3.4 Southern Africa / Afrique Australe

3.4.1 Angola (E)

INTRODUCTION

Main Non-Wood Forest Products

Edible plants and plant products (mushrooms, fruits, leaves, tubers, roots, nuts) and medicinal plants are considered as the most important non-wood forest products (NWFP) in Angola (FAO, 1991).

Other NWFP include gums, honey, bushmeat and other edible animals, and fodder.

General information

NWFP are first and foremost used for food and medicinal purposes. They serve as important protein providers especially for rural people. Beyond this, they represent a source of income for a large number of people, especially women, who are the main traders of NWFP.

Available information on NWFP in Angola is scarce.

PLANTS AND PLANT PRODUCTS

Medicines

Medicines deriving from NWFP are of great importance in rural areas due to limited access of rural people to modern medicine and treatments. Among the 235 classified tree species found in Angola, 40 are documented to be used in the traditional medicine (FAO,1999). Even in some urban areas these NWFP play an important role in satisfying the health needs of the population. Their economic, social and cultural values are recognized but difficult to estimate.

ANIMALS AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS

Honey and beeswax

Beekeeping in Angola is mainly a subsistence activity. The industrial sector producing honey and wax for commercial purposes collapsed soon after the independence of the country in 1975.

Angola has a potential to enlarge its apiculture due to its richness in nectar yielding plants as well as in Eucalyptus spp. plantations, almost non-exploited for beekeeping activities.

Bushmeat

Bushmeat plays an important role in Angola since food scarcity is serious in certain regions. In 1999 commercial hunting permits were issued to 164 persons for a value of US$20 532. The actual hunting rate is supposed to be far higher. The main species hunted in 1998 are listed in Table 1.

Table 1. List of main animal species hunted in Angola in 1998

Source: FAO (1999)

Other edible animal products

There is a diversity of edible insects that are sold on the markets and that are important components of the population's diet.

References

FAO. 1991. Angola. Séminaire sur les statistiques forestières en Afrique, by D. Veloso & R. Manga. Thiès, Sénégal.

FAO. 1999. NWFP statistics: Angola, by A. Zola. EC-FAO Partnership Programme, Project GCP/INT/679/EC, FAO. Rome.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This report has been realized thanks to the funding of the EC-FAO Partnership Programme "Data Collection and Analysis for Sustainable Forest Management in ACP Countries". The content is based on available information at FAO Headquarters in Rome, as well as on information provided by Mr A. Zola, Institute of Forestry Development of Angola.

Additional information on NWFP in Angola would be appreciated and duly acknowledged.

3.4.2 Botswana (E)

INTRODUCTION

Main Non-Wood Forest Products

Information about the utilization of non-wood forest products (NWFP) in Botswana is rare. Some data are available on tubers, medicinal plants (Harpagophytum procumbens) and bushmeat.

PLANTS AND PLANT PRODUCTS

Food

The San bushmen use numerous plants as sources of drinking water, notably the tubers Raphionacme burkei and Coccinea rehmannii (Falconer, 1990).

Fodder

Improved management of fodder resources contributes significantly to food security in the subsistence sector. Production of fodder may have some potential in larger commercial livestock operations where cattle are stall-fed.

Medicines

Harpagophytum procumbens is a medicinal plant, known worldwide, which is endemic to the Kalahari Desert. Roots and rhizomes, harvested from the wild, are used for anti-rheumatic treatments and commercialized on the world market (Lewington,1993). Due to commercial harvesting of the roots, up to 66 percent of the plant population has already been removed. (Cunningham, 1997).

ANIMALS AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS

Bushmeat

In Botswana, the majority of animal protein comes from wild animals. Over 50 species of wild animals are hunted for food, providing in some regions 90.7 kg/a/person, equivalent to 40 percent of their diet. Some animals are sold, thus providing income opportunities to the poorest households (FAO, 1997).

REFERENCES

Cunningham, A.B. 1997. An Africa-wide overview of medicinal plant harvesting, conservation and health care. In Global Initiative for Traditional Systems of Health & FAO, eds. Medicinal plants for forest conservation and health care. Non-Wood Forest Products Series No. 11. Rome.

Falconer, J. 1990. "Hungry season" food from the forest. Unasylva, 41(160): 14-19.

FAO. 1997. Wildlife and food security in Africa, by Y. Ntiamoa-Baidu. FAO Conservation Guide No. 33. Rome.

Lewington, A. 1993. Medicinal plants and plant extracts. A TRAFFIC Network report. Cambridge.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This report has been realized thanks to the funding of the EC-FAO Partnership Programme "Data Collection and Analysis for Sustainable Forest Management in ACP Countries". The content is based on available information at FAO Headquarters in Rome.

Additional information on NWFP in Botswana would be appreciated and duly acknowledged.

3.4.3 Lesotho (E)

INTRODUCTION

Main Non-Wood Forest Products

Fodder plants, fruits and medicinal plants are the most important non-wood forest products (NWFP) in Lesotho.

Other NWFP are ornamentals, tannins, bushmeat, honey and beeswax.

General information

NWFP play a crucial role for the rural communities. But since fuelwood is regarded as the most important forest product for the people in Lesotho, NWFP are little appreciated at the national level. The only recognition given to NWFP at the national level refers to imports from South Africa (Anonymous, 1993).

There is also an interest in ornamental species, particularly in the urban and peri-urban areas.

PLANTS AND PLANT PRODUCTS

Fodder

Overstocking in Lesotho is recorded to reach 300 percent. Trees are an important source of fodder, especially during the dry season. Harvesting of forage consists mainly in the removal of leaves, pods and small branches or twigs. In most cases, the tree forage is cut using pruning shears and fed to the animals. In some cases cattle and goats are allowed direct access to the trees to browse freely.

Medicines

Medicinal plants used in Lesotho include:

· Dianthus bascius - used by traditional healers. The plant, which promotes cleansing of the blood stream, is sold on the local markets at high price.

