizard

· Canecutter rat, procupire, Jackal

Primates

· Red patas monkey

Avi - Fauna (Birds)

· Pigeons

· Marabout Stalk

· Geese/ducks

· Bustards

· Bush fowl/francolim

· Guinea fowl

· Water fowl

· Horn bills (black + White and yellow-billed)

· Rupian vultures

Marine

· Dolphin

· Manatees

· Crocodiles

· Monitor Lizard

Source: Department of Park and Wild Life Management ( Sept. 1999)

Source: (Kassama L, Parks and Wild Life Department Abuko - 1999)

3.4 Common medicinal plants in The Gambia

"Every plant grown on the surface of the Earth has a medical property/use" (discussion groups). With this cultural belief, it is impossible to provide a complete list. Therefore, the choice of species selected from each family is generally based on the amount and the scale of importance of information available, such as distribution/occurrence and usage. Some other species were included if they showed special interest.

3.4.1 Medicinal uses

ANNONACEAE

In this family only five out of 24 genera mentioned in the flora of West Tropical Africa are identified in the Gambia. These are: Uraria cheistophohis, xylopias, Hexalobas and Annona. Out of these five genera only two species are indigenous in the Gambia which are Uraria chame and Annona Senegalensis. They are common under shrubs and found mainly in the Western Division. The others are exotic (G M Hallam 1979).

Medicinal use of Annona Senegalensis: The juice is used for treating:- Bad stomach pain, diarrhoea, and dysentery. The rope like miner bark is tied around the waist to prevent diarrhoea. The leaves are soaked in water and used to wash the face to cure eye-pain. (G.D 1, 3, 4; Sept. 1999).

MORINGACEAE

In this family, only the species Maringa oleifera is identified in the country. It is an exotic species found mainly in compounds and agro-forestry systems.

Medicinal uses: Leaves boiled in water and drunk for treatment of headaches and colds. Juice squeezed from the leaf and dropped in the ear for treatment of earache. (G D 1, 2, 3, 4;Sept. 1999)

POLYGALACEAE

In this family, only two genera are identified in the Gambia these are securidaca and polygala. Here only securidaca longiped - unclata species is well-known and used locally.

SECURIDATA LONGIPENDUNLATA - juto(m) fouf (w) alali (f)

Medicinal uses: Well-known treatment for snakebite. The leaves are boiled in water and drunk when bitten by a snake. It makes a person vomit and in this way gets rid of the venom. Also if sprayed by a spitting cobra, a person can wash his eyes with the water. The juice from the leaves and roots are used to treat boils, relief body pain, treat gonorrhoea, sleeping sickness, dizziness and roots are scattered to deter snakes. (G D 2, 4, 5; Sept. 1999).

OCHNACEAE

Out of 3 genera identified here (Ochna, lophira, sauragesia) the species, lophira lauceolata is commonly known for its medicinal uses.

LOPHIRA LANCEOLATA - Machichero(m) Manayiri(M,W,F)

Leaves are boiled in water and used for drinking and washing to help pregnant woman during labour. The inner bark is used to treat headache. (G D 1, 2, 5; Sept. 1999).

COMBRTACEAE

This family is well known and well represented by many species. genera of Combretum, Guiera and Terminalia are common and widely distributed in the country.

COMBRETUM GLUTINOSUM - jambakatogo(m) rat (w) doki (f)

This species is widely spread in Central River and Upper River Divisions.

Medicinal uses: The leaves are boiled in water, and given to a person for the treatment of cold, fever, weak muscles, tooth ache, constipation, coughing, yellow fever, headache and chest pain. Also used as cattle drench to get rid of worms in cattle. (G D 1, 2, 3, 4, 5; Sept. 1999)

COMBRETUM MICRANTHUM - Baro Kinkinliba (m) Rat, skheou, Segweon (w) Talli (f)

Medicinal uses: The leaves are boiled in water. This water is drunk to cure coughs. The combined extract from the young leaves, inner back and the roots are used to treat wounds.

