3

MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA

REGIONAL SETTING

Characteristics of the region

The Middle East and North Africa region¹ comprises 14 low and middle-income countries or territories stretching from Iran to Morocco (see Map). The region supports a population of 296 million people, over 120 million of whom live in rural areas. Of these, about 84 million are dependent on agriculture - including fishing and livestock. The region has ancient historical settlements, but there is also a long history of immigration from other areas. The Middle East is an important site of early settled agriculture, and the centre of origin and diversity of several major cereal and legume crops, and of the early domestication of sheep and goats. The region was also a major area of innovation in agriculture between the 4th and 11th Century AD, when many new crops and technologies were introduced from the Far East.

Settlement patterns vary, depending on historical forces and political changes, but populations are increasing in major cities and concentrating in larger villages in rural areas. The region contains a significant number of pastoralists who move seasonally between low and high altitudes in mountainous regions and between wetter zones and the dry steppe. The long history of human settlement, unequal access to land and increasing urbanisation have led to serious degradation of land and forest resources in much of the region.

The region covers an area of 1100 million ha and includes a diversity of environments. However, arid and semiarid areas with low and variable rainfall predominate. The more humid areas have a Mediterranean climate, characterised by long, dry summers and mild, wet winters. These moderately humid zones account for less than 10 percent of the land area but nearly half of the agricultural population, while the drier areas account for nearly 90 percent of the land area but less than 30 percent of the population. These aggregates include centres of population, often located in dispersed, intensively irrigated areas within arid and semiarid zones. In addition, the large-scale irrigated areas - which cover only 2 percent of total land area - include a further 17 percent of the agricultural population.

Rainfed crops are grown during the wetter winter period, while irrigated areas are cultivated year round. The main rainfed crops are wheat, barley, legumes, olives, grapes, fruit and vegetables. A wide range of subtropical crops, including fruit and vegetables, is also grown under irrigation in the summer months. Livestock, mainly sheep and goats, are an important feature of many farming systems and provide key linkages between and within the different systems - from extensive pastoralism to feedlots in peri-urban agriculture.

In comparison with other developing areas of the world, the Middle East and North Africa is not a particularly impoverished zone. The early development of irrigation-based civilisations in much of the area laid the foundation for intensive agricultural systems still in use today. Furthermore, historical evidence indicates that, in Roman times, much of North Africa enjoyed sufficient rainfall to support widespread rainfed cultivation of cereals and other crops. Climatic conditions and vegetative cover appear to have deteriorated since then.

Historically, irrigation practices, coupled with effective indigenous technologies for managing the limited resources available, have meant that any outright malnutrition in rural areas has been associated mainly with crop failures resulting from droughts, pests, or the failure of the annual flood in the Nile Valley. Rapid increases in population, arising from improved child survival rates and lower mortality in general, now threaten this historical equilibrium. Although the growing cities have proved to be a magnet for many young people, unemployment rates in urban areas are high. While only around two percent of the total population fall below the international poverty line of US$1 per day an estimated nine percent (or 33 million people)² - mostly living in rural areas - are undernourished.

In rural areas poverty is much more widespread than in urban areas. A high proportion of poor households consist of farmers or pastoralists who depend on agriculture as a primary food and livelihood source. Poverty is conditioned primarily by lack of access to the limited soil and water resources and by low productivity, and it is aggravated by highly unpredictable rainfall, relatively few crop and livestock options, and continuing natural resource degradation. Access to sufficient land to support growing families is already a major problem in many countries. Land ownership is highly skewed, with a small number of farmers owning large areas of the better quality land. In addition, the highly fragmented nature of many holdings leads to inefficient land management practices. Markets are generally weak and many policies are geared toward urban needs - for the most part the provision of cheap food. Cereal farmers and pastoralists are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of subsidies on imported grains.

Historically, agriculture has played a key role in the development of many economies of the Middle East and North Africa; initially in the production of cereals and livestock and later in the development of fruits, vegetables and cash crops from irrigated or partially irrigated land. In 1997, agriculture contributed 13 percent to regional GDP and accounted for 19 percent of exports and 50 percent of employment in the region. However, there are large variations across countries depending on the relative importance of non-agricultural income in the economy. Access to water, both in terms of quantity and quality, remains a key issue in the both agricultural and national economies. The relatively low potential for increasing output without irrigation has meant that many economies have had to rely on alternative engines for economic growth, including petroleum extraction, mining, manufacturing, trading and other commercial activities.

Major farming systems in Middle East and North Africa - MAP

Major farming systems in Middle East and North Africa

Eight major farming systems have been identified and broadly delimited, based on a range of criteria discussed in the first Chapter. They are listed in Table 3.1 and their geographical location is indicated in the accompanying Map.

Irrigated Farming System

Given the arid and semiarid nature of much of North Africa and the Middle East, the Irrigated Farming System has always been of crucial importance in generating much of the region's agricultural output. The system contains both large and small-scale irrigation schemes. The large-scale system consists of 8.1 million ha of irrigated cropland and an agricultural population of nearly 16 million³; resulting in high population densities and generally very small farm sizes. The prevalence of poverty within both sub-systems is moderate.

Traditionally, areas within the Large-scale Irrigation Sub-System have been linked primarily to perennial surface water resources, such as the Nile and Euphrates valleys, but the intensification of traditional karez or qanat systems has also led to the evolution of large-scale irrigated areas wherever sub-surface water is abundant. More recently, the availability of deep drilling and pumping technologies has permitted the development of new areas drawing entirely on subterranean aquifers. Large-scale schemes are found across all zones and include high-value cash and export cropping and intensive vegetable and fruit cropping. Patterns of water use vary greatly but, throughout the region, inappropriate policies on water pricing and centralised management systems have meant that water is seldom used efficiently. Significant economic and environmental externalities have arisen through excessive utilisation of non-recharged aquifers while, in a number of cases, the excessive application of irrigation water has resulted in rising groundwater tables, soil salinisation and sodisation problems.

The Small-scale Irrigated Sub-System also occurs widely across the region and although not as important as the larger schemes in terms of numbers of people involved, or in the amount of food and other crops produced, it is a significant element in the survival of many people in arid and remote mountain areas. This sub-system, which may be of considerable antiquity, typically develops along small perennial streams and at oases, or where flood and spate irrigation is feasible. It sometimes also draws on shallow aquifers and boreholes, although these rarely penetrate to the depths seen in the large schemes. The major crops grown within small-scale irrigation areas are mixed cereals, fodder and vegetables. These areas also provide important focal points for socio-economic activity, but intense local competition for limited water resources between small rural farmers and other users is becoming increasingly evident. The Small-scale Irrigation Sub-System is not mapped due to its highly dispersed nature, but areas of substantial small-scale irrigation within other systems are indicated on the regional Map by hatching.

Highland Mixed Farming System

The Highland Mixed Farming System is the most important system in the region in terms of population - with 27 million people engaged in agriculture - but contains only 74 million ha (7 percent) of the land area, thus leading to moderately high population densities. The cultivated area is 22 million ha, of which nearly five million ha are irrigated. It covers two, sometimes overlapping, sub-systems. The first is dominated by rainfed cereal and legume cropping, with tree crops, fruits and olives on terraces, together with vines. In Yemen, this sub-system includes qat and coffee, which are traditionally the most important tree crops in mountain regions. The second sub-system is based primarily on the raising of livestock (mostly sheep) on communally managed lands. In some cases, both the livestock and the people who control them are transhumant, migrating seasonally between lowland steppe in the more humid winter season and upland areas in the dry season. This type of livestock keeping is still important in Iran and Morocco. Poverty within this system is extensive, as markets are often distant, infrastructure is poorly developed and the degradation of natural resources is a serious problem.

Rainfed Mixed Farming System

The Rainfed Mixed Farming System contains almost 18 percent of the agricultural population but occupies only two percent of the land area, resulting in high population densities. Cultivated area is 14 million ha, including tree crops and vines; and there are about eight million cattle. Although the system is by definition principally rainfed, an increasing area (presently about 0.6 million ha) is now benefiting from the availability of new drilling and pumping technologies, which have made it possible to use supplementary winter irrigation on wheat and full irrigation on summer cash crops⁴. There is some dry-season grazing of sheep migrating from the steppe areas. The more humid areas (600 to 1000 mm annual rainfall) are characterised by tree crops (olives and fruit), melons and grapes. There is also some protected cropping⁵ with supplementary irrigation, for potatoes, vegetables and flowers. Common crops are wheat, barley, chickpeas, lentils, and the fodder crops - vetches and medics. Poverty is moderate, but would be higher without extensive off-farm income from seasonal labour migration.