· Eucomis autumnalis - an important source of income. An infusion made from this herb is used for curing sexually transmitted diseases.

· Berkheya setifera - another important medicinal plant in the country.

The main commercial activities in NWFP in the country are based on traditional medicines (e.g. Dianthus bascius, Eucomis autumnalis, Berkheya setifera). Many medicinal plants can be considered endangered species due to over-exploitation.

Utensils, handicrafts and construction materials

Merxmuellera macowanii (Moseha) is used as material to make brooms, mats, house roofing and huts. Products made of this grass are a source of income to the people since they are exported.

ANIMAL AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS

Honey

Honey has always been of great importance to Lesotho. It is used as medicine to cure colds and is also believed to exorcize evil spirits.

In 1996, 343.2 kg of honey were produced in Lesotho and in 1997/98 the yield increased to 448.4 kg/a. The honey produced in Lesotho is sold on the local markets and in the pharmacies (FAO, 1998).

Bushmeat

Bushmeat plays a crucial role for the rural people. Due to the disappearance of animals' natural habitats, the number of animal populations have drastically decreased (Anonymous, 1993).

REFERENCES

Anonymous. 1993. Pilote country study Lesotho In Commonwealth Science Council & FAO, eds. Non-wood forest products: A regional expert consultation for English-speaking African countries, 17-22 October 1993, Arusha, Tanzania.

FAO. 1986. Assistance in indigenous forest inventory. Report to the Government of Swaziland. TCP/SWA/4505 (F). Rome

FAO. 1998. Non-wood forest products of Lesotho, by E.S. Sekaleli. EC-FAO Partnership Programme, Project GCP/INT/679/EC, FAO. Rome

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This report has been realized thanks to the funding of the EC-FAO Partnership Programme "Data Collection and Analysis for Sustainable Forest Management in ACP Countries". The content is based on available information at FAO Headquarters in Rome, as well as on information provided by Mr E.S Sekaleli, Forestry Division in Lesotho.

Additional information on NWFP in Lesotho would be appreciated and duly acknowledged.

ANNEX 1. FOREST SERVICES

Among the services provided by the forest, amenity, tourism and hunting are known to be utilized in Lesotho.

QUANTITATIVE DATA ON NWFP OF LESOTHO

Importance: 1- high importance on the national level; 2 - high importance on the local/regional level; 3 - low importance
Part used: an - entire animal; ba - bark; bw - beeswax; le - leaves; nu - nuts; fi - fibres; fl - flowers; fr - fruits; gu - gums; ho - honey;
la - latex; oi - oil; pl - entire plant; re - resins; ro - roots; sa - sap; se - seeds; st - stem; ta - tannins
Habitat: F - natural forest or other wooded lands; P - plantation; O - others: trees outside forests (e.g. agroforestry, homegardens)
Source: W - wild, C - cultivated
Destination: N - national; I - international

3.4.4 Malawi (E)

INTRODUCTION

Main Non-Wood Forest Products

Wild animal food like honey, caterpillars, termites and bushmeat are the most important non-wood forest products (NWFP) in Malawi. Mushrooms and fruits are the most important plant products.

Other NWFP are fodder, fibres, resins and medicinal plants.

General information

The importance of NWFP differs in various regions:

· In northern Malawi, bushmeat is recorded to be the most important NWFP followed by honey, termites, caterpillars and various plant products

· In southern Malawi, termites are the most important NWFP followed by bushmeat, honey, caterpillars and plant-based NWFP

· In central Malawi, mushrooms and fruits are documented to be the most important NWFP, followed by various others.

In Malawi self-consumption is more important than the sale of NWFP. Especially honey, fruits, mushrooms, game, medicinal plants, as well as grass for thatch, constitute important sources of income for the rural communities in the country (Nyirenda, 1993).

PLANTS AND PLANT PRODUCTS

Food

Fruit trees (e.g. Uapaca kirkiana, Tamarindus indica, Strychnos spinosa) are important sources of food supplements. Fruits improve the nutritional content of staple foods and the nutritional status especially in times of food emergency and have been used for a long time to supplement dietary needs. They contain vital nutrients and essential vitamins, which are important especially for growing children, who often suffer from malnutrition and related diseases. Nutritional studies have shown that Parinari curatellifolia, Strychnos cocculoides and Azanza garkeana contain more than 30 percent fat and about 45 percent of crude fibre and total carbohydrates, while Trichilia emetica and Annona senegalensis are important source of protein (Saka and Msonthi, 1994). The miombo woodland is an important source of indigenous fruits (Uapaca kirkiana, Parinari curatellifolia, Strychnos cocculoides, Flacourtia indica).

Indigenous fruit trees of the miombo are also used to generate income (both in cash and barter) through the sale of fruits and fruit products (Maghembe and Seyani, 1991; Clarke et al., 1996). The same is the case for other fruits, e.g. Uapaca kirkiana, that are widely traded and offer a supplementary income generating activity (Clarke et al., 1996). Uapaca kirkiana makes a good wine. Most of these fruit trees are found only in natural stands (Ngulube, 1993).

In the Kasungu District, 20 species of fruit trees have been identified (Clarke et al., 1996).

The Wildlife Society of Malawi (WSM) is implementing a project named sustainable management of indigenous forests (SADC/FSTCU-GTZ Project) in Mwanza east. It is a community-based project. Through this initiative, some local communities are enjoying the benefits derived from the sale to the People Trading Centre (PTC) of juices made from Tamarindus indica and Adansonia digitata fruits. Most of these fruit trees are found only in natural stands and are threatened by deforestation (Ngulube, 1993) Currently, efforts are under way to domesticate the most preferred indigenous fruit tree species. The table below presents the top ten priority species for domestication in Malawi (Simons, 1997).

Table 1. Top ten fruit species of Malawi

*The number of households out of the 128 sampled that included the species as one of their top ten.

Source: Malembo et al. 1998.