(G D 1, 2, 3, 4, 5; Sept., 1999)

COMBRETUM PANICULATUM - Jambaba (m)

Medicinal uses: Leaves boiled in water and taken for treatment of stomach-aches and irregular menstruation and to lessen the pain in women during labour.

GUIERA SENEGALENSIS - Kankanago, Mamakunkoyo(m) Ngerr(w) Geloki Gehlod(f)

Medicinal uses: The leaves are boiled in water and after adding sugar, it is drunk and/or used for bathing, to treat coughs, chest pains, stomach pain, yellow fever and venereal diseases.

(G D 1, 3, 5; Sept. 1999)

TERMMALIA MACROPTERA - Wollo(m) Wolo(w) Bodeh, Kirleme(f) Buanga(j)

Medicinal uses: Boil the leaves in water and drink it for treatment of coughs. Dry the leaves, pound them and add milk to the powder, drink it for treatment of serious diarrhoea. Boil the roots and drink it for the cure of stomach pain. (G D 2, 3, 5, Sept. 1999)

TERMINALIA ARICEUNOIDES: Wollokolyo(m)

Medicinal uses: The water of the boiled young leaves is given to women with irregular menstruation. The inner bark and roots are put in cold water and taken for treatment of yellow fever. When a person is burned by fire, the pounded inner bark can be applied on the burned area of the body as treatment. (G D 2, 4; Sept. 1999)

HYPERICACEAE

In this family only two genera are identified in the Gambia. The species Harungana maduscariensis seems not to be very common and not well known unlike the species Psorospermum copymbiterum, which is very well-known especially for its medicinal uses:

PSOROSPERMUM CORYMBITERUM - Katijankumo(m)

Medicinal uses: This is a well-known species used in the treatment of small pox in the Gambia by boiling the roots in palm oil and mixing with milk. The combination of its leaves and roots is boiled in water and taken to cure loss of blood and several body sicknesses, coughs and stomach ache. (G D 1, 2, 3, 4, 5; Sept. 1999).

STERCULIACEAE

Out of the 17 genera of this family mentioned in the "flora of west Tropical Africa", five are identified in The Gambia: Dombeya, Melachia Waltheria Sterculia and Cola. Of these five, only three are widely known for their medicinal uses.

WALTHERIA LANCEOLATE

Medicinal uses: The combination of its leaves and that of Poullunia pinnate are squeezed in water, this is used to bath as treatment for fever. Its leaves and roots are boiled in water and taken to treat coughs and diarrhoea. Its roots are pounded and mixed with water for treatment of toothache and earache. (G D 1, 3, 4; Sept. 1999).

STERCULIA SETIGERA Kunkusito(m) Mbep(w) Bobori(f)

Medicinal uses: The bark is boiled in water and taken to treat diarrhoea. (G D 3, 4, 5; Sept.1999)

COLA CORDIFOLIA - Tabo(m) Tabba(w) Tabajeh(f)

Medicinal uses: The bark is boiled in water and taken to treat constipation, and gonorrhoea. The juice is used to treat sore eyes and its fermented leaves in water are taken to treat leprosy. (2, 3, 5; Sept 1999).

BOMBACACEAE

All the three genera mentioned in The Flora of west Tropical Africa are found in The Gambia. These are Adansonia, Bombax and Ceiba

ADANSONIA DISITATA:

This is a very important and widely known species for its medicinal uses. The powder from the leaves is used to treat coughs/burns. The rope from the inner bark is tied around waist for treatment of backache. The fruits are soaked in water and taken to treat stomach-ache, general body pain and as an appetizer (G D 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, sept. 1999).

CEIBA PENTAIDRA

Medicinal uses: Boil the bark in water and drink it to prevent abortion. The steam is inhaled for treatment of headache and toothache. (G.D 1, 3, 5; Sept. 1999).

