1. Mountain areas in the Asia-Pacific region are important sources of water, energy and biological diversity while also providing resources such as agricultural and forestry products, minerals, and recreational sites. Mountain environments are, however, immensely fragile ecosystems. Their steep slopes, and vertical dimensions make them susceptible to soil erosion, landslides, and loss of habitats and biodiversity. Mountains also pose significant challenges to those who live among them. Poverty is endemic among mountain-dwellers because of the harsh physical environment, isolation, relative failures to transfer knowledge and technology to mountain communities, and the marginalisation of ethnic minorities.

2. The principal objectives for sustainable mountain development (SMD) largely reflect those of broad sustainable development. The challenge is to perpetuate economic growth without compromising the environment or destroying prevailing social or cultural values. In mountainous areas, however, the challenge is accentuated by the inherent physical constraints that often exclude mountain communities from national, regional and global economic developments thus rendering them susceptible to exploitation and marginalisation. The challenge for policymakers in the Asia-Pacific region is to account for the special circumstances of mountain areas, while enabling the smooth integration of mountain communities into the modern economy.

3. A number of fundamental issues and priorities emerge as determinants of SMD. These issues are identified and briefly discussed in this paper.

4. Mountain ecosystems are extremely delicate. The steep slopes coupled with severe climatic conditions make them susceptible to landslides, heavy nutrient loss and large-scale soil erosion. In addition, rapid changes in altitude lead to distinct mountain habitats occurring in very narrow bands that can be easily disrupted or destroyed. The areas suitable for cultivation or other forms of resource exploitation for livelihood are usually limited, and this brings about over-exploitation.

5. Mountain ecosystems comprise one-fifth of global landscapes and are home to one-tenth of the world’s people, while half the global population obtains fresh water from mountain watersheds. Uplands play a critical role in the water cycle by capturing moisture from air masses. In the arid and semi-arid areas of Asia, more than 90 percent of river flows originate in mountain watersheds They are sources for hydroelectric power, wood for fuel and timber products, minerals and ores, and important repositories of biodiversity. Mountain ecosystems also provide an array of livelihoods for people who settle in the uplands.

6. It is crucial that SMD projects continue to support these multiple functions. There have been numerous instances where development has been to the detriment of the ecosystem. For example, mining has stripped the land of vegetation, left behind large areas of slag and tailings and polluted the waterways. Industrial forest harvesting and clearing for pasture and rangelands have adversely affected biodiversity and exposed steep land to erosion.

7. Some progress is being made to conserve biodiversity in mountainous areas of Asia-Pacific countries. New protected zones have been created with trans-frontier collaboration to manage them. Several initiatives have been implemented to preserve large bioregions by building a network of mountain range corridors to link them together. For example, a trans-boundary partnership has been set up between the governments of Nepal and China (Tibet Autonomous Region) to manage the Sagarmatha (Mount Everest) region. Attention is also being paid to the participation of the local populace to protect and conserve biodiversity in mountain regions. New farming technologies that blend in with traditional methods are being implemented to ensure sustainable ecosystem management. All this is being more and more linked to the notion of understanding, cooperation and peace for development and conservation around trans-border mountain systems.

8. Mountain dwellers in many parts of Asia-Pacific’s mountainous regions are among the world’s poorest people and hence they require major development efforts to bring them into the mainstream of economic development. The terrain and inaccessibility of mountain areas dictate that economic activities only rarely achieve the scale and profitability of lowland areas. They lack exposure to external economies and are poorly equipped to compete in open markets. Improving livelihoods for mountain communities is dependent, at a micro-level, on identifying markets in which mountain products have a competitive advantage, and on enhancing human capital and strengthening infrastructure. There is an overriding need to furnish upland communities with the skills and facilities to enable them to raise their standard of living in a viable manner.