Mushrooms have always been known to provide supplementary food especially during the rainy season (Chipompha, 1985). The utilization of 60 species of edible mushrooms is documented and these are widely sold along roadsides during the rainy season, particularly by women and children. Most of these wild edible mushrooms grow on dead wood and leaf litter normally found in indigenous woodlands (Clarke et al., 1996).

A wide range of indigenous vegetables is available in Malawi (Kwapata 1991; Willamson 1974). Many of these vegetables are rich in vitamins, essential minerals and oils. Young tender leaves of certain trees such as Adansonia digitata and Afzelia quanzensis are cooked and used as relish (Mauambeta, 1998).

Fodder

The most important fodder species used in Malawi have been documented by Clarke et al. (1996).

Table 2. Preferred graze and browse species collected from a woodland transect walk and their seasonal occurrence. Ranked by palatability for cattle as assessed by 6 herders at Chimaliro Study Site

Source: Abbot and Lowore, 1995.

Medicines

The predominant medical system in use in Malawi is that of traditional medicine, especially in the rural areas (Maliwichi, 1997). Limitations to Government health services due, i.e., to drug shortages and insufficient number of hospitals, as well as an unfavourable western doctor to patient ratio of 1:50 000, have contributed to the reliance on traditional medicine.

The Government is reported to recognize the contribution of traditional medical practitioners to the nation's health care and the benefits of collaboration between the modern and traditional medical communities (Hauya, 1997). Some traditional medicine associations exist, the largest of which is the Herbalists' Association of Malawi with about 2 000 members (Maliwichi, 1997).

A variety of medicinal plants are used. Most of them are traded locally. However, exports of Jateorhiza bukobensis is observed particularly to neighbouring countries such as Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and South Africa. A total of 44 plant species were observed at the Limbe market in Blantyre being packaged for a South African client (Maliwichi, 1997). The utilization of medicinal plants has an ecological impact. The supply of Pterocarpus angolensis is affected by competing uses such as timber logging. Local over-exploitation of Dioscorea sylvatica, Cassia spp., Erythrophleum suaveolens and Erythrina abyssinica is an emerging problem.

Utensils, handicrafts and construction materials

Traditional houses, animal huts and tobacco sheds are thatched using grass. Thatch may be obtained from the forest reserves. Most of the thatch, however, is obtained from fallow and estate land (Lowore et al., 1993).The most favoured species is Hyparrhenia rufa (Williamson, 1975). Grass is an important seasonal source of income, especially among the poorest sectors of the community. Headloads of thatch grass are sold between villagers and at times collected communally by a clan to assist those who are re-roofing or building new houses (Abbot, 1996).

ANIMALS AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS

Honey and beeswax

In Malawi, some 8 000 beekeepers produce 1 000 t/a of honey and 150 t/a of beeswax. This quantity corresponds to the capacity of the local industry (Anonymous, 1978). Eighty percent of the honey consumed and 95 percent of the beeswax marketed within the country are imported (Brigham et al., 1996). However, due to the existing demand for these products, efforts are under way to involve more people into honey production. A number of beekeeping clubs have been formed in Mzuzu, Chimaliro and Blantyre and several beehives have been placed in the woodlands of these areas. It is estimated that a single beehive can produce 20-30 kg of honey under favourable climatic conditions.The Taoloka beekeeping club, for example, sells its honey to the Beekeeping Association of Malawi, which processes, packs and sells it to main chain stores within the country, such as the People Trading Centre (PTC) (Chanyenga and Lowore, 1999).

Bushmeat

Bushmeat is an important source of food especially in areas close to natural forests. People in northern Malawi, where a considerable forest area exists, do a lot of hunting. However, bushmeat is becoming scarcer due to over-hunting. Efforts are under way trying to domesticate wild birds such as guinea fowls. They constitute a good business since a bird can be sold at a price as high as K200 (approximately US$4.5-5).

Other edible animal products

Fourteen species of edible caterpillars are exploited in the Kasungu District (Clarke et al., 1996). Approximately 170 people participated in the legal harvest of caterpillars during the 1991 season gathering close to 1 850 kg which were sold at US$2-7 per kg. Each person earned nearly US$50 from the sale of these insects (Brigham et al., 1996; Cunningham, 1997).

Higher termite species (Macrotermes) are a source of useful protein in Malawi. At the onset of the rainy season, alates (locally known as ngumbi or inswa) are trapped in their dispersal flight and are processed and eaten as relish or snacks. However, the quantities consumed or traded are unknown. Termites are obtained from natural forests, plantations and other areas.

REFERENCES

Abbot, J. 1996. Rural subsistence and protected areas: Community use of the miombo woodlands of Lake Malawi National Park. PhD thesis. University College London. University of London. Unpulished.

Abbot, P. & Lowore, J. 1995. Livestock grazing in Chimaliro Forest reserve: Preliminary results and implications for the management of brows resources.

Anonymous. 1978. Country report Malawi. 8th World Forestry Congress

Brigham, T., Chihongo, A . & Chidumayo, E. 1996. Trade in woodland products from the miombo region. In B. Campbell ed. The miombo in transition: Woodlands and welfare in Africa. Bogor. CIFOR. Bogor

Chanyenga, T & Lowore, J. 1999. The composition, stocking and abudance of Sterculia quinqueloba at Kamwamba in Mwanza East. FIRM Report No. 99004

Chipompha, N.W.S. 1985. Some mushrooms of Malawi. Forestry Research Record No. 63

Clarke, J, Cavendish, W. & Coote, C. 1996. Rural households and miombo woodlands: Use, value and management. In B. Campbell, ed. The miombo in transition: Woodlands and welfare in Africa. Bogor. CIFOR.

Cunningham, A.B. 1997. An Africa-wide overview of medicinal plant harvesting, conservation and health care. In Global Initiative for Traditional Systems of Health & FAO, eds. Medicinal plants for forest conservation and health care. FAO Non-Wood Forest Products Series No. 11. Rome.