Dryland Mixed Farming System

The Dryland Mixed Farming System is found in dry subhumid areas which receive an annual rainfall of between 150 to 300 mm. The system contains an agricultural population of 13 million people and includes 17 million ha of cultivated land. Population density tends to be lower than in the other main arable systems and average farm sizes are larger. The main rainfed cereals are barley and wheat grown in a rotation that includes an annual or two-year fallow, but the risk of drought is high and considerable food insecurity exists. The livestock, including six million cattle and a greater number of small ruminants, interact strongly with the cropping and fodder system. In good years, rainfed barley is grown for grain, but when there is insufficient rainfall for adequate maturation, it is common for it to be fed as fodder to livestock. Local barley varieties are particularly well adapted to this system. The development of higher value crops, such as fruits and vegetables, has been constrained not only by low rainfall, but also by relatively poor market linkages. Poverty is extensive among small farmers.

Pastoral Farming System

The Pastoral Farming System, mainly involving sheep and goats but also with some cattle and camels, is found across almost a quarter of the land area of the region - equivalent to around 250 million ha. It includes large areas of semiarid steppe lands, and is characterised by low population densities, with more densely populated areas around irrigated settlements. There are some 2.9 million ha of irrigated cropland scattered throughout the system, thus boosting the agricultural population - which is around eight million people - and helping to support a cattle population of 2.5 million. Strong linkages exist to other farming systems through the movement of stock, both through seasonal grazing of herds in more humid areas and through the sale of animals to large feedlots located in urban areas. Seasonal migration, which is particularly important as a risk minimisation measure, depends on the availability of grass, water and crop residues in neighbouring arable systems. Nowadays, pastoral herds are often partially controlled and financed by urban capital. Where water is available, small areas of crop production have been developed to supplement the diets and income of pastoral families. However, such sites are few and poverty within the system is extensive.

Sparse (Arid) Farming System

The Sparse (Arid) Farming System covers more than 60 percent of the region and includes vast desert zones. Approximately four million people (about five percent of the region's agricultural population) live within the system, and are concentrated in oases and a number of irrigation schemes (notably in Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco and Libya). About 1.2 million ha of irrigated cropland are utilised for the production of dates, other palms, fodder and vegetables. In addition, an estimated 2.7 million cattle, pastoralists within this system also raise camels, sheep and goats. The system provides opportunistic grazing for the herds of pastoralists, following scattered storms and in good seasons. The boundary between pastoral grazing and sparse agriculture systems is indistinct and depends on climatic conditions. Poverty within this system is generally low as population pressure is limited.

Coastal Artisanal Fishing System

Small-scale artisanal fishermen have lived along the coasts of the Mediterranean and the Atlantic Ocean for thousands of years, supplementing income from the sale of fish with small-scale crop and livestock production. There are an estimated one million people living in this system, which has an area of around 11 million ha. As modern technology and capital have been injected into the offshore fishing industry, the artisanal fishing system has contracted.

Urban Based Farming System

Throughout the region a small population of urban residents, estimated to be less than 6 million people, engage in small-scale production of horticultural and livestock products - notably fruit, vegetables and poultry. The contribution of this system to GADP is small at present, but the growth in livestock feedlots, fruit, and intensive vegetable production in urban areas may become increasingly important in the coming decades. This system sometimes has important linkages with peri-urban and rural production systems.

Region-wide trends in Middle East and North Africa

This section describes the most important region-wide trends in terms of: population, hunger and poverty; natural resources and climate; science and technology; trade liberalisation and market development; policies, institutions and public goods; and information and human capital. At the end of the section, four of the regional farming systems described in the previous section of the Chapter are selected for further description and analysis.

Population, hunger and poverty

During the period 2000-2030, the population of the region is projected to almost double from its present 296 million6. This could have a considerable negative impact in areas with fragile or vulnerable soils and sloping land, and will certainly be of importance for water resources everywhere. The areas around major centres of population are particularly likely to suffer from various forms of environmental degradation and water shortage.

Although there has been some reduction of hunger since 1970, it is estimated that 33 million people within the region were still undernourished in 1995-19977. This number is not expected to change much during the period to 2030, although the percentage of the population that is undernourished will decline. Currently, the average daily calorie intake is 2980 kcal - 13 percent higher than the average for all developing countries and the highest among the six regions in this study. The overall calorie intake reflects high levels of consumption of cereals (20 percent higher than the developing world average) and meat, and is also influenced by the above-average access to food in the oil-rich countries of the region. However, this average masks the existence of vulnerable groups within some countries, as well as hiding the differences between oil-exporting and the non-exporting countries.

The overall total of 6 percent projected growth in calorie consumption is low, but the region will still achieve an average daily intake of 3170 kcal by 2030, comfortably exceeding the developing world average of 3020 kcal. The increase is expected to derive mainly from the continued growth in consumption of meat (60 percent), as well as milk and dairy products (23 percent). In many rural areas the quality of nutrition is not good, particularly for poorer people in drier and more isolated systems. Although meat and cereals may be reasonably accessible, vegetables and fruits are relatively scarce and expensive. As shown in Figure 1.3 of the first Chapter, there has been some reduction in dollar poverty within the region during the past decade.

Natural resources and climate

Since 1961, cultivated land has expanded by 14 percent, while cropping intensity has increased by over 15 percent within the same period. Currently, cultivated land in the region is 65 million ha, accounting for 76 percent of the estimated total potential. These figures indicate that most cultivable land is already being exploited and that there is limited scope for further expansion. Nevertheless, during 2000-2030, cultivated land use is still expected to expand, reaching a figure of 82 percent of the total potential. However, the newly cultivated land will often be seriously constrained by climate, slope or poor soils. Access to land will become increasingly difficult over the coming years - particularly for poorer people - and the expected increase in the cultivation of marginal land will lead to significant environmental degradation.

Currently, more than 20 million ha of land are irrigated - representing 32 percent of the total cultivated land in use and 60 percent of the land with irrigation potential. The average irrigation efficiency is about 50 percent, somewhat higher than the average of 43 percent in all developing countries. The exploited hydrological resources of the region account for only 1.4 percent of the total annual renewable water resources in the developing world. The aridity of the region means that irrigation is the principal means of agricultural intensification and diversification. Away from large perennial waterways, agricultural requirements for water have traditionally been met through the exploitation of shallow groundwater and seepage and small-scale impoundment. The 20th Century saw the construction of several large dams to provide storage for large-scale perennial irrigation schemes covering many square kilometres. More significantly, groundwater has been progressively used as a principal buffer for the reduction of hydrological risk. This insurance function has now turned into dependency in many countries, as demand has outstripped the capacity of other sources.

Based on irrigated area and efficiency, it is calculated that as much as 58 percent of available water in the region is being used for irrigation. However, four countries - Jordan, Libya, Saudi Arabia and Yemen - are already withdrawing volumes that exceed their annual water resource recharge; due to increasing demands for water both from their cities and from intensive agricultural systems. Depletion of water resources is likely to become an acute problem in many more places. During 2000-2030, the total irrigated area within the region is forecast to grow by 20 percent. This will bring total irrigated area to a level equal to 77 percent of all land with irrigation potential. Overall irrigation water requirements are expected to grow by 14 percent and efficiency of water use is estimated to reach 65 percent.

Taking into account the expected expansion of the irrigated area, it is projected that water use for irrigation will account for 67 percent of the total renewable water resources in the region. These average figures hide far more serious situations in a number of locations, where abstraction of groundwater is exceeding recharge and thus depleting strategic reserves. Economic competition for the limited renewable water resource base of the region is intensifying. Disputes over water use rights and resource allocation between sectors and across international borders are also becoming more evident, as limits to economic capture are reached. Under these circumstances, irrigation development is becoming increasingly conditioned by socio-economic and environmental realities to the extent that management of demand for both water and irrigation services is now an imperative.

Science and technology

Crop production growth to 2030 is projected at 1.7 percent per annum (compared with 1.6 percent per annum in all developing countries). During 1961-1997, crop production increased as a result of both harvested land expansion (29 percent), and yield increase (71 percent). Wheat dominates cereal production. In 2000, the region produced 23 million tons of wheat with an average yield of 1.4 t/ha - representing an annual increase in yield of 1.8 percent since 1970 (see Table 3.2). Although barley is second in importance in terms of area, it is exceeded by both maize and rice in terms of output. Olive production, which is a substantial export earner, was 2.8 million tons with an average yield of 2 t/ha. During the last decade, the region experienced rapid growth of olive production in terms of both area (2.1 percent per annum) and yield (5.5 percent per annum) - and further substantial yield increases are expected during the coming three decades.