EUPHORBIACEAE

This is one of the most diverse families mentioned in The flora of west tropical Africa with 65 genera identified. Only 14 are identified in The Gambia. Only 3 species are widely known for their medicinal uses.

BRIDELIA MICRANTHA: - Bisako(m) Wulakir(j)

Medicinal uses: Juice extracted from the inner bark is used for treatment of stomach-ache, dysentery and diarrhoea (G D 3, 4, 5; Sept. 1999).

IATROPHA CURCAS - Tubab Tabo(m) Kidi(f) Tabanani(w)

Medicinal uses: The latex is used for treatment of stomach-ache, especially known for the its use in deworming. (G D 1, 2, 3' Sept. 1999).

CAESALPINIACEAE

The flora of Tropical west Africa mentioned 58 genera in this family. In the Gambia, 16 are identified but only 7 species are widely known for their medicinal uses.

CORDYLA PINNATA - Wulakonoduto(m) Dimb(w) Duki(f)

Medicinal uses: The bark is boiled in water and it is taken for deworming and treatment of stomach-ache. The roots and fruits are boiled together for treatment of chest pain. (G D 1, 3, 4, 5; Sept. 1999).

PILIOSTIGMA THONNINGII: Fara(m) Gigis(w) Barki(f)

Medicinal uses: The flowers are ground to powder which is used for treatment of coughs, the juice from the inner bark is used for treatment of fresh wounds. The young leaves are soaked in water for treatment of eye pain. (G D 1, 2, 3, 4; Sept. 1999).

AFZELIA AFRICANA - Lenko(m) Fok(w) Lengue(f) Nenke(j)

Medicinal uses: Leaves are soaked in water and taken to treat stomach-ache. The leaves are boiled in water and taken to treat fatigue and bone pain. (GD 3, 4, 5; Sept. 1999).

CASSIA SIEBERIANA - Sinjango(m) Senjen(w) Sama sinjang(f)

Medicinal uses: Leaves are boiled and water taken to treat stomach-ache, general body pain, fever and malaria. The roots are also soaked in water for treatment of stomach-ache and for de-worming. (G D 1, 2, 3, 5; Sept. 1999)

CASSIA OCCIDENTALIS: -Kassala(m) Bantamare(w) Lubalup(f) Bunang Baug(j)

The juice squeezed from the leaves is taken or used for bathing for treatment of headache, fever, and backache. Seeds are roasted and ground to powder. The powder is used for treatment of rashes especially in children. (G D 1, 2, 3; Sept. 1999).

DDETARUM SENEGALENSIS: - Talo(m) Ditakh(w) Dole(f) Butckan jack(j)

Medicinal uses: The bark is boiled in water and taken to treat loss of blood. Roots soaked in water are drunk or used for bathing to relieve general body pain. (G D 1, 2, 3, 4; Sept. 1999).

DANIELIA OLIVERI: - Santango(m) Santang(w) Cherebeh(f)

Medicinal uses: The bark is dried and pounded - the powder is mixed in water and taken for treatment of coughs. The bark is boiled in water and taken for treatment of constipation and general body pain. (G D 1, 3, 4, 5; Sept. 1999).

TAMARINDUS INDICA: Timbugo(m) Dakal(w) Jammeh(f)

Medicinal uses: The fruit is soaked in water and taken to treat constipation, general body pain and for de-worming. The leaves are boiled in water and used for washing face to treat short-sightedness Unripe fruits are boiled and taken for treatment of fever. (G D 1, 2, 3, 4; Sept. 1999).

MIMOSACEAE

In this family, 24 genera are noted by The Flora of Tropical Africa, 13 of them are identified in The Gambia - and 7 species are widely known for their medicinal uses.

PARKIA BISLOBOSA -Neto(m) Nette(w) Nerre(f)

Medicinal uses: The leaves and roots are boiled together for treatment of tooth ache, and sore eyes. The powder from the bark is used for treating lack of ejaculation. Pulp from the fruit is soaked in water and taken for treatment of snakebite and stinging insects. (G D 1, 2, 3, 4, 5; Sept. 1999).