FAO. 1998. Non-wood forest products of Malawi, by Tembo Faera Chanyenga. EC-FAO Partnership Programme, Project GCP/INT/679/EC. Rome

Hauya, J. 1997. Traditional healers important - govt. The Nation (Malawi), 11 September 1997. In Marshal, Nina T. 1998. Searching for a cure: Conservation of medicinal wildlife resources in east and southern Africa. Cambridge. TRAFFIC International.

Kwapata, M.B. 1991. Genetic diversity of indigenous fruits and vegetables in Malawi. In C.F. Chigwe & M.B. Kwapata, eds. Conserving Malawi plant genetic resources. Proceedings of the First National Workshop on Plant Genetic Resources and Biotechnology held from 25 February to 1 March 1991.

Lowore, J.; Coote, C., Abbot, P., Chapola, G. & Malembo, L. 1993. Community use and management of indigenous trees and forest products in Malawi: The case for four villages close to Chimaliro Forest Reserve. FRIM Report No. 93008. pp. 1-59.

Maghembe, J.A. & Seyani, J. H. 1991. Multipurpose trees used by smallholder farmers in Malawi: Results of an ethnobotanical survey. ICRA. AFRENA Report, 42: 1-30.

Malembo, L., Chilanga, T. & Maliwich, C. P. 1998. Indigenous miombo fruits selected for domestication by farmers in Malawi. In J. Maghembe, A. Simons, F. Kwesiga & M. Rarieya, eds. Selecting indigenous trees for domestication in southern Africa: Priority setting with farmers in Malawi, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. ICRAF.

Maliwich, C.P. 1997. Trade in wildlife medicinals in east and southern Africa - Malawi component. Report prepared for TRAFFIC east/southern Africa. Unpublished. In Marshal, Nina T. 1998. Searching for a cure: Conservation of medicinal wildlife resources in east and southern Africa. Cambridge. TRAFFIC International.

Mauambeta, D.D. 1998. Utilization and commercialization of non-timber forest products as a tool for sustainable management of indigenous forests. Paper presented at a coordination unit for the rehabilitation of the environment meeting held at Shire Highlands Hotel, 27 November 1998.

Ngulube, M. 1993. Domestication of indigenous fruit trees in Malawi. In FRIM Newsletter of the Forestry Research Institute of Malawi. Zomba

Nyirenda, R.W.S. 1993. NWFP development in Malawi. In Commonwealth Science Council & FAO, eds. Non-wood forest products: A regional expert consultation for English-speaking African countries, 17-22 October 1993, Arusha, Tanzania

Saka, J.D. & Msonthi, J.D. 1994. Nutritional value of sixteen edible wild fruits growing in Malawi. Forest Ecology and Management 64: 245-248.

Simons, G. 1997. Identification of marketable non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and problems associated with marketing. Paper presented at the first Information exchange workshop on "Sustainable Management of Indigenous Forests" under the SADC-FSTCU/GTZ Project AAA.5.20.

Williamson, J. 1974. Useful plants of Malawi. Zomba. University of Malawi. Zomba.

Williamson, J. 1975. Useful plants of Malawi. Revised and extended edition. Limbe, Malawi. Montfort Press.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This report has been realized thanks to the funding of the EC-FAO Partnership Programme "Data Collection and Analysis for Sustainable Forest Management in ACP Countries". The content is based on available information at FAO Headquarters in Rome, as well as on information provided by Mr Tembo Faera Chanyenga of the Forestry Research Institute of Malawi (FRIM).

Additional information on NWFP in Malawi would be appreciated and duly acknowledged.

QUANTITATIVE DATA ON NWFP OF MALAWI

Importance: 1- high importance on the national level; 2 - high importance on the local/regional level; 3 - low importance
Part used: an - entire animal; ba - bark; bw - beeswax; le - leaves; nu - nuts; fi - fibres; fl - flowers; fr - fruits; gu - gums; ho - honey; la - latex; oi - oil; pl - entire plant;
re - resins; ro - roots; sa - sap; se - seeds; st - stem; ta - tannins
Habitat: F - natural forest or other wooded lands; P - plantation; O - others: trees outside forests (e.g. agroforestry, homegardens)
Source: W - wild, C - cultivated
Destination: N - national; I - international

3.4.5 Mozambique (E)

INTRODUCTION

Main Non-Wood Forest Products

Animal products like bushmeat are the most important non-wood forest products (NWFP) in Mozambique.

Other important NWFP exploited in the country include honey, beeswax, medicinal plants, and a variety of edible plants and plant products such as mushrooms and edible fruits.

General information

Rural people still derive a wide variety of basic needs from the forests and woodlands. In this regard it should be emphasized that the miombo woodland is a source of great importance. The use of NWFP is mostly confined to the subsistence sector, but information on the level of production and to what extent these products are used is not available (FAO, 1995). Presently in Mozambique, there is a lack of systematized and recorded statistics on NWFP. Exports of NWFP are documented only for medicinal plants.

There is a wide range of NWFP that are produced and marketed by the rural communities in Mozambique. The most remarkable ones include medicinal plants, grass, bamboo, reed, foods such as wild vegetables, fruits and tubers. The degree to which they are marketed depends on the distance to and from the market.

There are basically two types of markets for NWFP: the informal market, which is widely spread in the country, and the formal market, which is located in villages or towns. This type of market mainly deals with medicinal plants, wild meat, wild foods, baskets and furniture. Both types of marketing involve people of both sexes, as well as children and elders. Children are usually specialized in gathering wild fruits and selling them along the main roads, while women work on gathering or trading of wild foods. The gathering and marketing of medicinal plants is more complex and involves specialized people.

PLANTS AND PLANT PRODUCTS

Food

Regarding wild foodstuffs, 76 edible wild plant species are used in the rural areas of the coastal plains (Cunningham, 1993).