Current fertiliser consumption represents only 7.2 percent of the total in all developing countries. The was no increase in fertiliser consumption in the region during the past decade, in contrast to the 3.5 percent annual increase for the developing world as a whole. However, projections suggest a gradual rise in consumption in the coming three decades.

The region has 197 million head of sheep and goats (see Table 3.3), accounting for about one-seventh of the total population of these animals in developing countries. There is a great variety of production systems for sheep and goats. These include: extensive pastoral systems; seasonal exploitation of crop residues in arable systems; and feedlots in major urban areas. Important linkages exist between many of these systems. In recent decades, poultry numbers (900 million in 2000) have increased very rapidly - at a rate of almost 6 percent per annum, nearly double that for developing countries as a whole. This growth rate is forecast to decelerate during the period 2000-2030⁸.

In many countries, a few very large production units now dominate the industry, limiting the opportunity for small-scale producers to enter into the market. During the last decade, cattle and buffalo numbers increased at 0.8 percent per annum and continued expansion is projected until 2030; despite the fact that the region is not well-suited to cattle production. The current total annual production of meat is nearly 6 million tons and it is projected to continue to grow until 2030. Milk production is currently 17 million tons, following a growth rate of 3.4 percent per annum since 1970. However, the projected rate of growth during 2000-2030
is lower⁹.

Trade liberalisation and market development

Trade liberalisation has favoured the larger producers in the region, as many smaller operators have moved out of farming and trading altogether. Smaller businesses which deal in agricultural products have also found it increasingly difficult to compete and there are few areas in which they have any comparative advantage. There is minimal development of small-scale agro-processing industries in all but a few countries. Any growth of small-scale enterprises has usually been through individual, or close family efforts and not through co-operative movements or producer organisations. The absence of credit for small producers and lack of market intelligence concerning overseas markets has also acted as a constraint to any significant development at this level.

However, many small farm households have diversified their livelihoods by developing off-farm activities such as tourism, catering and other service activities - often through family linkages. This trend is expected to continue in the coming 30 years and off-farm income will progressively grow in importance, especially for poor households.

Market development over the coming decades will depend closely upon the relationship between the region and the European Union (EU). Growing incomes in the Mediterranean countries of the EU will increase demand for North African and Middle Eastern products, and will likely attract European investment. Nevertheless, the policies of national governments concerning private enterprise development will strongly affect the speed of response to these opportunities.

Policies, institutions and public goods

Both development policies and investments in public goods have had a strong urban bias for many decades. Many public institutions in the recent past have been extremely centralised and development policies have tended to favour cheap food for urban populations. Infrastructural investments have also favoured major centres of population; primarily in the provision of water, basic services and communications links. The development of road systems has generally served national security or urban objectives, rather than rural development; indeed, their construction has sometimes been in conflict with agricultural needs. Similarly, a great deal of high quality land has been lost close to cities, as a result of weak planning regulations and lack of forward thinking. Conflicts over rates of water extraction are already becoming a major issue in and around centres of population, and these conflicts are expected to intensify in the future.

The land reform issue remains one of the most intractable, as many people hold onto their fragmented holdings without any rationalisation or consolidation process in place; even where countries are officially undertaking land reform. Migration of young people to the cities means that the will to change the current system of land allocation and inheritance is weak. The only places where there have been major change are where larger operators have been able to buy-out smaller farmers. It is widely recognised that the reorganisation of land holdings is a prerequisite for the introduction of technologies that will conserve soil and water resources in the long run.

National livestock policies have tended to aggravate problems of overstocking, and therefore overgrazing, through the encouragement of the importation of cheap feed grains and the lack of regulation of numbers. Technology advances in the transport of livestock and water, and the role of private capital, have continued to place exceptional stress on natural rangeland resources. The lack of regulation has undermined the strength of older institutions and the system of communal range management which were designed to manage resources in a sustainable manner.

The high degree of centralisation of planning systems, and the rigid imposition of a target approach to production, has stifled innovation and diversification in many areas - particularly in the major irrigation schemes. Research has rarely been focused on applied problems of producers in risk-prone areas, or on the more efficient use of water. Market research for small producers has been minimal. Extension systems have often been very top down in design and delivery, leaving little scope for farmer-driven initiatives and partnerships.

Information and human capital

For many years, the capitals of the region had relatively good communication connections with Europe, although some countries adopted a policy of strict control over the use of the facilities. However, the contrast with farming - and especially pastoral areas - could not have been greater; and this relative neglect has hindered the responsiveness of farmers in many countries to new international market opportunities. This situation may be set to change with recent advances in information technology, including satellites and cell phones, which open up new possibilities for communication.

Until recently, government agricultural extension services were strong in several countries of the region; albeit with an emphasis on high potential areas, and on the regulation and control of land use and production practices. However, both cultivated and pastoral areas with low population densities have always lacked an adequate flow of technical and market information. In recent years, however, some countries have piloted computer-linked dissemination of farm management information. Farmer training has lagged behind other regions and this is holding back technology adoption and farming efficiency, as well as failing to build the skills of household members related to employment opportunities in the off-farm and urban economies.

Tertiary agricultural education reached a world class level during the third quarter of the last century, with a number of globally recognised universities situated throughout the region. In recent years, agricultural education institutions have generally not adopted new approaches to their curricula, nor have they employed innovative systems of delivery, such as distance learning. However, many universities have the capacity to improve quite rapidly, and it is expected that most will modernise these aspects during the coming decades.

Selection of farming systems

Of the eight farming systems described above the following have been chosen for further analysis, on the basis of their potentials for poverty reduction or agricultural growth, as well as their demographic and economic importance:

• Irrigated Farming System;
• Highland Mixed Farming System;
• Rainfed Mixed Farming System; and
• Dryland Mixed Farming System.

The Pastoral Farming System has also been included because of its relevance to other farming systems across the region. While it is neither demographically important nor offers a significant opportunity for poverty reduction, the role of the system in providing a reservoir of livestock which feed through into other systems - either seasonally or in the form of animals for fattening - makes it important in regional terms.

IRRIGATED FARMING SYSTEM

The Irrigated Farming System is found throughout the region. It encompasses two quite distinct sub-systems: the Large-scale Irrigated Farming Sub-System, common in a number of countries within the region, including Iraq, Syria, Morocco and Egypt, and the Small-scale Irrigation Sub-System, found scattered in small areas throughout such countries as Egypt, Yemen, Oman, Syria and the Maghreb. Each of these sub-systems is discussed separately below.

Large-scale Irrigated Sub-System

Characteristics of the SUB-system

The Large-scale Sub-System is usually found along the major river systems downstream from dams and most large-scale schemes have an ancient history of development. It contains an estimated agricultural population of 16 million, and. covers an area of 19 million ha, of which approximately 8 million ha are equipped for irrigation (see Box 3.1). This system is dominated by intensive year-round cropping, by both owner-occupiers and tenants. Many areas suffer from recurrent problems of water misuse and mismanagement, salinity, sodicity, and gypsum soil problems (Euphrates). In several cases, large-scale irrigation represents significant areas within the overall cropped area of the country (e.g. the Nile delta) and feature ancient and highly sophisticated water management techniques. Cash crops (e.g. cotton and sugarbeet), vegetables and other high-value crops and fodder are all common. Cropping intensity ranges between 120 and 160 percent. Some areas support significant numbers of livestock (cattle, buffalo, sheep and goats).

Many schemes have combinations of State and private land ownership. Conflicting management objectives and weak institutions appear to be common problems. Typically, these schemes are characterised by large-scale centralised management of water access and distribution, and may be managed in large blocks with mechanised inputs. In other schemes water access and distribution is also managed centrally, but the land has been allocated to large numbers of tenants or owners who individually manage small plots - from 0.5 to 5 ha - and share other inputs and marketing facilities. Water User Associations (WUAs) are becoming more common in these situations, dealing with ongoing operation and maintenance and ensuring better water sharing procedures.

Other large-scale fully irrigated individual schemes have emerged in recent years that are privately financed and operated. Water is extracted using tubewells and distributed through sprinkler or trickle systems to farmers growing mainly high-value crops for export. These schemes not only present a challenge to older irrigated areas in the market place, but are also a threat to nearby small-scale systems that rely on simpler water lifting devices, as the high volume of water extraction from deep aquifers is contributing to declining water tables as the rate of extraction exceeds the rate of recharge (e.g. the Sana'a Basin in Yemen, the Souss Plain in Morocco, the Bekaa Valley in Lebanon). Box 3.2 contains a brief description of a typical sub-system household.