ALBIZZIA FARRUGINEA - Sama Neto(m) Samba Tene(w)

Medicinal uses: The juice squeezed from the bark is used for treatment of wounds and prevention of infections. The leaves are squeezed in water and taken for treatment of epilepsy. (G D 1 2 4 Sept. 1999)

PROSOPIS AFRICANA - Kyanbo(m) Her(w) Kohi(f) Buse-segne(j)

Medicinal uses: The bark and leaves are boiled in water to rinse the mouth when treating toothache. (G D 1, 2, 3, 4, 5; Sept. 1999).

DICHROSTACHYS GLOMERATE - Kurulungo(m) Sinke(w)

Medicinal uses: leaves are boiled in water and the steam is inhaled for the treatment of toothache. Also used for washing mouth for treatment of toothache. (G D 1, 2, 3; Sept. 1999).

ACACIA ALBIDA - Bransango(m) Kada(w) Cheski(f)

Medicinal uses: Powder from the bark is mixed with water and used to wash the mouth when treating toothache. Roots are soaked in water and taken by old men for sexual strength. (G D 1, 2, 5; Sept. 1999).

ACACIA SCORPIOIDES - Bano(m) Goniake(w) Guadi(f)

Medicinal uses: The bark is soaked in water and used for mouth washing when treating toothache. The bark is boiled in water and taken to treat dysentery. (G D 1, 3, 4; Sept. 1999)

ACACIA MACROSTACHYA: - Sinoko(m) dedd(w) chidi(f)

Medicinal uses: Inner bark is soaked or boiled in water for mouth washing in treating toothaches. Could also be taken to treat stomach-ache, (G D 3, 4, 5; Sept. 1999).

PAPILIONACEAE

'The flora of west Tropical Africa' listed 80 genera of this family. Thirty genera are identified in the Gambia. Many of these genera are annual herbs. Only 4 species are widely known and used for their medicinal uses.

PTEROCARPUS ERINACEUS - Keno(m) Ven(w) Baleh(f)

Medicinal uses: The bark is chewed and the juice swallowed for the treatment of serious stomach-ache and constipation, the roots are soaked in water and taken for treatment of general body pain. (G D 2, 3, 5; Sept. 1999).

ERYTHRINA SENEGALENSIS - Ndolingo(m) Boti-jan(w) Botiola(f) Fusente Friak(j)

Medicinal uses: Leaves are squeezed and crushed to extract the juice which is applied to wounds for treatment. Also the roots are smashed for the same purpose. (G D 1, 2, 3; Sept 1999).

STYLOSANTHES MUCRONATA - Nbono(m) Damel(w)

Medicinal uses: The whole plant is boiled in water, sugar is added and it is drunk for the treatment of chest pain. The leaves are boiled in water and taken to clean the stomach and as a blood tonic. (G D 1, 2, 3; Sept. 1999).

DESMODIUM VELUTINUM - Nakaburay(m)

Medicinal uses: The leaves are applied to cuts to stop bleeding. (G D 1, 2, 3; Sept. 1999).

MORACEAE

'The flora of west Tropical Africa' noted 12 genera of this family with only three genera identified in The Gambia - Cholorophora, Antiatis and Ficus, four species in this family are widely known for their medicinal uses.

FICUS EXASPERATA - Soto - Nganya(m) Nyad Jeh(f)

The leaves are boiled in water and the steam is inhaled for the treatment of chest pain. (G D 1, 2, 4; Sept. 1999)

FICAS CARPENSIS - Sotokuruwo(m) Sotohajanna(w) Iberimirum(f)

The leaves are soaked in water and taken to treat chest pain. (G D 1, 2, 3, 4; Sept. 1999).

FICUS VOGELII - Kobojongo(m) Dob(w) Bupokapoka(J)

The leaves and bark are boiled together in water, and given to pregnant women to lessen pains. Leaves are boiled in water and taken for the treatment of stomach-ache. Juice extracted from the bark is rubbed in the skin for treatment of small pox. (G D 1, 3, 4; Sept. 1999).