In regulado de Sabranca in southern Mozambique, 41 edible fruit species are recorded. In the north of the country, in a remnant of Miombo in Senhote, 144 tree species with multiple uses are found (Albano et al.,1998; Xavier, 1998). Since trees bear fruits in different seasons and even in drought years, they can be considered perhaps the most important wild food from the forest. They can be eaten simple, cooked, roasted (seeds and nuts) or when they are still a flower.

According to the survey carried out by Albano et al. (1998), the most common fruits are Strychnos madagascariensis, S. spinosa, Sclerocarya birrea, Hyphaene coriacea, Phoenix reclinata, Aloe sp., Ficus sycomorus, Ximenia caffra, Boscia albitrunca, Diallium schlecteri, Trichilia emetica, Antidesma venosum, Ziziphus mucronata, Grewia sp., Garcinia livingstonei, Dovyalis longispina, Syzygium cordatum, Mimusops spp., Manilkara discolor, Landolphia kirki, Tabernaemontana elegans, Vangueria infausta, Coffea racemosa.

The preferred fruit species vary according to region. In Maputo the most valuable fruit trees are Sclerocarya birrea and Strychnos madagascariensis. In the Manica Province, both Uapaca kirkiana and Sclerocarya birrea are known to be of great importance due to their cultural value. The value of Strychnus madagascariensis rests on its by-product called fuma. Fuma can be consumed either simple or with honey as a staple food during the periods of lack of food in the agricultural cycle.

The fruits of Sclerocarya birrea can be used to produce an alcoholic drink called ucanhe or bucanhe. The pulp is said to contain four to eight times as much vitamin C as orange juice (Palgrave, 1977; Makombe, 1993). Seventy percent of the people in southern Africa eat these fruits, which are a seasonal staple in local diets (Makombe, 1993). Without this valuable contribution many children who are most vulnerable and the chief consumers would be affected by diseases caused by dietary deficiencies.

Edible leaves, mostly of herbaceous plants, contribute significantly to the diet of all rural households in Mozambique. The most common leaves consumed in Mozambique are Adeinia gummifera, Amaranthus sp., Corchorus tridens, Ipomea lapatifolia and Momordica balsamica . These leaves are cooked with peanuts or Sclerocarya birrea nuts and consumed with rice or maize porridge.

Roots and tubers are consumed only on an occasional basis. The most important ones are Commiphora neglecta, Nymphaea capensis, Oxalis semilobata and Scilia hyacinthina (Albano et al., 1998).

Mushrooms are one of the most sought-after wild foods in the natural ecosystems, particularly in the miombo ecosystem. The mushroom season starts with the first rains in early November, reaching its peak in January.

Beverages mainly consist of two types of exotic palm wines: sura and utchema. The former is produced from an exotic palm tree (Cocus nucifera), mainly in the Inhambane and Zambézia provinces. The latter is obtained from indigenous palm trees (Hyphaene coriacea and Phoenix reclinata). At the moment this is the most common and largely produced wine in the country. This activity constitutes a big business for the majority of households located along the main roads. Production is continuous throughout the year. In Matutuine, south Mozambique, the peak of production occurs at the beginning of the rainy season with an output of 20 litres of wine per day (Albano et al., 1998).

Medicines

In Mozambique the share of the population that demands medicinal plants is estimated at 80 percent (Nhatumbo and Soto, 1994) The forest is highly valued by the traditional healers (the so-called curandeiros) as a source of medicinal plants

Medicinal plants are gathered in small quantities from sparse locations throughout the rural communities in Mozambique. However, the main markets are located in the urban centres, such as Nampula, Beira, Quelimane and Maputo. High transport costs result in low profits and, consequently, are the major limiting factor to the trade in medicinal plants.

Cunningham (1997) lists a variety of medicinal plants which were exported in the 1980s.In addition, it is reported that an informal export trade of medicinal plants exists towards neighbouring countries, mostly South Africa and Zimbabwe (Birgham et al., 1996).

In the southern part of the country the most sought-after medicinal plants are Waburgia salutaris and Securidaca longipedunculata (Halafo, 1996; Adamo et al., 1997; Massango, unpublished). Over-exploitation of traditional medicinal plants is the result of their large-scale sale in urban areas (Cunningham, 1997).

Leaves, roots and bark are the most commonly collected parts of medicinal plants. The high frequency of roots, bark or bulbs sold as medicines in the markets of the southern African region (Cunningham, 1997) might be explained by the fact that savannah trees and grasses generally have a high proportion of their biomass underground (Scholes and Walker, 1993).

According to Cunningham (1997), many of the traditional medicinal plants, as well as animal materials that are sold in the urban markets, are of great importance to the population.

Two surveys have been carried out in the country regarding the status of medicinal plants. The one done in the regulado of Tanga recorded 39 different plants (Massango, unpublished) while the one that includes four regulados (Tinonganine, Kumbane Norte, Tanga and Jabula) recorded the existence of 46 species. Some of the recorded species are: Walburgia salutaris, Balanites maughamii, Tarenna sp., Securidaca longipedunculata, Zanthoxylum sp., Bridelia cathartica, Synaptolepis kirki, Indigofera sp., Xylotheca kraussiana, Acridocarpus natalitius, Erythopheum lasianum, Brachylaena huillensis, Ochna sp and Garcinia livingstonei.

Utensils, handicrafts and construction materials

Trade in bamboo and palm products is chiefly concentrated in urban areas, particularly in Maputo, Inhambane, Beira, Chimoio, Quelimane, Nampula, Tete and Pemba. In Maputo there is a growing number of small enterprises producing palm leaves products. The products are diverse, from furniture to baby's cots to carpets. The markets are large and usually located where there are more tourists.

Palm tree leaves are used for making weaving baskets, while the stem is used for sweeping brooms. The common palm species occurring in the country are Phoenix reclinata and Hyphaene coriacea. Fish traps are made of Pavetta sp. For tooth brushing Euclea natalensis is preferred.