Trends and issues in Large-scale Irrigated Sub-System

The history of the larger, centrally-managed schemes is not very encouraging. Many have been plagued with problems of poor water management, disputes over water access, and quality and quantity issues. The primary technical issues are: surface schemes working below design capacities and at low efficiencies; rapid depletion of aquifers; poor water delivery scheduling; rising groundwater tables; continued soil degradation; salinity and sodicity; declining soil organic matter levels; and low crop yields. Energy and machinery costs are also very high in some places. In addition to this, there are institutional and financial issues related to the responsibility of users for organisation and management of the systems and for cost recovery.

In view of the poor record of sustainability of state-managed irrigation schemes, the present trend is towards greater involvement of the water users in management. However, the participation of users in decision making concerning water management faces legal and institutional constraints to the transfer of management responsibility and to the legal basis for devolution of authority.

Measures aimed at reducing crop demand for water through rationing or switching to crops with a lower water requirement are now being promoted in the region. However, given the present weak water pricing policies, water and irrigation services costs may not be significant in relation to other costs such as seed, fertiliser, pesticide and energy. This situation does not encourage the efficient use of water and a far-reaching restructuring of water pricing and subsidy policies is required. A clear range of economic incentives to encourage the adoption and extension of innovative technologies is also necessary. If subsidies are provided, they should be focused on boosting on-farm investment in modern technology and equipment that will facilitate the re-allocation of water from low to high value uses.

Priorities for Large-scale Irrigated Sub-System

In order to underpin both the intensification and diversification of production, both of which are judged to be important strategies for poverty reduction, the most important priority is the introduction of water demand management, using a range of economic, regulatory and advocacy instruments. These initiatives have to be locally tailored, but must also be embedded in national agriculture and water management policies. In addition, irrigation will need to become more flexible to accommodate the perennial hydrological risk in the region. Conjunctive use¹⁰ and aquifer storage and recovery will become important tools in managing this risk.

The overall management of these large schemes is in need of major overhaul if poverty reduction is to accelerate. Interventions need to include: (i) identification and implementation of economic incentives to reduce water demand; (ii) promotion of water user institutions that can ensure equitable sharing among all legitimate users, (iii) increased efficiency of water use; (iv) restoration of soil fertility by raising organic matter levels and improving soil and water management; (v) development of farmer-participatory irrigation management systems in which growers play a much more active role in research, development and management; (vi) provision of a legal framework for farmers' associations, co-operatives and companies; (vii) facilitation of rural savings and loan initiatives; (viii) development of innovative technologies, credit, training and education for the small farm sector; and (ix) introduction of irrigation scheduling strategies that will provide a major opportunity for water savings.

In view of the emerging emphasis on water quality, it is expected that institutional factors such as regulations on levels of use of pesticides or nutrients will be a major consideration influencing future irrigation research programs. Rising demand by non-agricultural users will lead to increasingly intense competition for water over time - making it a relatively more costly input. This will tend to shift water supplies towards higher-value crops requiring more sophisticated management and equipment.

Small-scale Irrigated Sub-System

Characteristics of the SUB-system

In this sub-system, owner-occupiers or tenants typically farm very small units (0.02 to 1 ha) often within the boundaries of larger, rainfed systems. Thus, these small-scale irrigated schemes are considered as part of the relevant rainfed farming system. The holding usually contains fruit trees and intensively grown vegetables. Small-scale irrigation schemes are often found in isolated areas and provide food and other products primarily for local markets. Some of these involve traditional irrigation practices, water rights and scheme organisation.

This sub-system is characterised by limited water supplies, which reduce production opportunities, and often lead to opportunist planting following flooding or exceptional run-off. The cropping pattern and the type of crop developed are adapted to the water supplies and regime experienced over the years. This type of farming occurs throughout the plains areas of the region, as well as on terraced hillsides where it may be derived from an ancient system.

Trends and issues in Small-scale Irrigated Sub-System

Water shortages and food deficits are among the crucial issues facing small-scale irrigation farmers in the region and should be given priority. A participatory process of introducing technological packages that provide improvements to local practices has proven to be effective in tackling the issue of water shortage in a number of cases. With extremely limited possibilities for the expansion of available water resources except at prohibitive costs, the only solution left is to optimise the output from existing resources. Box 3.3 illustrates a case from the Yemen where a participatory approach to water management has successfully reduced the mining of groundwater.

Priorities for Small-scale Irrigated Sub-System

The top priority is to address the lack of equitable access to water resources. It is evident in some areas that a number of powerful individuals are controlling and capturing the bulk of available resources, using modern drilling and pumping equipment. Where this is happening, policy initiatives to promote more equitable access will be essential. Small-scale schemes, which offer important niches for local economies and the potential for higher value crops, are threatened by the depletion of water resources and the degradation of the environment.

Small irrigated schemes in ecological niches offer opportunities for testing and introduction of new varieties of major crops and trees. Stress tolerance, and the ability to grow in soils of low fertility, are important required characteristics and more adaptive research on these attributes is needed. There is a strong and growing demand in Northern Europe for organic foods and other agricultural products grown without chemical inputs, and this has created an opportunity to grow crops that are suited to specific niche situations. The key to this process would be to support small producers with access to these markets, through region-branded marketing groups and introductory preferential access.

HIGHLAND MIXED FARMING SYSTEM

Characteristics of the system

This system has an estimated total population of 65 million people, of which 27 million are engaged in agri-culture (see Box 3.4), making it the most important within the region in terms of population. However, it covers an area of 74 million ha, so population densities are lower than in the irrigated and rainfed-mixed systems. Annual rainfall is between 200 and 800mm. The system depends upon the exploitation of high altitude arable and common grazing lands where cold winters lead to dormancy or very slow growth of crops and fodder species.

The cereals that form part of the system are adapted to survive under snow and extended cold periods. Wheat and barley dominate the cropping pattern, which comprises primarily of monocultures with occasional fallows. Common grazing lands usually surround these cropped areas, and may be used by owners from the same region or by pastoralists migrating to the plains for the winter season. Box 3.5 contains a brief description of a typical farm household.

As a sub-set of this system, on high-altitude sloping lands in several countries, (e.g. in Yemen) level terraces created several thousand years ago have been planted with fruit trees, coffee, qat, olives and vegetable crops - sometimes with supplementary irrigation in the summer months for crops such as melons or high-value fruits.

Trends and issues in Highland Mixed System

Within the Highland Mixed System, inadequate maintenance of terraces in recent years has led to a decline in the quality of the natural resource base, and to increasing water erosion that has reduced productivity. To some extent, this neglect of terrace maintenance has been caused by reduced labour availability, as a result of substantial levels of emigration to urban and plains areas. A decline in soil fertility, resulting from continuous cropping and low nutrient return, is also an issue in some plateau areas. Where livestock are present, overgrazing close to settlements and water points has further contributed to soil degradation. Increased competition from subsidised imports of meat and dairy products for urban consumers continues to impoverish small producers by pushing down prices.

Priorities for Highland Mixed System

There is limited scope for poverty reduction within the Highland Mixed Farming System through intensification or diversification of production. Nevertheless, in order to protect existing levels of productivity and downstream rural and urban water users, the primary need is for the development of more sustainable watershed planning and management systems, plus the introduction of conservation tillage systems, and better integration of crops and livestock. The effectiveness of these technical changes depends upon the participation of the agricultural population in the planning and management process; and on the establishment of appropriate local institutions that can ensure equitable benefits to all producers. Box 3.6 presents an example of an approach to effective watershed management that contributed to poverty reduction in Tunisia.

Similarly, there is a need for more equitable regulation and control of common grazing resources, that can only take place effectively with full participation of all stakeholders. Older systems of management may need additional measures and a modern legal basis to take account of new capital financing of livestock. Scarcity of drinking water, for both humans and animals, in the mountain areas is one of the most serious problems and large number of new water points are needed.

Finally, there is a need for an end to policies of import subsidies on animal feed grains that depress local prices and make it difficult for local producers to compete. Although a substantial proportion of households are likely to abandon farming and move to areas with better economic opportunities and services, it will also be important to foster land consolidation for the remaining small producers. Some poverty reduction can be achieved through increases in farm size. For similar reasons, linkages to the off-farm economy should be strengthened in order to promote, inter alia, off-farm employment.

RAINFED MIXED FARMING SYSTEM

Characteristics of the system

This system contains an estimated total population of 40 million people, and an agricultural population of 16 million (see Box 3.7). Despite supporting one fifth of all farm households within the region, it covers an area of only 17 million ha, giving rise to population densities similar to those of the irrigated system. Producers are typically owner-occupiers or tenants. Annual rainfall is between 300 and 1000 mm and the growing period ranges from 180 to 365 days. A wide diversity of crops and trees are grown in well-established patterns around settlements.