9. For example, a key component of the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) Regional Collaborative Programme for the Sustainable Development of the Hindu Kush-Himalaya (1999-2002) is to reduce poverty and sustain the livelihoods of those who live on mountainous terrain. Proposed activities under this programme are reflective of the many projects that are currently being undertaken to improve living standards throughout mountain areas in Asia and the Pacific and include:

• on-farm soil-water-nutrient management for marginal smallholdings and improvements in related technology and management options;
• high-value commodities and enterprises: diversification and expansion of income and employment opportunities;
• expansion of income and employment opportunities; and
• balanced development of infrastructure and services.

10. An understanding of the movement of resources between the mountains and the lowlands is crucial for improving mountain people’s economic opportunities to ensure that they receive a fair return from the exploitation of their resources and services. In general, resource and commodity outflows tend to heavily dominate inflows of goods and services. Of considerable significance is the export of exhaustible commodities such as mining ores and timber, which are likely to be extracted at a large-scale and with little compensation to the indigenous population. In contrast, imports are usually small and limited mainly to consumer goods, with the exception of investments in specific infrastructure and industrial development projects.

11. Upland-lowland economic linkages and interdependencies mainly arise from differences in respective natural resource endowments and the trade potential generated by these variations. The inter-relationships are affected by a range of infrastructural and institutional arrangements and by relative technological and human capacities. A predominant feature is the export from mountainous areas of mainly unprocessed goods at low prices. Upland people thus suffer from unfavourable terms of trade, while the major economic benefits derived from the large-scale exploitation of their resources often bypass mountain communities. A general theme is thus one where lowland communities gain most, while upland societies are left to bear the brunt of resulting environmental and social costs. This characteristic persists with natural resource flows such as the utilisation of freshwater for irrigation and human consumption, the movement of alluvial sediments and nutrients, and other uncompensated environmental services.

12. Such investment is generally scarce and, when available, often targets only highly specific capital-intensive projects. In net value terms, these are often of little benefit to mountain communities or their environments. Local communities are often excluded from planning and implementation, which rarely address issues of compensation for losses incurred, or the mitigation of environmental damage.

13. The development of upland areas is constrained by high risks, low investment absorption capacities, absence of strong mechanisms to match investments with opportunities, and scarcity of investment capital. Even when there is surplus available for investment, better opportunities exist in the lowlands. Capital thus tends to flow out of mountain areas, especially with the out-migration of people. A significant challenge is, therefore, to mobilise investment in mountain areas in ways that are inclusive of, and benefit, local people and that are environmentally friendly and sustainable.

14. This trend will continue to greatly influence highland areas. It is readily apparent that economic transformation brought about by market-oriented regimes that focus on short-term commercialisation has resulted in marginalisation of traditional cultures and social practices in many mountain areas. This disruption is exacerbated where traditional production opportunities are stifled, without the emergence of new prospects.

15. New incentives, technologies, infrastructure and institutional support arising from market driven economies may advance the intensive production of mountain goods in the lowlands and thereby undermine comparative advantages previously enjoyed by mountain communities. A case in point is the granting of timber harvesting licences, which may preclude mountain people from utilising local forests to earn a living, while hydro-electric development may inundate their agricultural lands, and the creation of national parks, conservation reserves and tourist resorts in their domain deprive them of traditional sources of income.

16. A vital role of SMD is to integrate upland economies into broader regional and national economic systems. This requires, in part, a need to build awareness and confidence that open economies will create new opportunities for mountain people. Real SMD will be reliant on ensuring mountain communities are empowered to capture an equitable share of the economic benefits of trade.

17. One of the core problems encountered in the development of upland regions is their remoteness and difficult terrain. High transportation costs pose a major barrier to trade and the lengthy time taken to get perishable goods to markets may preclude their export. Similarly, inaccessibility hinders national or international programmes that are geared to deliver education and health services to mountain populations. It cuts them off from knowledge and new ideas, and constrains their ability to interact effectively with the outside world. Isolation therefore becomes a major factor perpetuating poverty.

18. Mountain communities are particularly vulnerable to poor nutrition and food insecurity, with women and children being most at risk. The limited availability of arable land, poor soil quality and harsh climates often severely restrict food production in mountainous regions. Remoteness and high transportation costs also limit access to production inputs and foods from other regions.