Among various NWFP obtained from wetlands, mat production has been recorded as the most traded one locally, starting from the villages to the city belts of the main towns. Mats are commonly used for sleeping. However, their major role is in traditional ceremonies. Mats are made of Phragmites australis and Cyperus papyrus.

Among swamp reeds the predominant species are Phragmites australis, Typha capensis and occasionally Cyperus papyrus. In some lakes of the southern part of the country there are occurrences of a few floating-leafed aquatics like Nymphaea capensis. All over the country swamp reeds are used as building material and to make mattresses.

ANIMALS AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS

Honey and Beeswax

Honey collection from the wild and beekeeping are very common practices all over the country. The most important honey trees are from miombo (in the genera Brachystegia) and acacia woodlands. The harvesting process often involves the use of fire. This technique kills many bees and the smoke reduces greatly the quality of honey and beeswax.

The bulk of honey and beeswax is traditionally produced by rural households. The number of traditional beekeepers has been estimated at 20 000 and the production of honey and beeswax at 360 000 kg/a and 60 000 kg/a, respectively (Nhatumbo and Soto, 1994). The production from modern beekeepers is estimated at 20 000 and 8 000 kg of honey and beeswax, respectively. In Maputo, the price of honey for domestic consumption has been increasing, from US$ 3.66-4.16 per kg in 1994 (Nhatummbo and Soto, 1994) to US$5.6/kg in 1999 (Mangue and Nakala, current survey).

Presently, there are a growing number of people and organizations involved in beekeeping countrywide. The work carried out by the Programa Nacional de Apicultura from 1978 to 1994 can be referred to as an example of such a growing trend. In addition, there is a women beekeeping association in Manica, supported by a local NGO (AMRU), that could also be regarded as a good example.

Bushmeat

It is estimated that around 80 percent of the rural households still depend on wild animal protein as a supplement to their diet - either birds, reptiles, small mammals or amphibian (Chambal, 1997). It is estimated that, together with the inland fish production, wildlife provides up to 30 percent of the protein requirements of the rural population (FAO, 1995).

Local communities go hunting and sell the bushmeat along the main roads or at the local markets. However, in general, most of the bushmeat is for household consumption, while poachers are market oriented.

In the hunting concession areas the hunting quota has been increasing drastically. From 1992 to 1994 an increase of 74 percent for residents and 33 percent for non-residents was documented (Nhantumbo and Soto, 1994). Although, the legislation states that the permission for hunting requires a licence, in practice that is not the case. The number of legal hunters is very low. Illegal hunting for meat and trophies and the destruction of wildlife habitats (due to grazing and shifting cultivation) has contributed to the extinction of 20-60 percent of the wildlife population (Ajayi, 1991).

Other edible animal products

In Mozambique, edible insects play a very significant role in food security in rural areas by providing animal protein. The most common edible insects are caterpillars and termites. Caterpillars feeding on Sclerocarya birrea (Maputo and Gaza provinces), Burkea africana, Erythrophleum africanum (Manica, Sofala and Zambézia) and Colophospermum mopane (Tete provinces) are the most sought-after by rural households. Caterpillars are normally harvested by women and children. They can be dried or cooked fresh.

Termites, dwelling chiefly in the miombo ecosystem, are very common during the rainy season. Since termites are attracted by light, in rural areas the harvesting techniques consist in placing a torch and a container with water in order to capture them, whereas in villages and towns it is common to see hundreds of children with baskets around the electricity poles to collect the termites all night long. Although every member of the household can gather termites, chiefly during the peak of the termite dispersal, the main harvesting group consists of women and children.

REFERENCES

Adamo, A., Barbosa, F., Dutton, P., Gagnaux, P. & Dutton, S. 1997. Plant resources. With some observation on achieving sustainability. DNFFB, MAP, Maputo

Ajayi, S.S. 1991. Wildlife management curriculum. FO: MOZ/86/029, UNDP/FAO. Maputo

Albano, G., Geje, F., Brito, L. & Meneses, P. 1998. Produtos florestais nao madereiros do regulado de Santaca. Unpublished manuscript.

Birgham, T., Chihongo, A. & Chidumayo, E. 1996. Trade in woodland products from the miombo region. In B. Campbell, ed. The miombo in transition: Woodlands and welfare in Africa. Bogor.CIFOR.

CEF. 1996. Proposta para o estabelecimento de uma area de conservacao da Chanfuta (Afzelia quanzensis) a sul de Maputo. Unpuplished manuscript.

Clarke, J; W. Cavendish; C. Coote. 1996. Rural households and miombo woodlands: use, value and management. In: Campbell, B (Ed.): The miombo in transition: woodlands and welfare in Africa. CIFOR. Bogor

Cunningham, A.B. 1993. African medicinal plants: Setting priorities at the interface between conservation and primary healthcare. People and Plants Working Paper 1. Paris. Unesco.

Cunningham, A.B. 1997. An Africa-wide overview of medicinal plant harvesting, conservation and health care. In Global Initiative for Traditional Systems of Health & FAO, eds. Medicinal plants for forest conservation and health care. FAO Non-Wood Forest Products Series No. 11. Rome

FAO. 1995. Mozambique: Forestry and wildlife sector strategy development. Working Paper 11/95 CP MOZ 37 WP

Junod, H.A. 1974. Usos e costumes dos Bantos. A vida duma tribo do Sul de Africa. Tomo I, Vida Social, 2.^a Edição. In Imprensa Nacional de Moçambique Lourenço Marques & K. Makombe, K. eds. Sharing the land: Wildlife, people and development in Africa. Issues Series No. 1, IUCN-Rosa, Harare and IUCN-SUWP, Washington DC.

FAO. 1999. Country brief on NWFP: Republic of Mozambique, by P.D. Mangue, P.D. & M.N. Oreste. EC-FAO Partnership Programme, Project GCP/INT/679/EC. Rome.