In the more humid areas, tree crops (olives, fruits and nuts) are an important component and may dominate the system. They may be intercropped with cereals and vegetables while the trees are immature, but when mature they may become a monoculture. Wheat, barley, lentils, chickpeas, potatoes, sugarbeet and faba beans are the main annual crops. Summer crops are grown following a winter fallow. Vegetables, oil crops and flowers may also be grown, often with protection (polythene tunnels) in order to access specialised markets in Northern Europe and elsewhere.

Many farms are intensively capitalised with a high level of inputs, and farmers are very sensitive to market opportunities. There are a number of specialised dairy and poultry enterprises within the system. In the drier areas, cereals become more dominant and there is often a greater interdependence among farming families who frequently share resources and equipment. Farm systems are diversified and there is a seasonal interaction with livestock (mainly sheep and goat) owners in the use of crop residues and other fodder. Box 3.8 contains a brief description of a typical farm system household.

Trends and issues in Rainfed Mixed System

The principal trends and issues concern the poor access to quality land faced by increasing numbers of small farmers; soil erosion on slopes during rainstorms and erosion by wind on light, over-cultivated, exposed soils; and increasing attempts by farmers to diversify crops. Strategies and policies of research and extension institutions are not addressing the main needs of small farmers. Other trends include the decreasing proportion of wheat and the greater use of legumes in the rotation, increasing farm size and mechanisation (including the rapidly rising use of supplementary irrigation), migration to urban areas and growing dependence on off-farm income to secure food and livelihood security. Women are becoming increasingly marginalised in the production process and their labour is being progressively displaced, as men dominate the mechanisation processes for all the main crops.

Population density continues to rise and there is also a growing global influence on the system, both from imports of subsidised cereals and from the problems of access to markets. Subsistence farming is declining in these areas, while large-scale commercial interests are involved in high-input farming of export crops and livestock. At the same time there appears to be little commitment by many governments to supporting the sector - particularly the smaller farmers - through regulation of imports and specific support to poor farmers. Near the coast, the system is under considerable pressure in some areas by demand for land for urban settlement, tourism and other forms of economic speculation (e.g. Lebanon, Maghreb). This could also represent an opportunity for those farmers who wish to become more involved in the tourism sector.

Priorities for Rainfed Mixed System

This system appears to have potential for reduced poverty through intensification of production based, inter alia, on more effective management of natural resources and improved access to markets. Interventions and developments that could have a significant impact are: integrated water resources management; conservation agriculture on slopes and vulnerable soils; and the introduction of new crops and varieties to cope with short growing periods and droughts. The following improvement measures are of particular importance to small farming systems: (i) terrace restoration and soil contouring; (ii) cover cropping under trees; and (iii) watershed management by local communities or associations. In order to ensure the success of these changes, the following principal areas of action are suggested.

Land reform programmes, which were begun years ago, should be continued, focusing on farm amalgamation, more equitable distribution of land and water resources and better access to services. In conjunction with this, and with the active participation of small farmer groups, continuing research is needed on systems of land and water management including traditional techniques used in the region. In combination with these actions, there is a need to identify economic incentives for improved water resource management and to develop communally based initiatives for the long-term management of water catchments - including the rehabilitation of terrace systems and the reintroduction of intercropping systems. The success of these measures will depend to a large extent upon strengthening the role of women in watershed resource management and restoration.

There would appear to be a place for the development of niche (e.g. ethnic) and organic food production for international markets, e.g. olives, vines, pistachio, fruits, raisins, dates, spices, herbs and vegetables. Assistance with market entry is needed for small farmer groups. Connected with this, there is a place for the development of simple processing methods, direct marketing by producers, and storage facilities at strategic points.

Reforms are urgently needed in the institutions that are designed to serve farmers, and in the development of social infrastructure that will encourage young people to remain in rural areas. Restructuring and retraining of farmer-sensitive research systems and farmer-driven extension systems with farmer-researcher partnerships is one way forward. Particular focus is needed on technologies for small-scale women farmers and women's labour. Much can be adapted from widespread experiences elsewhere in Asia and Africa. Farmer study tours and interregional workshops for farmers, researchers and extensionists could be valuable. More adaptive, systemic research is required, both agricultural and socio-economic, on crop-livestock integration and risk reduction, and the stability and sustainability of farming systems. There is a need to address the dearth of recent case studies on farming systems in this region. The development of effective farmer-participatory research methods and support to farmer-driven research activity, also merit a high priority.

Policies are required to control a range of actions and practices with major negative environmental impacts; these include frequent, deep ploughing, excessive use of pesticides and excessive water extraction for irrigation. Improved natural resource management, enterprise diversification and off-farm income opportunities should also be promoted.

DRYLAND MIXED FARMING SYSTEM

Characteristics of the system

The Dryland Mixed Farming System covers an area of 42 million ha and contains an estimated total population of 50 million, with an agricultural population of 13 million (see Box 3.9). Annual rainfall is between 300 and 150 mm. The cultivated area is 17 mil-lion ha and cropping is dominated by cereals (mainly barley and wheat), grown in alternation with single or double season fallows. Occasionally, and especially in higher-rainfall areas, legumes (lentils and chickpeas) may be grown.

Interactions with pastoral systems are potentially strong as sheep may graze green barley in a dry year and the stubble of the harvested crop in average or wetter years. Small areas of irrigated vegetables may be grown in association with these systems. Box 3.10 contains a brief description of a typical farm system household.

Trends and issues in Dryland Mixed System

This system is primarily dependent on wheat and barley production, together with a strong interaction with small livestock (primarily sheep). The reliability of cropping is highly dependent on rainfall and the whole system is vulnerable to inter-annual and seasonal variation - both temporal and spatial - in rainfall. In the recent past, there has been a decline in wheat area and renewed use of indigenous barley varieties. The most critical issue concerns the limited access to new crops and varieties by most farmers.

A further issue has been the failure to fully integrate cropping and livestock systems, because policies and price ratios have worked against this potentially stabilising feature. Human nutrition in these systems is also an issue, as diets tend to lack variety and quality. Under these circumstances, farmers progressively rely more on livestock systems for subsistence and cash income. Migration to urban areas has been increasing and remittances to families remaining in these areas play a significant role in food security. Some of the more arid areas with lighter soils experience severe wind erosion problems during the dry season.

Priorities for Dryland Mixed System

Notwithstanding substantial emigration from this system, there is judged to be some scope for poverty reduction through production intensification and growth in off-farm income - the latter largely through seasonal migration. Priorities should be focused on regulatory measures for access and use of land and water resources, as well as on technology development and dissemination with a focus on the poor.

In this context, the importance of land consolidation and technologies for conservation is paramount: including development and adaptation of appro-priate and financially accessible technologies for conservation agriculture on slopes and vulnerable soils. In many areas, this can only be achieved following a significant change in land ownership and distribution patterns through land consolidation. Interventions requiring collective action by resource user groups include the development of conservation methods, such as wind erosion control through windbreaks; water harvesting methods; stubble mulch or minimum or zero tillage methods that are feasible for all farmers, and shrubs that can also be used as fodder.

While irrigated systems remain a high political priority, there is a need to recognise that a shift in resource allocation from irrigated agriculture to rainfed farming is essential if there is to be a realistic regional focus on poverty alleviation. Irrigated and rainfed systems interact strongly and it is not efficient to strengthen one without addressing the problems of the other. A systems perspective on land and water resource management planning activities should be encouraged and ultimately adopted by the provincial and district planning bodies. Such bodies would benefit by extending their representative membership to include all stakeholders who can participate in decision making.

Interventions through extension and distribution outlets that are likely to have some impact on the poor include: (i) the generation and distribution of a wide range of new varieties of major crops; (ii) water conservation training; (iii) exploration and re-development of traditional water management techniques; (iv) increased emphasis on intercropping; (v) the application of appropriate technologies; and (vi) O&M training for those technologies.

A new approach to research is called for in order to develop crop varieties with a shorter growing period, drought resistance, and improved grain and straw quality. Pilot studies should consider the socio-economic and cultural impact of the characteristics of the new crops, to ascertain whether they meet the needs of the society in which they will be used. A new approach is also required in the way in which research is organised and managed to better serve these systems. There needs to be more proactive research with the active participation of smaller farmers - particularly women - on the development of these interventions. Participative, on-farm research related to crop-livestock integration, and to resource conservation with a focus on risk reduction and sustainability of systems, is likely to produce long-term benefits for the poor in these systems.