19. Harsh living conditions cause high rates of malnutrition and micronutrient deficiencies in the majority of such areas. Available data reveal significant problems of underweight, stunting and wasting. Food is lacking, not only in quantity, but also in terms of optimal composition and quality. Poor access to general health care and immunisation results in a high incidence of disease that in turn contribute to perpetual poor health. Specific nutritional problems in mountain areas include:

• prevalence of low birth weight related to high altitudes and poor diet, which increases infant mortality;
• iodine deficiency disorders caused by a combination of hydrological processes that deplete soils of iodine and bring about a range of health disorders including increased pre- and post- natal mortality, goitre and cretinism;
• Vitamin A deficiency caused by poor access to vitamin rich foods and inadequate nutrition education.

20. The 1996 World Food Summit in Rome made food security a top priority consideration for the global community. This implies that efforts towards SMD will become part and parcel of the world order to eradicate hunger and malnutrition, in line with overall objectives of enhanced food security and poverty alleviation.

21. The women and children of mountainous regions experience similar adversities as those in other parts of the developing world, although these are magnified by harsh geographical conditions. The focus of SMD encompasses the roles of women and youth in raising living standards and the management of resources for a better quality of life.

22. A noteworthy challenge is for governments to take such social services as health and education to the doorstep of their mountain communities. Although these services are regarded as fundamental building blocks of development, they are too often far below acceptable levels and are thus partially responsible for perpetuating poverty cycles across generations.

23. Both seasonal and permanent outmigrations from the highlands have made an impact on youth and women. Traditionally, many mountain cultures are dependent on the latter to manage subsistence farms and households, while men are occupied with hunting, trading and herding and are thus away from home for long periods. The increasing outmigration of men to lowland and urban centres in search of supplementary incomes, however, compel women to become heads of households for longer periods, but they still depend on the absent men, as culture dictates, to make key economic decisions. Women have only limited access to deposit and loan facilities, agricultural extension, and other services. Outmigration may also require children to undertake additional responsibilities, for example, herding, which compromise their educational opportunities.

24. Mountain communities have devised agricultural systems and land use structures that adapt well to the prevailing geographical conditions and, at the same time, can generate a sustainable livelihood for them. Over long periods of time and through migration these systems and structures have evolved into distinct upland ethnic cultures. As one example, the hill tribes of southern China and Southeast Asia are made up of a number of separate entities such as the Akha, Lahu, Hmong and Karen.

25. More recently, greater exposure to the outside world has raised the aspirations of such communities and driven them to seek changes. An important challenge is to enable them to attain broader goals without destroying the unique fabric of their culture. In general, this involves a revolutionary transformation of resource use, adoption of new products, and innovations in institutionalised structures and risk-sharing arrangements.

In 1986, the EDSA people power revolution ushered in a new era of concern for human rights in the Philippines including those of displaced indigenous peoples. During the late-1980s and early-1990s, the Philippines government used its administrative powers to recognise legitimate ancestral domain claims by individuals, families, and indigenous groups. Claims were validated through the issuance of Certificates of Ancestral Domain Claims (CADCs) or Certificates of Ancestral Land Claims (CALCs). Subsequently, the government assisted indigenous groups in the preparation of Ancestral Domain Management Plans, which provided a framework for land management according to indigenous knowledge, attitudes, practices, and culture. By 1998, at least two million hectares, mainly in upland areas, were administered under more than 200 CADCs and CALCs. In 1997, the Indigenous Peoples Rights Act (IPRA Law) was enacted to allow the conversion of ancestral domain claims into titles. The biggest challenge now is to build capacities to empower indigenous people to benefit economically from their ancestral lands.

26. Most global conflicts are found in mountainous regions that also house a great number of the world’s poorest and malnourished people. Warfare is the single greatest obstacle to achieving SMD and ensuring food security. In the absence of peace, there is little opportunity to reduce poverty, safeguard adequate food supplies or consider sustainable development. In 1999, 23 of the 27 major armed conflicts in the world were fought in mountain regions. Few Asia-Pacific countries are exempt from such turmoil, and in many instances, they involve upland ethnic groups. For example, the Himalayan Siachen Glacier is the venue for one of the world's longest running military battles. The most recent example can be seen in Afghanistan. Meanwhile, other intermittent hostilities involving specific ethnic groups are occurring in a number of upland areas.