Halafo, J. S. 1996. Estudo da planta Warburdia salutaris na Floresta Licuati: Estado de conservacao utilizacao pelas comunidades locais. Trabalho de Licenciatura. UEM. Maputo. pp. 50.

Makombe, K. (eds.) 1993. Sharing the land: Wildlife, People and Development in Africa, Issues Series No. 1, IUCN-Rosa, Harare and IUCN-SUWP, Washington DC.

Nhatumbo, I. & Soto, J.S. 1994. Mercado de produtos madereiros e não- madereiros. FO: MOZ/92/013. Maputo. Ministério de Agricultura.

Palgrave, H.C. 1977. Trees of southern Africa. Second Revised Edition. Cape Town. C. Struik Publisher. 959 pp.

Scholes, R.J. & Walker, B.H. 1993. An African savanna: synthesis of the Nylsvley study. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press. 306 pp.

Xavier, V. 1998. Relatótio do inventário da floresta comunitária de Narini, distrito de Monapo. GCP/MOZ/056/NET. Maputo. Ministério de Agricultura e Pescas.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This report has been realized thanks to the funding of the EC-FAO Partnership Programme "Data Collection and Analysis for Sustainable Forest Management in ACP Countries". The content is based on available information at FAO Headquarters in Rome, as well as on information provided by Mr P.D. Mangue and Mr M.N. Oreste of the Economics and Planning Department, Ministerio de Agricura e Pescas, DNFFB.

Additional information on NWFP in Mozambique would be appreciated and duly acknowledged.

ANNEX 1. FOREST SERVICES

Eco-tourism development, as well as game ranching/farming and commercial and sport hunting, are important forest services in Mozambique. In addition to these, forests are also used as dwelling places for ancestral spirits, burial grounds, protection of springs and as sites of rainmaking ceremonies (Clarke et al., 1996).

Eco-tourism

In recent years wildlife was, along with beaches, the most attractive source for tourism in Mozambique. Within eco-tourism development the main activities are rehabilitation, ecological monitoring, reserve management, community mobilization and awareness campaigns, concession development and joint management agreement promotions.

The National Tourism Policy of Mozambique aims to attract national and foreign tourists to benefit from the existing natural resources, as well as to encourage national and foreign investors to participate in the development of those resources. The underlying objectives are diverse and deal with aspects as job opportunities for Mozambicans and assurance of local communities participation as a way of guaranteeing their sustainable development. Further more it is a question of promoting the country's high quality of regional and internal tourism, as well as giving priority to national entrepreneurs within the tourism sector.

There are four national parks covering an area of 16 150 km², namely: Gorongosa National Park; Zinave National Park; Banhine National Park; and Bazaruto National Park. According to the existing wildlife law, eco-tourism development within the national parks is limited to non-consumptive use of wildlife resources, such as game viewing and photographic safaris.

Wildlife services

Game reserves in Mozambique cover three provinces, namely: Niassa, Zambezia and Sofala, and extend over an area of 18 600 km². Within the framework of the Agriculture and Fisheries Development Master Programme, investment from the private sector is being sought with the aim to rehabiliate these game reserves. Presently, two of the above areas are concerned - Niassa and Maputo.

Hunting areas, in turn, cover about 51 206 km². Most of them are concentrated in four provinces: Manica (37%), Sofala (30%), Gaza (19.5%) and Inhambane (13%). There are 13 gazetted hunting areas in Mozambique ranging in size from 300 km² to 12 300 km², covering a total area of 59 700 km².

The table below shows ongoing projects concerning wildlife services in Mozambique.

Table 1. Wildlife services by company and region

Source: FAO (1999), quoting TFCA 1998 annual report

Note: Wildlife services in column 5: Game ranching (1), Eco-tourism development (2), Game farming (3), Commercial and sport hunting (4), Others including exports of wild animals or products (5), Community based wildlife resources management (6), n.a. information not available

QUANTITATIVE DATA ON NWFP OF MOZAMBIQUE

Importance: 1- high importance on the national level; 2 - high importance on the local/regional level; 3 - low importance
Part used: an - entire animal; ba - bark; bw - beeswax; le - leaves; nu - nuts; fi - fibres; fl - flowers; fr - fruits; gu - gums; ho - honey;
la - latex; oi - oil; pl - entire plant; re - resins; ro - roots; sa - sap; se - seeds; st - stem; ta - tannins
Habitat: F - natural forest or other wooded lands; P - plantation; O - others: trees outside forests (e.g. agroforestry, homegardens)
Source: W - wild, C - cultivated
Destination: N - national; I - international

3.4.6 Namibia (E)

Introduction

Main Non-Wood Forest Products

Fodder for sheep, goats and cattle is the most important non-wood forest products (NWFP) in Namibia.

Other important NWFP are medicinal plants, fruits, edible nuts, bushmeat and honey (United Nations, 1986; Pohjonen, 1990).

General information

NWFP play an important role in the local economy. Most products are used for subsistence (e.g. fodder) and make a considerable contribution to the livelihood of the indigenous peoples in Namibia. Bushman communities (San), for instance, consider wild fruits and berries very important products.

Even though not in very large quantities, some NWFP are traded on formal markets, both locally and internationally. Marula oils (Sclerocarya birrea), used for food and cosmetic, and devil's claw (Harpagophytum spp), used as medicine, are products that found their place on international markets.

The annual economic value of NWFP was estimated to reach N$65.3 million⁴⁴, which corresponds to 6.2 percent of the total economic value (N$1 058.2 million) of the country's exploited forest resources (Namibia Forestry Strategic Plan, 1996). The annual economic value for specific products is as follows: medicines (N$31.5 million); fodder (N$10 million); food (N$4.8 million); beverages (N$1.5 million); ornamental roots (N$1.1 million); and basketry (N$16.4 million) (Namibia Forestry Strategic Plan, 1996).