ICACINACEAE

Twelve genera in this family are noted in 'The Flora of west Tropical Africa'. Only one icacina is identified in The Gambia.

ICACINA SENEGALENSIS - Mankanaso(m) Bankanas(w)

Medicinal uses: The leaves are soaked or boiled in water, which is used for washing one's face to treat eye infection. (G D 1, 3, 4; Sept. 1999)

LORANTHACEAE

Nine genera of this family are noted in "The Flora of west tropical Africa," of which only one is identified in The Gambia.

TAPINANTHUS BANGWENSIS - Dungo(m) Bentenkeh(w)

Medicinal uses: The leaves are dried and pounded to powder. The powder is eaten to get rid of worms. The powder from the leaves and flowers is eaten for to treat swelling. (G D 1, 3, 5; Sept 1999).

MELIACEAE

Eleven genera of this family is noted in "The Flora of West Tropical Africa". Out of these, only five genera are identified in The Gambia, of this five only two are widely known for their medicinal uses.

KHAYA SENEGALENSIS Jalo(m) Khaye(w) kaye(f)

Medicinal uses: The bark is soaked or boiled in water and taken to treat fever, to improve body strength and to treat body rashes. The bark and roots are boiled in water and taken for treatment of stomach-ache. It is also used widely for abortion. (G D 1, 2, 3, 4, 5; Sept. 1999).

AZADIRACHTA INDICA Yirinding Kunango(m)

Medicinal uses: The local people have found a lot of medicinal properties in this widely used exotic species. The young leaves are chewed for the treatment of Malaria. The leaves are boiled and taken for treatment of stomach-ache and Yellow fever and for de-worming. The steam is inhaled for treatment of rheumatism. (G D 1, 2, 3, 4, 5; Sept. 1999).

SAPINDACEAE

Twelve genera of this family are noted in The Flora of west tropical Africa! Four of these are identified in the Gambia and only one species is known widely for its medicinal uses.

PAULLINIA PANNATA Jambalulo(m) Kep(w) Fungo(f)

The leaves are boiled in water for treatment of internal and external swellings. (G D 1, 3, 5; Sept. 1999).

ANACARDIACEAE

Seven out of the 14 genera in this family mentioned in The Flora of west Tropical Africa are identified in The Gambia. Five species of these are widely known for their medicinal uses.

MANGIFERA INDICA Duto(m) Mango(w)

Medicinal uses: The leaves are boiled in water and taken for the treatment of chest pain. Steam is inhaled and water used for mouth wash to treat toothache. (G D 1, 3, 4; Sept. 1999).

ANACARDIUM OCCIDENTALE - Kassuwo(m) Kassu(w)

Medicinal uses: For treatment of high blood pressure and diabetes, the leaves are boiled in water and drunk. (G D 3, 4, 5; Sept. 1999).

SPONDIA MOMBIN - Ninkon(m,w) Chaleh(f)

Medicinal uses: For the treatment of leprosy, the roots are soaked in water and drunk. (G D 1, 3, 4; Sept. 1999).

SCIEROCARYA BIRREA - Kuntan Jawo(m) Birr(w) Erie(f)

Medicinal uses: The leaves are boiled in water and used for mouth washing when treating toothache. Ash of the bark and leaves can be rubbed on the affected part of the gum for the treatment of toothache. Bark is boiled in water and taken to secure abortion and also to treat piles. (G D 1, 2, 3, 4, 5; Sept. 1999).

LANNEA ACIDA - Bembo(m) Sonn(w) Tingoli(f)

Medicinal uses: The bark is soaked in water and taken to get rid of a certain type of worm in the stomach causing frequent spitting. (G D 1, 3, 4, 5; Sept. 1999).