27. Asia and the Pacific is the most mountainous region covered by FAO. It has the highest average elevation and contains the sharpest relief. All mountains above 7 500 metres are found in this region and the highest point (Mt. Everest 8 848 m) is located here.

28. Figure 1 shows the main mountain ranges in Asia and the Pacific. They include the Hindu-Kush-Himalaya extending east from Afghanistan, Karakoram and the Pamirs in South Asia, Tibetan plateau in central China, Tien Shan range in west China, Altai Mountains in Mongolia, Great Kinghan in northern China, Chang-Pai Shan in Korea, Japan Alps in Honshu Island, Wuyi Shan in eastern China, and the Southern Alps in New Zealand. In addition, there are extensive plateaus and highlands in virtually all the Asia-Pacific countries.

29. A number of South Pacific countries comprise mountainous islands, and to date little attention is being paid to their specific requirements. They encounter unique challenges, especially with regard to freshwater supplies. For example, those in the South Pacific experience marked east-west rainfall variations dictated by mountain morphology. Greater attention is needed for better understanding of these types of technical issues, and the challenges they pose to the overall development of these islands.

30. Although SMD has been a recommended practice for many years, it only gained importance in the development policies of many Asia-Pacific countries in the early-1990s, when it became the focus of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) programme for "Managing Fragile Ecosystems: Sustainable Mountain Development." Chapter 13 of Agenda 21 stipulates that the following two crucial areas require action:

• generating and strengthening knowledge about the ecology and sustainable development of mountain ecosystems; and
• promoting integrated watershed development and alternative livelihood opportunities.

31. Activities related to these objectives are known as the Mountain Agenda. During the past decade the Agenda has expanded beyond its original themes to encompass greater emphasis on conservation, culture, sacred values and landscape diversity. Elements of spirituality surrounding mountains and special relationships between mountain peoples and their land have become essential driving forces in moves to conserve their environments and cultures.

32. Declaring 2002 as the International Year of Mountains (IYM) provides a significant opportunity to showcase the importance of SMD. Approaching the halfway point of IYM, delegates are invited to reflect on national and international efforts in relation to this opportunity. It is salutary to take stock of efforts and reflect on the extent to which year-end achievements will be commensurate with the opportunity IYM presents. This regional conference provides an opportunity to energise IYM efforts in Asia and the Pacific.

33. Commonalities exist in the production opportunities of mountain communities throughout the Asia-Pacific region. These are, to a large extent dictated by the physical constraints inherent in mountain areas; and the competitive/comparative advantages held by mountain economies. Product lines with real comparative advantages for development in mountain areas include:

34. A crucial issue surrounding SMD is the need to develop a holistic marketing concept for mountain produce. This encompasses not merely sales, but the development of a complete marketing system that determines the needs and desires of target markets and delivers services and products more effectively and efficiently than competitors i.e. focus on the needs of the buyers, rather than on the needs of the seller. This constitutes a sound and sustainable basis for progress, rather than the common development aid focus, which concentrates on stimulating production rather than establishing a system to satisfy target market demands on an on-going basis.

35. A primary concern of SMD is to prepare mountain communities for the future, and particularly a future that encompasses a move toward more open economies. It is thus essential that they are equipped with the necessary skills and infrastructure to enable them to realise on opportunities created in this process. Generally, a successful transition is likely to require some central government and/or donor assistance. Programmes that promote economic integration demand basic social and educational services that fit into this framework.

36. More specific investment programmes and a greater mobilisation of financial resources are required if real progress towards SMD is to be achieved. In some instances, this may necessitate the formulation of projects that focus exclusively on mountain development. Governments and bi-lateral/multi-lateral donors are exhibiting greater willingness to assist developing mountainous regions and countries, and the IYM is expected to further enhance development efforts.