PASTORAL FARMING SYSTEM

Characteristics of the system

This system is found in most countries of the region. It contains an estimated total population of 30 million and an agricultural population of eight million (see Box 3.11). It covers an area of 250 million ha, or approximately a quarter of the regional land area. Some pastoralists also cultivate small areas of crops, where water is available. However, annual rainfall in this system is less than 150 mm so opportunities are limited. Pastoralists keep mainly sheep in their herds and flocks, but many also have goats, donkeys and camels. There are an estimated 60 million sheep and goats and three million cattle in this system.

The system is based on the mobility of herds and flocks, which move with the availability of grazing - related to seasonal rainfall distribution - and the availability of water. This movement may be between more humid and drier lowland areas, or between the plains and highland areas. In the past, water was only obtainable from fixed water storage systems, but the use of mobile water tankers has enabled livestock owners to travel larger distances seasonally. Crop residues, subsidised grains and purchased fodder make up the remainder of feed requirements. Pastoralists are often partially funded by urban capital, or else
they manage stock owned by urban dwellers. The technology associated with
the management of modern pastoral systems has resulted in great pressure
on steppe grazing land. Box 3.12 contains a brief description of a typical farm system household.

Trends and issues in Pastoral System

Pastoralists remain an important linking group across the major farming systems in the region. Because of the continually rising demand for meat, primarily from urban areas, pastoral systems will remain important, even with the rise in importance of urban-based livestock feedlots.

The principal long-term problem for pastoralists throughout the region is desertification. Resource degradation is the reason for the steady decline in pastoral incomes, resulting in complex demographic, economic and social changes. Total rainfall is the dominant limiting factor in the dry rangelands. Drought diminishes rangeland productivity, but also adversely affects feed quality and species diversity. Drought also causes changes in the composition and size of the herd. If drought continues to the extent of rangeland desiccation, pastoralists abandon the area.

However, heavy grazing of the rangelands by livestock is believed to be the most widespread cause of vegetation and land degradation throughout the region. In the hyper-arid zones, the livestock survive for a period on xerophytic shrubs and ephemeral grasses, and once these plants are grazed livestock have to be moved elsewhere. For this reason, there appears to be a balance between carrying capacity and livestock in the hyper-arid zones. In the arid and semiarid zones, livestock density is above the potential carrying capacity most of the year, and these are the areas where most of the desertification takes place.

Intensive grazing around settlements is often related to the sedentarisation of nomadic herders. The settlement of former nomads entails concentration of their herds on grazing land around their new homes. Under drought conditions, these herders are forced to graze their animals in areas where most drinking water is available. This eventually leads to the complete disappearance of the most palatable herbaceous cover, particularly around boreholes that provide drinking water for humans and animals all year round.

The availability of more secure watering points also induces pastoralists to change their herd composition in favour of sheep, which further increases grazing pressure around the watering points. While increased water supplies are necessary in the drylands for a proper use of natural resources and to alleviate adverse living conditions, the almost inevitable result is the concentration of population and livestock around these watering points, which disturbs the fragile ecosystem.

One of the most important recommendations approved by the 1977 United Nations Conference on Desertification dealt with land degradation in rainfed farming areas. The recommendation called for the establishment of legal limits to cultivation by tractor ploughing in marginal drylands, which are more suited for grazing. It was based on the fact that these areas are particularly vulnerable to extensive clearing and excessive mechanical cultivation. However, the recommendation has not been implemented in the region. Opportunistic ploughing of rainfed marginal areas may produce a few good harvests in the short term, but will, in the longer term, lead to erosion. The natural vegetation on such land often constitutes the better quality rangeland available to the pastoralists. As a result of erosion, the land is lost to both agriculture and pastoralism. The animals are thereby pushed to less productive rangeland, which becomes further impoverished as a result. Implementation of this recommendation would lead to important ecological benefits.

Centrally planned economies continue to marginalise and exclude pastoralists from most forms of support. This is unfortunate as pastoral systems with well-balanced grazing management are the most sustainable way in which natural resources in low-rainfall areas can be managed and conserved.

Priorities for Pastoral System

Reduced poverty is expected to result from four main sources: intensification of livestock productivity; diversification; increased off-farm income; and exit from agriculture. The highest priority for this system is greater flexibility and integration in agropastoral systems. Increased capitalisation and specialisation has led to the marginalisation and neglect of many pastoral groups and without some attention, protection and support, many are likely to disappear. The long-term maintenance of the resource base in semiarid areas can only be assured by strong collective responsibility. This will probably require formal contractual arrangements - between pastoralists and cultivators - concerning the kinds of interaction that are desirable from the perspectives of equity and environmental management.

Pastoral (steppe) areas could be managed sustainably through the revival of, and support for, older institutions for control of communal grazing areas by pastoralists themselves (the Hema system). However, this would be only a partial solution as urban-based owners who frequently have different priorities to those of pastoralists, now finance many herds. Intervention is needed in order to monitor management systems - including both urban-based and pastoral stakeholder groups - and to establish codes of conduct and management that ensure the long-term sustainability of natural resources on the range. This will require training programmes for both urban and pastoral participants in monitoring and management of herds and range condition. Box 3.13 contains a brief description of a case from Syria in which an area of degraded steppe has been rehabilitated through the introduction of native plant and animal species together with the revival of older community based management systems.

In addition to the revival and development of local institutions, there is a need for new legislation that will protect the steppe environment and ensure sound long-term management of soil and pasture resources. Such legislation is critical to the sustainability of the farming system. It should reinforce or create conditions to ensure that the long-term interests of groups dependent on the rangelands for their livelihood, prevail over the short-term interests of individuals or groups external to the range.

There should also be a higher level of support given to research institutions engaged in the introduction of bushes and fodder intercrops adapted to local rangeland conditions (e.g. International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas [ICARDA] and its collaborating national research and extension partners). Several improved techniques and approaches are known, but not widely available. Local adaptive research with farmer and pastoralists - if encouraged and supported - will spread their application.

STRATEGIC PRIORITIES FOR MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA

The review of the characteristics, trends and potentials of the main farming systems in the Middle East and North Africa clearly indicates the close interdependence of people, water and land-based resources. There are also important linkages between different farming systems, particularly between livestock and cropping systems. Investment in the agricultural and rural development sectors, apart from irrigation, has been relatively modest. Two groups that have been excluded from most development initiatives have been; (i) poorer farmers living in dryland areas; and (ii) the pastoralists who occupy a unique role in the rural economy and in the long-term maintenance of a stable environment in dry areas. In view of the interdependency of resource management systems, the neglect of one farming system could have a major impact on people dependent on other systems.

The most significant trend over the past 30 years has been accelerating urbanisation and the consequent growth of cities. This trend is likely to continue, resulting in rapidly rising demands for water and food - particularly cereals and livestock products. In the rural areas, the growth in the proportion of income earned from non-agricultural activities is likely to continue and this has to be considered when strategic options for potential investment are being reviewed. The prospects for reducing agricultural poverty in the region are fairly good. In the context of halving hunger and poverty and based on the above analysis of farming systems, the relative importance of five household strategies for escaping poverty are shown in Table 3.4. The table indicates that, for the region as a whole, exit from agriculture is the most important of these strategies, followed by increased off-farm income. Among on-farm household improvement strategies, diversification and intensification are of equal importance, following closely behind off-farm income in the overall ranking. Increased farm size appears to be of minor importance overall.

The key strategic priorities for the region are grouped below under five major themes that are considered to be essential elements in any overall support programme for the revitalisation of farming systems and rural livelihoods in the region, namely: Policies, Markets, Information, Technologies and Natural Resources. They are all, to a large extent, interdependent and they cut across farming systems.

Policies, institutions and public goods

The priority roles of the State are to support the development of vital infrastructure (roads, water supplies, services, power systems) and to regulate resource use and pricing for increasingly scarce resources - notably water. The region has suffered in the past from excessively centralised planning and programme implementation, particularly in agriculture, and from a policy bias against agriculture in favour of urban populations. Such policies have been counterproductive and have acted as a significant disincentive for many smaller farmers, artisans and entrepreneurs. Greater devolution and subregional disbursement of resources appear to be essential if agriculture is to develop in a dynamic manner. As part of this strategy, there needs to be greater participation in the development of collective stakeholder responsibility for management and protection of land, water and grazing resources. Such participation requires the strengthening of local institutions and community empowerment.