HEERIA INSIGNIS - Koron - Kondo(m) Gyolo - Kndimi(f)

Medicinal uses: The leaves are boiled in water and taken for the treatment of chest pain. The powder of the inner bark is applied to wounds. (G D 3, 4, 5; Sept. 1999).

LOGANIACEAE

In this family, six genera are mentioned in the flora of tropical west Africa. Only three are identified in the Gambia and only one is widely known for its medicinal uses.

STRYCHNOS SPINOSA - Patakule(m) Fatakule (f) Utog(j)

For treatment of stomach-ache, and for strengthening of penis, the roots are boiled and drunk together with boiling water. The leaves are boiled or soaked in water for the treatment of sore eyes. Powder from the leaves is applied on wounds. (G D 1, 2, 3, 5; Sept. 1999).

APOCYNACEAE

Thirty seven genera in this family are noted by The Flora of west Tropical Africa. Only eight genera are identified in The Gambia and only three are widely known for their medicinal uses.

LANDOLPHIA HENDELOFII - Folay(m) Foleri(f) Buiembabu(j)

Medicinal uses: The latex is used to get rid of insects in the ear. Fruits are used as an appetizer. (G D 1, 2, 3, 4; Sept. 1999).

SABA SENGALENSIS: - Kaba(m) Mada(w) Lare(f) Findipuff(j)

Medicinal uses: The leaves are boiled in water and inhaled under cover to get rid of aches and pains. Also the water is drunk as a treatment for epilepsy. (G D 1, 2, 3, 4, 5; Sept. 1999).

VOACANGA AFRICANA - Wala yiro(m)

Medicinal uses: Squeeze the juice from the leaves for treatment of constipation and also for de-worming. (G D 2, 3, 4; Sept. 1999).

ASCLEPLADACEAE

Thirty three genera of this family is mentioned in The Flora of west tropical Africa. Only five are identified in the Gambia and only one is widely known for its medicinal uses in the Gambia.

LAPTADENIA ARBOREA - Sora(m) Talal(w)

Medicinal uses: The exudate from the leaves is used as snuff. Dried leaves are pounded, the powder is diluted in a salt solution and taken for the treatment of back pain, gonorrhoea and difficulty in urinating. (G D 1, 2, 3, 5; Sept. 1999).

RUBIACEAE

Ninety-one genera of this family are mentioned in The Flora of west tropical Africa. Only six genera are identified in the Gambia, of which four species are widely known for their medicinal uses.

GARDENIA TRACANTHA Tankanago(m) Bure(w) Dungali(f) Kalena(j)

Medicinal uses: The root is soaked in water and the solution is drunk for the treatment of skin boils. The dried roots are pounded and the powder is diluted in water, the solution is drunk for treatment of liver problems. (G D 1, 3, 5; Sept. 1999).

MITRAGYNA INERMIS - Jungo(m) Hos(w) Koileh(f)

Medicinal uses: The leaves are boiled and the steam is inhaled under cover for cure of fever. The leaves are used as a poultice to reduce fat tissues in the body. (G D 3, 4, 5; Sept. 1999).

MAUCLEA LATIFOLIA - Batio - foro(m) Koba(w) Dundake(f)

Medicinal uses: It is used as antiseptic for the treatment of toothache and as a prophylactic for the treatment of malaria. (G D 1, 2, 3, 4, 5; Sept. 1999).

MORUNDA GEMINATA - Batio Jungo(m) Garba(f)

Medicinal uses: Leaves are boiled in water and the solution is taken as a blood tonic. (G D 1, 3, 4; Sept 1999).

COMPOSITAE

Eighty-four genera of this family is mentioned in The Flora of west Tropical Africa. Twenty are identified in The Gambia. Most of the species are annuals and only two are widely known for their medicinal uses.

VERNONIA COLOURATA - Yiri kunango, Jamba kunango(m)

Medicinal uses: The leaves are boiled in water and the solution is given to a young lady during abortion to ease pain. (G D 1, 2, 3, 5; Sept. 1999).