37. The following are approaches that can be adopted to integrate mountain economies into national economies:

• institute programmes to alter prevailing unfavourable terms of trade;
• develop systems to ensure realistic and market-based pricing of mountain resources and products;
• encourage local processing in mountain regions;
• improve post-harvest systems, particularly storage systems for traditional crops;
• build infrastructure, enhance local skills, and encourage local development of micro-enterprises to reduce migration - or impart skills so that higher earnings can be realised from migration; and
• develop suitable sharing and compensating mechanisms to alleviate detrimental impacts of trade on the highlands. The true costs (economic, environmental and social) of externally driven resource extraction need to be accounted for, so that adequate compensation for inequities that arise can be made.

38. Development in mountain regions demands government regulation to ensure sustainability, rather than allowing the relative inaccessibility of mountain areas to mask environmental degradation. The role of governments in this respect includes regulating to provide a basis for environmental management in mountain regions, including specifying objectives, policies and methods to address resource management issues. Governments could also avail themselves of opportunities to actively involve communities in mountain area conservation initiatives. This could be done, for example, through the establishment of community forest protection groups, by establishing government-community cooperative programmes, or by compensating upland people for carrying out environmental protection measures that benefit downstream communities.

39. Although regional efforts are being made to meet the World Conservation Union (IUCN) recommendations for a balanced representation of ecosystems and for the conversion of 10 percent of land areas into protected zones, greater emphasis could still be placed on vulnerable mountain ecosystems. It is imperative that new and innovative conservation measures are undertaken so that the living necessities of the locals and their development aspirations are met.

40. Governments and markets should complement each other rather than be substitutes in development. The latter alone will not necessarily guarantee desirable outcomes and, consequently, market-based development efforts must be backed by sound legislation and policies. In the case of SMD governments are required to provide, at a minimum, a policy and legislative framework that incorporates adequate educational facilities, infrastructure, technology transfer, equality and poverty alleviation objectives.

41. Several regional bodies and networks deal specifically with mountain development, but at a national level, very few countries have public institutions that are devoted solely to the advancement of this sector. Similarly, policies and legislation that are geared primarily for mountain issues are scarce. Those available are usually drawn up to suit individual conservation projects. Some countries have made more general progress including policies in China to conserve its forests and reduce poverty, Nepal to establish buffer zone by-laws, and Japan’s Mountainous Villages Development Act 1965.

42. In recent years, most development measures are based on the philosophy that people work best when they have a stake in the outcome and when they can set the agenda for their involvement. This has extended to include community groups in the identification and planning of mountain development activities. It also encourages agricultural extension and other basic services to increase their outreach. This approach is evident in the drive towards community-based land and forest management in a number of Asia-Pacific countries. Community-based consultative approaches are also an effective means of promoting and sustaining food security. The challenge is to progress from consultation to the empowerment of communities to implement SMD activities.

43. Global and regional dialogues have highlighted the need for new or reinforced legal and institutional mechanisms to protect fragile mountain ecosystems and promote sustainable and equitable development. Several Asia-Pacific countries are taking steps to transfer land and ecosystem management responsibilities back to local highland communities. The decentralisation of forest management is noticeable in India (through the joint forest management programme) and the Philippines (community based forest management). Other forms of decentralisation are also practised. Both China and Viet Nam intend to decentralise their land management authorities. In the Philippines, land management is transferred to local government units, while in Thailand, it is moved to the Tambons. The success achieved so far augurs well for its application in mountain area development. Decentralisation programmes tend, however, to reflect central government involvement, although the indigenous administrative and tenure systems of mountain societies may prove to be a more effective option.

44. New institutional arrangements at global and regional levels have helped improve networking and provided clearing-houses for information dissemination in support of SMD. In Asia, a range of institutions and networks also contribute to specific aspects of SMD. These include the Asian Watershed Management Network (AWMN), the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) and the Regional Community Forestry Training Centre (RECOFTC), all of which have initiated extensive mountain-related activities in the Asia-Pacific region, particularly in the fields of research and education.

45. The establishment of database and information systems for mountain ecosystem purposes has progressed relatively slowly in Asia. Several initiatives are, however, coming to fruition. For example, ICIMOD is developing a Mountain Agricultural Systems Information Files (MASIF) database and information profiling system (Box 2).