There are many private sector investments in agriculture and agriculture related industries. The region is also influenced by multinational companies, many of which have agendas that are not always sympathetic to the needs of poorer farmers. It should be possible to develop more constructive partnerships between the private sector, major donors and the State in order to address the most urgent needs of the poor in rural areas. It is possible that the private sector could play a more active role in contributing to infrastructural needs, notably through the provision of water supply systems, roads and other types of infrastructure.

One crucial area for improvement will be the regulation and management of livestock, both in the towns and in the countryside. This can only be done through extensive partnerships of stakeholders. As part of a new approach to research and development, national research and extension systems need to be integrated and both need profound changes in training content and methods in order to become more effective in addressing the needs of poorer farmers. The private sector could also play a much more active role in this area, as has occurred in Latin America. In addition, modern scientific approaches should be used in mapping and monitoring changes in natural resource distribution and use - particularly water.

In many areas of the region, land holding patterns have remained little changed for many years and restructuring has been discouraged by weak policy strategies and frameworks. Remnants of older systems of community land management persist, but these have been overlain by the impact of modernisation in agriculture which has encouraged individualisation of land holdings and the breakdown of once vital linkages. Currently, the cultivated plots that are managed in these systems are fragmented, have low productivity and suffer from lack of investment. They are also affected by the steady decline in labour as young men and women migrate to urban areas. There is a general lack of dynamism and innovative drive in agriculture, due in part to uncertain land tenure arrangements; a lack of effective local institutions; and unchanged soil and water management practices.

There are ongoing attempts to consolidate holdings through land reform but this is a slow and difficult process. The key policy and institutional reforms in this process will include consolidation and rationalisation of land holdings with a focus on the common, long-term interest and survival of the communities occupying a given water catchment area. The development of collective forms of land management, that will allow the introduction of more rational and efficient soil cultivation and management technologies, is also of great importance. This could be facilitated by the establishment of community resource management and livelihood groups.

Legislation and regulation, taking into account local practices, is needed to control the grazing pressure on drylands and uplands - one good example is the planned action in eastern pastoral region in Morocco. These actions should be linked to: (i) eliminating subsidies (direct and indirect) on the importation of grains used for intensive livestock production; (ii) the establishment of livestock producer marketing groups with a wide membership, i.e. not only pastoralists but also urban-based entrepreneurs who are involved in financing the industry; and (iii) the initiation of action research groups responding to the different management needs of different types of livestock owners and managers. These initiatives need to consider the wider aspects of livestock systems management, including the seasonal availability of feed, fodder and water and their distribution in space; both across systems in the plains and between these and highland systems. Integrated action research of this nature will benefit both livestock and arable producers. Special support is needed for the owners of small numbers of livestock who constitute the majority of livestock owners. This support could take several forms, including new modalities for access to supplementary feeds, planting materials and seeds, marketing arrangements and transport.

The regulation of water use and water rights - particularly those related to the use of non-renewable groundwater -- is urgently required in many areas. This is perhaps one of the most sensitive issues that will affect both the course of agriculture and the future of urban areas in the next 30 years (e.g. Sana'a basin in Yemen). There is a need for better monitoring methods and techniques for managing water, that involve all stakeholders in an impartial and participatory manner. Legislation to ensure equitable sharing of water resources needs to be supported through national and international agreements. This will inevitably involve the introduction of more effective systems of charging for water use, particularly in intensively irrigated areas. In addition, democratic local institutions should be established; including various forms of water users groups that control, regulate and manage water efficiently and equitably. Without these in place, technical improvements will not be sustainable or effective.

Decentralisation of power structures relating to rural development and livelihoods is an essential first step. The creation of new forms of integrated agricultural and natural resource research and extension systems is also needed. New policies and interventions are required to encourage better partnerships between public and private sector stakeholders in management of scarce resources. Policies are also necessary to ensure: greater access to information concerning new soil and crop technologies; integrated pest and soil management techniques; access to credit for production; the removal of trading and price distortions (e.g. on grains) that affect the poor more than the well off; and processing and marketing needs.

Trade liberalisation and market development

The rapid development of highly competitive, global markets has resulted in great pressures on existing production and marketing systems, with many smaller producers being squeezed out. Support is needed for medium-sized and smaller businesses to adapt to these changing conditions. The trends in farming in the region over the past thirty years indicate a steady out-migration from farming by younger people, particularly men, to local towns and cities - and even out of the region altogether. Farm amalgamations and take-overs are occurring, but many millions of small farms remain, often managed by women and older men. Some important areas of potential development follow.

Full trade liberalisation would level the playing field for agricultural production throughout the region. Because the region does not have a comparative advantage in many traditional farm products, this would force adjustment, particularly in Rainfed and Highland Mixed Farming Systems - possibly involving a move towards high-value products for niche markets. Examples could be olives and olive oil, primary and processed fruits and vegetables, such as citrus, grapes, raisins and tomatoes. In the Large-scale Irrigated System that is well served by markets, horticultural production and food grains such as wheat and rice, could be competitive and thus be in a position to expand. Similarly, the Pastoral System and associated feedlot chains would change, following expected increases in the prices of feed grains as current price distortions are removed.

Off-farm income generation has become an important way in which many small farming families secure their food and other needs in the face of a shrinking land resource base. These trends are likely to continue and any new initiatives and investments designed to alleviate poverty must take account of this. Strategies that offer opportunities to enhance existing enterprises and also create new options will include: (i) the encouragement of small enterprises for the processing and marketing of regional crops and livestock products, through the elimination of barriers to business establishment and the creation of business-oriented technical advisory services; (ii) savings clubs or organisations of small producers that will develop reinvestment funds for land and water improvement and small enterprise development; (iii) credit schemes that facilitate the purchase of processing and packaging equipment irrigation, cultivation or harvesting equipment that could be owned collectively and hired out; (iv) improving the knowledge of small entrepreneurs related to consumer requirements in destination markets, whether regional cities or in Europe; and (v) the identification and exploitation of markets for niche products (e.g. organic foods, herbs, medicines).

Information and human capital

Investment in greater access to local and international information systems must be a key element in the development of agriculture in the region, and would include the improvement of access to market information - generally on a joint private-public sector basis. Improvements are particularly needed in access to knowledge of local and international markets for small producers, as well as access to relevant information for women farmers and rural workers.

Farmers can capitalise on the availability of better information only if they understand how to use such knowledge. Thus, governments and civil society should support and expand farmer training; both at schools and through farmer training centres. There is a need for restructuring and re-organisation of higher agricultural education systems, such that the focus is on rural and rural-urban livelihood systems rather than simply on production agriculture. Curricula should be redesigned to give greater emphasis to more systemic, interdisciplinary approaches to learning (i.e. not only on disciplines and commodities). A higher priority should also be given to the provision of information and training of young, rural people with respect to vocational skills, as well as in relation to opportunities for development of agro-industries and tourism.

Science and technology

National research and extension systems have been notably weak and unproductive for many years and there has been a serious lack of systemic thinking about the nature of natural resources and how they might be managed more sustainably in order to reduce poverty. Science and technology policies should be reviewed, with a clear focus on the needs of the majority of rural and urban people - particularly the poor. A fundamental re-orientation of research and extension systems is needed in order to bring them more in line with recent participatory approaches to research and development, involving producers as partners in the development of research and extension programmes. This would include support for collective action among producers in all aspects of the crop and livestock research and multiplication process. These measures could include seed selection, testing and multiplication; water and soil management technology development; design, testing and construction of land management; and harvesting equipment for small producers. Greater support is needed to develop technologies that specifically address the needs of women - both as farmers and as people who have untapped skills in food and fibre processing, manufacturing and marketing.

In order to support diversification, which is an important source of poverty reduction, research on minor crops and on livestock should be expanded. There is an urgent need for technologies that enable small farmers to respond to emerging niche markets in Europe for quality horticultural produce or for organic produce, but the introduction of such technologies is often best achieved through those firms buying the output. Often the key appears to lie not only in the nature and practice of science and technology, but in training and in institutional arrangements. Although ICARDA has been playing an active role in carrying out a large programme of strategic and applied commodity and natural resource based research for the past 25 years, there is now a requirement for a consolidation of effort and a more proactive role in supporting the national institutions of the region. This initiative requires investment in training for dynamic and learning research and extension systems. The professionals within these systems should build on existing research into technology design and maintenance from within the region (e.g. the Nile delta) and from other parts of the world. Farmers should be part of this process and contribute their particular knowledge on seeds, drought and salinity tolerance and the collection, storage and re-use of water.