VERNONIA NIGRITIANA - Jubu Jamba(m) Batientior(w)

Medicinal uses: Roots are soaked in water and the solution is taken for deworming. (G D 2, 3, 5; Sept. 1999).

SOLANACEAE

Eight genera of this family are mentioned in The Flora of west Tropical Africa. 5% of them are identified in The Gambia. Only 2 species are widely known for their medicinal uses.

PATURA SUAREOLENS - Kubejarro(m,w) Mereng(f)

Medicinal uses: When used in small quantities it is good for digestion (G D 1, 2, 3, 5; Sept. 1999).

SALANAM INDICUM - Sulu Jato(m) Diakhatu(w)

Medicinal uses: For treatment of cataracts, the roots are boiled in water and the face is washed with the solution. The juice is applied to cure boils. (G D 1, 2, 3, 4, 5; Sept. 1999).

BIGNONIACEAE

Six genera in this family are mentioned in The Flora of west Tropical Africa but only three are identified in The Gambia and two are known widely for their medicinal uses.

KIGELIA AFRICANA Sunjubaba(m) Diambal(w)

Medicinal uses: Inner flesh of the fruit is cooked and eaten for treatment of stomach-ache. (G D 1, 2, 3; Sept. 1999).

NEWBOULDIA LEAVIS - Kunjunburugo(m) Ngam(w) Sukunde(f)

Medicinal uses: Leaves are roasted and applied on boils to get rid of pus. Leaves are boiled in water and the solution is taken in for treatment of stomach-ache. (G D 1, 2, 5; Sept. 1999).

PEDALIACEAE

Five genera of this family are mentioned in The Flora of west Tropical Africa of which only one species is identified in The Gambia.

SESAMUM RADIATANUN - Beno (m) Bene(w)

Medicinal uses: The whole plant is soaked in water and the solution is taken for treatment of swollen diseases and to prevent infections. (G D 1, 2, 3, 4, 5; Sept. 1999).

VERBENACEAE

Ten genera of this family are noted in The Flora of West Tropical Africa. Out of these, only four are identified in the Gambia, and of which two are widely known for their medicinal uses.

LIPPIA CHEVALLIERI Sisline Nyamo(m) Bahe(f) mborbor(w) Bane

Medicinal uses: Flowers are used as pillow stuff to prevent headache. Leaves are boiled and taken in for treatment of stomach pain. (G D 1, 2, 3, 4, 5; Sept. 1999).

VERTEX DONIANA - Kutufingo(m) Henl(w)

Medicinal uses: For quick healing of wounds the leaves are chewed and applied to it. (G D 1, 3, 4, 5; Sept. 1999).

LABIATAE

Twenty one genera of this family are mentioned in The Flora of West Tropical Africa. Only one is identified in The Gambia. These are annual herbs and most of them are not known for any medicinal use.

OCIMUM CANUM - Fourehyamo(m) Ngumgume(w) Sukora(f) Kaoulung(j)

Medicinal uses: For treatment of serious coughs The leaves are squeezed in water and the solution drunk, it is also used as a blood tonic. (G D 1, 2, 3, 4; Sept. 1999).

ZINGIBERACEAE

Four genera of this family are mentioned in The Flora of West Tropical Africa. Only two are identified in The Gambia and one is widely known for its medicinal uses.

AFRAMCMUM MELEGUETA - Belankuto(m) Suma(j)

The roots are pounded and mixed with salt and sugar for treatment of constipation and stomach-ache caused by worms. The fruits are eaten to cure gonorrhoea. (G D 3, 4, 5; Sept. 199).

Some plants that are locally known for their medicinal uses

COMMENTS:

The above mentioned species are not as widely known and used as medicinal plants.

The use of these plants as medicine is localized. They are used by only a certain tribe or ethnic group within a locality, unlike the others earlier mentioned which are used by many tribes across the country. However, they are worth mentioning to provide the opportunity for more follow-up in subsequent work of this nature.