The MASIF database is an effort to address the issue of data scarcity in the eco-regional context by developing a spatial and temporal data framework. MASIF enables time-series data to be geo-referenced and compared with GIS overlays to enable the identification of mountain agricultural resources, evaluation of resource conditions, characterisation and delineation of the agricultural systems, and assistance to planning for sustainable development.

46. Assessment of the Mountain Agenda and evaluation of SMD efforts require formal monitoring. Mountain-specific indicators may have to be developed as a tool for such purposes. This process demands the collection and analysis of data at regional, national and sub-national levels on population dynamics, inventories of natural resources, economic output, poverty and other social indicators of upland regions.

47. Recently, there is increasing commitment and willingness to work across national borders for the progress and development of mountain terrain. In the Asia-Pacific region this is especially the case for scientific reasons, environmental conservation purposes, and ecological/economic benefits among countries sharing major international watersheds and rivers. In Asia, four of the world’s leading rivers, the Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Mekong, originate in the Himalaya, but are international watercourses. These rivers are essential for some of the world’s largest irrigation schemes and hydroelectric works and sharing of their waters is often a source of political tension. New methods have to be devised to ensure that adequate quality water remains available in perpetuity for both upstream and downstream societies and economies. This could be achieved through international collaboration to implement upstream conservation measures so that irrigation and hydroelectric infrastructure development downstream can proceed without causing unnecessary hardship to those upstream. In this regard, a workshop on developing mechanisms for rewarding the Asian upland poor for the environmental services they provide was held in February 2002 in Indonesia.

48. The Global Environment Facility (GEF) is an international cooperative mechanism created to provide new funds to meet increasing costs of safeguarding the global environment, including benefits in the areas of biological diversity, climate change, international waters, and ozone layer depletion. Desertification and deforestation, as they relate to these aspects is also addressed. The GEF objective is to act as a catalyst to the implementation of a more comprehensive, ecosystem-based approach in global environmental management. It provides a likely source of funding for projects that cover these areas.

49. One of the greatest opportunities offered by the advancement of telecommunication technology is the opportunity to compare and learn from the experiences in other regions. Two spheres where the transfer of modern technology is possible from Europe and North America to Asia are tourism and agriculture. Mountain tourism and upland crops (such as the potato) from the west, or from South America, can be adapted to Asian conditions and thereby enhance productivity and alleviate poverty. Lessons can also be drawn from the experiences of developed regions in the area of marketing mountain products.

50. As a result of growing collaboration and interaction, new partnerships are emerging between the public and private sectors to promote SMD. Governments, non-governmental and inter-governmental organizations are engaged in dialogues to forge consensus on priorities, and to identify the differing strengths and capacities of public, private, and non-governmental sectors in contributing to implementation. Examples of such cooperative efforts are found in such agencies as ICIMOD, International Centre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF) and United Nations University (UNU)/International Mountain Society (IMS). These have been active members in the inter-agency network on mountains and in developing the Mountain Forum. The Mountain Forum is proof of the cooperative spirit that is being fostered for SMD purposes in the region and globally (see Box 3).

The Mountain Forum is an electronic network of organizations and individuals designed to promote and advocate global action toward equitable and ecologically SMD in the context of the Mountain Agenda. This is achieved through sharing information, mutual support and advocacy. The Mountain Forum consists of non-governmental organizations, universities, governments, international agencies, and private sector institutions and individuals from all over the globe. The Mountain Forum has successfully built on existing networks to carry out a wide array of activities connecting and empowering mountain supporters throughout the world. One of the regional nodes of the mountain forum, the Asia-Pacific Mountain Network, is administered by ICIMOD in Nepal. The global Secretariat for the Mountain Forum is also hosted by ICIMOD, but functions independently.

51. The largest institution that deals specifically with mountain development in Asia and the Pacific is ICIMOD. Its mandate is to promote the development of economically and environmentally sound mountain ecosystems and to improve the living standards of mountain populations. Its regional membership comprises the countries of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan, and its operational base spans the Hindu Kush-Himalayan range.