Research and extension support for these systems needs to be much more imaginative and interdisciplinary than at present. Researchers and extension workers need to work more on strategic and systemic research and development goals and mechanisms for accountability should be agreed on. Among key interventions needed, a high priority should be given to research on the development of more sustainable and integrated farming and livelihood systems through: (i) greater diversification; (ii) IPM and integrated soil and water management; (iii) the incorporation of farmers, both men and women, into the research and dissemination process; (iv) development of salinity tolerant crop and fodder varieties; and (v) design and planning for better on-farm water management efficiency, conjunctive use and water re-use.

It will be logical to continue to invest national and international resources to increase the technical efficiency of irrigation systems of all kinds, as these can give farmers greater choice in enterprise and production practice. Irrigated systems, unlike many others, offer the possibility for greater diversification, intercropping and tree or crop intensification. A further area for investment is the diversification and shift to water-saving cropping patterns. This requires rapid development and accessibility by farmers to micro-water distribution systems that are currently used only by a relatively small group of commercial farmers. There is also a continuing need to develop these relatively new technologies in a sensitive manner and to involve women in this work. New systems of cropping sequences, inter-cropping and in-season management need to be explored by proactive farmer-researcher groups. These priorities apply not only to irrigated systems, but also to areas of higher rainfall and to areas where management of rainfall in a particular season can determine whether a crop is harvested or not.

The introduction of conservation agriculture techniques, equipment and strategies that make better use of labour, soil and water resources is of the highest importance in the region. The need to increase labour productivity implies that forms of mechanisation are required, which may well entail more sharing of equipment and labour. This could be facilitated through local institutional mechanisms, which oversee the strategic needs for sustainable land and water management in a district or sub-region. The kinds of techniques which could have application in the region have been in place for many years in other dry areas of the world and involve: (i) zero or minimum soil disturbance; (ii) careful monitoring of soil and water relationships; (iii) the development of rational options for long-term cropping choices and patterns; (iv) the involvement of farmers' groups in the decision-making process; and (v) the development of technologies that are geared specifically to women producers and processors.

Natural resources and climate

The issues related to natural resource management arise partly from the continuing deterioration in quality of both water and soil resources. In addition, non-renewable water resources are under increasing threat from excessive extraction in several areas. Soil erosion by wind and water continues be a fundamental problem in the region, often as a consequence of inappropriate cultivation methods and heavy grazing pressure in specific areas. Climatic changes are likely to result in greater extremes of drought conditions, which may well affect the low-rainfall areas more severely than those that currently have moderate rainfall.

Steadily rising demands for livestock products in urban areas, and unregulated growth of urban- and rural-based industrial forms of livestock management, are resulting in unprecedented pressures on the landscapes of the steppe and highlands, as well as on the people who manage these livestock. The whole industry needs to be analysed and understood in a systemic way in order to regulate it in a rational manner in order to ensure the long-term sustainability of rural livelihoods.

Priority attention should be given to the following areas: (i) the revival and adaptation of older systems of rational, rotational grazing and land management that involve all stakeholders in planning and monitoring resource changes; (ii) watershed-based (rather than individual farm) soil and water management systems; (iii) the development of sustainable groundwater management systems; (iv) the introduction of realistic and equitable water charges; (v) long-term, sustainable soil and water management techniques for annual and perennial cropping; and (vi) the conservation and development of the unique flora and fauna of the region.

For many years there has also been a debate about the value and returns from low and high potential areas and whether there is more to be gained from investment in one or the other. It has often been noted that low potential areas will not yield satisfactory returns on investment. However, in the Middle East and North Africa, livestock play such an important linking role that these simplistic comparisons between low and high potential lands may not be very useful.

A great deal of attention will continue to be paid to high potential areas as these represent the most valuable lands for the production of cereals, fruits, legumes and cash crops. It is from these areas that governments will expect to extract the maximum contribution to national food security in grains and basic foods. There is a need to pay much greater attention to water management and to its interaction with soil and external inputs. There is a case for much greater control and regulation of the use of agrochemicals - particularly those used on vegetables and fruits close to urban markets - and for the serious consideration of lower external input and organic systems which will yield crops that are safer for humans and soil that is healthier in the longer term.

Areas of low resource potential do not only support crops which are key elements in rainfed systems, such as barley, but they also support large numbers of livestock (sheep and goats) that utilise the steppe and mountain regions very intensively during the wet season and then return to the wetter, high potential areas after the main crops have been harvested. The net productivity of livestock across all the systems that are utilised can be quite high. However, unless farmers and herders have access to both livestock and barley growing land, their options may be quite limited and poverty and migration are now very common. The forces of modernisation, such as the financing of large numbers of livestock from urban bases and the provision of transport for animals and water, mean that many areas are placed under constant grazing pressure and have little opportunity to recover. Forms of communal resource management - of land, forest, shrubs, animals and water - may make these areas more stable and their use more sustainable. Such areas would need to be protected through regulation and support under appropriate enabling policies. Protection and conservation of the low potential, sometimes arid, land of the region is a vital task for governments, local authorities and external agencies, as these areas contain some rare plants and fauna and provide seasonal grazing resources for many millions of livestock.

Both high and low potential areas and low and high altitude zones contain large and small farms. Farm lands, even smallholdings, are often fragmented in rainfed farming systems. In several countries, the lands around nuclear village settlements are managed in blocks, which facilitates mechanised management of land preparation and harvesting. It also eases the management of sheep grazing in the post-harvest period. There is a need for the older systems of co-operation between smallholders to be studied in order to evaluate their advantages and deficiencies, particularly with respect to input management, quality control and marketing of produce. The owners of large farms are usually relatively wealthy and may often be based in town, and the daily operation of such holdings is often left to foremen who lack incentives for good management. There is often much scope for improved soil and water management on these holdings, which could result in improved productivity.

Conclusions

Despite the oil-based wealth of some countries of the region, agricultural production and water resources are still vital to the livelihoods of many farming families. Prospects for reducing agricultural poverty and adhering to the current international goals in this respect, are fairly good. For the region as a whole, exit from agriculture is the most important of the available household strategies for reducing poverty and food insecurity, followed by increased off-farm income. Among on-farm household improvement strategies, diversification and intensification are of equal importance, following closely behind off-farm income in the overall ranking. Increased farm size appears to be of minor importance overall.

Two major groups continue to be excluded from most development initiatives: poorer farmers in dryland areas and pastoralists. There are many threats to the stability and sustainability of natural resource based systems and additional pressure has resulted from weak or inappropriate food policies, which have supported low urban prices at the expense of poorer farmers and livestock herders. Nonetheless, lessons have been learned and there has been a gradual acceptance of the need to re-orientate development towards the elimination of poverty, based upon sustainable resource use. Five broad strategic, inter-linked, initiatives are proposed:

Sustainable resource management. Natural resources need to be conserved, through improved watershed management in hill and mountain areas, soil conservation in sloping lands and improved range management in pastoral areas. Components include: strengthening local resource-user groups; both for better management practices; and improved long-term policies.

Improved irrigation management. Increased efficiency in irrigation water management is essential to support the intensification and diversification of production and to reduce resource depletion. Components include: schemes based on both surface and underground water technology; and adjustments to water charges and other regulatory measures.

Re-oriented agricultural services. The re-orientation of agricultural research systems to fully involve farmers will underpin intensification in the Irrigated and Rainfed Mixed Systems and enterprise diversification in all systems. Components include: extension services based on a variety of public and private service providers; and greater support for rural agribusinesses to create off-farm employment for farmers.

Enhanced human resources. New approaches to science and higher education learning systems are particularly important in the training of agricultural students who will work in both the public and private sectors. Components include: the adoptation of the significant advances in interdisciplinary learning and systemic thinking which have played such an important role in agricultural education elsewhere in the world.

Rationalised agricultural policies. Policies need to re-orientate development towards the elimination of poverty based upon sustainable resource use. Components include: eliminating subsidies for the import of grains (widely used for intensive livestock production) as well as other forms of support for low urban prices at the expense of poorer farmers and pastoralists.

1 See Annex 3 for a list of countries in the region. Turkey is not considered to be part of this system, being included within the Eastern Europe and Central Asian region.

2 FAO 2000a.

3 Land area and population estimates are for the large-scale system. Area and population for the scattered small-scale irrigated system are included in the totals for the other farming systems.

4 Rodriguez et al 1999.

5 Mainly using polythene tunnels.

6 FAO (2000a) reports regional population growth estimates of 1.9 and 1.4 percent per annum for the periods 1995/1997-2015 and 2015-2030 respectively, compared with 1.4 and 1.0 percent per annum for all developing countries.

7 FAO 2000a.

8 FAO 2000a.

9 FAO 2000a.

10 Combined use of surface and underground water.

11 Bazza 2001.

12 Fe' D'Ostiani 2001.

13 Batello 2001.