52. A number of multilateral agencies also support SMD. FAO takes the lead among United Nations agencies for SMD. Others include the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), IUCN, the Mountain Institute, centres of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) and other members of the Inter-Agency Group on Mountains.

53. Progress has been made to create greater awareness of the Mountain Agenda and improve coordination of efforts to protect delicate mountain ecosystems and promote SMD. Awareness of its importance has been largely initiated by inter-governmental consultations, in particular, the Regional Conference on Sustainable Development of Fragile Mountain Areas of Asia was held in Kathmandu in 1994. This conference resulted in the Sustainable Development of the Mountain Areas of Asia (SUDEMAA) Call to Action. A selection of recent initiatives in the Asia-Pacific include:

• International symposium on sustainable development of human settlements in mountainous regions (China, 1997);
• Forest ecosystem and land use in the mountainous areas (Korea, 1998);
• International symposium on environmental management in mountainous regions (India 1998);
• Livestock in mountain/highland production systems: research and development challenges into the next millennium (Nepal 1999);
• International symposium II on montane mainland Southeast Asia (Thailand, 2000);
• Growth, poverty alleviation and sustainable resource management in the mountain areas of South Asia (Nepal, 2000);
• Appropriate technology for sustainable development of pasture and rangeland production systems in the Himalayan region (Pakistan, 2000);
• International conference of mountain children (India, 2001);
• International seminar on mountain research (Nepal, March 2002).

54. According to the guidelines for international years, countries are encouraged to establish national committees or other mechanisms for IYM preparation, celebration and follow-up. As of 18 February 2002, the following countries in Asia and the Pacific have already established national committees: Australia, Bhutan, Indonesia, Japan, Republic of Korea, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka and Vietnam. In India and Laos the preparations for the establishment of a national committee or a similar mechanisms are ongoing.

55. National Committees are generally the first structure that is created to deal specifically with sustainable mountain development in each country. Many of the national committees consist of representatives from national governments, decentralised authorities, NGOs, research institutions and private sector. The members cover various fields related to sustainable mountain development such as agriculture, forestry, tourism, energy, etc. in order to ensure a comprehensive approach to mountain development and interdisciplinary discussion. In addition to planning and implementing the commemoration events within 2002, some of the national committees have initiated the development of long-term national strategies for sustainable mountain development in order to make sure that efforts towards the achievement of sustainable mountain development will continue beyond 2002.

56. The FAO Forestry Department is assigned the role of Task Manager for Chapter 13 of Agenda 21. This role encompasses responsibilities for strengthening information exchange; promoting inter-agency collaboration; catalysing joint activities and programmes; developing common strategies; and reporting on implementation of Agenda 21. In general, FAO’s role is to produce knowledge to enable mountain areas to develop and grow more effectively, but also to ensure effective mechanisms to ensure knowledge is implemented. FAO's approach to this role has been strongly collaborative, as evidenced by the formation (in 1994) of an ad hoc inter-agency group for Chapter 13 comprising of various United Nations agencies, bilateral donors, a number of international NGOs as well as research institutions involved in mountain development and conservation issues. FAO’s work on SMD and watershed management also encompasses:

• information generation and dissemination, institutional arrangements and networking and capacity building; and
• field programme support, including identification, formulation and implementation of specific field projects and activities.

57. FAO’s activities have evolved from a focus on purely technical aspects of agricultural development, upland protection and watershed hydrology, to a more integrated approach that addresses the need for local participation in planning and decision making, human development and capacity building, enhancing communication and information sharing, and institutional development and strengthening. Normative activities include the implementation of studies aimed at gaining a better understanding of various ecological, economic and social processes and developing and testing new methodologies, technical guidelines, tools and best practices. The FAO Field Programme has implemented a wide range of projects to promote SMD.

58. In 1998, FAO was designated Lead Agency for IYM. In this task FAO follows a decentralised approach and works closely with the Inter-Agency Group on Mountains. Coordination of global meetings, the production of tool kits and information materials, the maintenance of the official IYM website and assistance to countries in setting up the national structures for the observance of the Year are some of the many tasks FAO is implementing under this mandate. Through the Inter-Departmental Working Group on mountains FAO pulls together all available in-house expertise to make an in-depth and qualified contribution to sustainable mountain development. A multi-lateral IYM trust fund has been set up to allow FAO to better fulfil its role.

59. The present problems confronting mountain areas and communities arise largely from a combination of the unique features of their environment. The overriding concern is to assimilate or integrate mountain communities with wider national economies. But, as a whole, their perspective does not fit easily with concepts of open economies and globalisation. The latter demands intense utilisation of factors of production and economies of scale, but delicate mountain environments are often diametrically opposed to these. Other factors such as adequate capital, skilled labour, market proximity and well-developed transportation and distribution systems are also absent. Mountain areas of the Asia-Pacific region tend to be constrained by isolation, poverty, under-development, poor education, and a lack of infrastructure.

60. Such development challenges require addressing at both macro and micro-levels. It is necessary for governments to create an economic climate that is conducive to upland growth. At the same time, research assistance is required to develop competitive products and markets for them. The conference may choose to recommend that countries work with FAO and partner agencies to identify products and niches that command competitive and comparative advantages and strengthen production capacities.

61. Much discussion surrounds the potential of tourism, particularly ecotourism, as means of improving livelihoods in upland regions. To date, however, inadequate attention has been given to developing and promoting sustainable ecotourism in mountain areas. The conference may consider recommending that FAO, ICIMOD, and other international organizations increase their support for research, development and promotion of ecotourism consistent with environmental conservation and livelihood objectives.

62. Most mountain areas in the region depend on the competitive advantages they are endowed with by nature. Relatively few technological interventions exist to enhance the productivity of local resources (particularly in agriculture) and institutional intervention to develop favourable terms of trade is lacking. Thus poverty is easily perpetuated and people’s welfare, including access to adequate foods, suffers. Delegates may choose to recommend that the countries concerned take corrective measures to overcome these constraints, and FAO strengthen its community nutrition programmes in mountain areas.

63. One of the most expedient means of assistance is in the building of transport and service infrastructure. Remoteness is the greatest disadvantage encountered and the ability to overcome it constitutes a major achievement in the fight against poverty. The conference may choose to recommend that priority be given to national programmes that improve transport links with mountain areas.

64. In the short term, market opportunities can be created through mountain product differentiation. Cultural attributes can be utilised when selling handicrafts, and marketing devices such as branding and certification can be employed to promote, for example, organically grown foodstuffs or similar eco-friendly products. Value-added processing of mountain products is another promising area, while appropriate marketing of tourist attractions can create niche opportunities. The development of infrastructure and the building of institutional support and arrangements, for example, cooperative marketing systems, can assist in facilitating overall economic growth. Delegates may choose to recommend that FAO and partner agencies implement specific studies to ascertain optimal systems for marketing mountain produce in open economies.

65. At the macro-level, policy-makers must take action to mitigate the negative consequences that arise from exposing mountain economies to globalisation. An initial task would be to promote a better understanding of its impact on mountain societies. This requires a systematic programme of research to identify types and points of impact, means of reducing adverse effects, and promoting their awareness. Specific topics for research could include case-studies on the impact of change to niche markets (including marginalisation of mountain produce), efforts made to adapt to change, imbalance of highland/lowland linkages, mechanisms for compensation or transfer payments for conservation and environmental protection, factors excluding local population from resource use and compensatory measures taken, issues relating to investment and resource flows, and effects of innovation on culture, social structure, women and youth. The conference may choose to recommend that FAO and partner agencies implement a coordinated research programme to study the impact of exposing mountain areas to open economies.

66. Policy-makers also need to take steps to prevent the exploitation of mountain resources by external agents, who leave a legacy of environmental damage and/or fragmented social structure. Such exploitation is a norm for many of the poorest Asia-Pacific mountain communities. Governments need to balance national economic goals with the demands and rights of local communities to ensure a more equitable distribution of income. The conference may choose to recommend that special attention be given to the devolution of resource management rights and responsibilities to mountain communities.