PLANTS AND PLANT PRODUCTS

Food

Food products of plant origin are significant components of the diet of many rural communities. The San people are said to know as many as 150 edible plants including fruits, leaves, seeds and nuts, tubes and roots. Mushrooms also play a major role during the rainy season (Erkkila and Siiskonen, 1992).

There is a variety of tree species which provide edible fruits. Wild fruits play a significant role in the daily diet of many peoples as they are good sources of vitamins and minerals (Becker, 1986; Palgrave, 1983; Fox and Young, 1982; Giess, 1965/66).

The most important fruit trees are: Sclerocarya birrea subsp. Caffra, Berchemia discolor, Diospyros mespiliformis and Hyphaen petersiana. Other important fruit trees known in Namibia include, among others, Schinsiophyton (formerly Ricinodentron) rautanenii, Strychnos cocculoides, Strychnos spinosa, Adansonia digitata, Acanthosicyos horridus.

With the exception of a few fruit tree species such as marula (Sclerocarya birrea), fruits generally become ripe at the end of the rainy season. They may be consumed fresh or dried. They may also be further processed to produce secondary products such as powder or paste. Dried fruits can also be fermented to produce a strong liquor known as ombike or katshipembe. Fresh fruits may be squeezed and produce different sorts of wine or beer. Fruits from Strychnos cocculoides that occurs in the Kalahari sand area of Namibia constitute an important food especially for the bushman communities. The fruits are sold on the roadside at about N$0.50-1.00 per fruit. Their economic role, however, is expected to remain local.

There are several species providing edible leaves, which are either consumed fresh or cooked. These local or natural vegetables are consumed with staple grain dishes. It is estimated that about 70 percent of an average family's main meals consists of these uncultivated vegetables.

Seeds and nuts contribute significantly to the nutritional quality of diets, adding calories, oil (e.g. for ointment) protein and minerals (FAO, 1989). Oil is also produced from seeds of wild melons (Eenhanga).

A variety of plants (climbers) in the forests provide edible tubers and roots. Other roots, such as omambibo, are used as water containers. Many roots and tubers provide energy, carbohydrates and minerals.

Edible mushrooms are also found, and especially termite hill-mushrooms (species of Termitomyces) are well known. They are collected during the rainy season when they occur in large quantities and are sold along the road at prices that vary between N$5 and N$10 per kg. Another mushroom species found in Namibia is the Kalahari truffle. In rural areas, people collect these mushrooms which replace meat in many meals.

Medicines

Most of the medicinal plant species are used by the rural people to a large extent and play an economic role in different local communities. In the Tsumkwe District in Namibia's Otjozondjupa region (formerly Bushman land), more than 80 medicinal plant species are used for treating about 30 medical ailments (Léger, 1998).

Harpagophytum procumbens and Harpagophytum zeyheri are the two species of devi'ls claw that grow in Namibia. The former grows exclusively in the regions bordering the Kalahari whereas the latter grows in the northern part of the country (Schmidt, Eich and Betti, 1998).

The roots of Harpagophytum procumbens and Harpagophytum zeyheri contain ingredients required for anti-rheumatic medicaments. At the moment, pharmaceutical companies are exploiting Harpagophytum procumbens both from wild and cultivated stands (Schmidt, Eich and Betti, 1998; Kuipers, 1993). Increased demand and uncontrolled destructive collection will result in a rarefaction of Harpagophytum procumbens on its natural sites. The species reduced from 1 000 to 2 000 plants per ha in some areas in the 1970s and to less than 10 plants per ha in 1986 in some other areas (Cunningham, 1997).

The table below shows exports of Harpagophytum during the period 1991-1998. The quantity increased up to to 600 000 kg in 1998.

Table 1. Exports of Harpagophytum sp.

Source: FAO (1998)

Traders used to collect 100-200 t/a of Harpagophytum procumbens, which produced earnings of up to N$500 000. In 1998, dried root materials of Harpagophytum procumbens were exported which brought in earnings amounting to N$8-11 million. In 1998, the export price in the Omaheke Region was N$12.00 per kg.

Utensils, handicrafts and construction materials

Baskets made from palm leaves are found on the markets outside Namibia, through informal trade to South Africa. A product of about 70 cm height and 40 cm diameter is sold at a price of N$0.50-1.00. The economic role of these products are expected to remain local.

Exudates

There are a few tree species that produce edible gums in Namibia, among which Acacia senegal and Terminalia sp. are well known. Combretum imberbe secretes gums during September and is regarded as a delicacy especially in the Ohangwena/Oshana region where these trees are found in large numbers in the seasonal watercourses, locally known as oshanas. Gums are generally not collected in large quantities.

ANIMALS AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS

Bushmeat

Namibia is, together with South Africa and Zimbabwe, one of the African countries where game ranching is mostly developed (FAO,1997). However, it is almost seen as a supplement to livestock farming. With the exception of the San population (less than 4 000 people) no other communities in Namibia rely on bushmeat to any significant degree. Within the commercial outlets in urban areas, bushmeat is sold as a delicacy (Yaron, Healy and Tapscott, 1996).

Before the establishment of national parks in Namibia, the consumption of bushmeat was extremely high. Even though game, especially small antelopes, is still available, it is protected by the Nature Conservation Law. Hence, the consumption rate of wildlife has decreased significantly.

Other edible animal products

Caterpillars play an important role in the diet of the local people and are collected from different tree species. The mopane worm, for instance, known for its delicacy, is obtained from plant species such as Colophospermum mopane, which are found in the savannah vegetation in north-western part of the country. These caterpillars are sold as a delicacy on the local markets at a price of approximately N$20 per kg. These worms also have a commercial potential in the neighbouring countries. Other related types of caterpillars consumed locally are obtained from the following tree species: Burkea africana, Terminalia cericea, as well as from Acacia spp.

Termites are consumed in many parts of Owambo during the rainy season. They are collected by lighting fires after heavy rains, a time when termites are especially attracted by light.

REFERENCES

Becker, B. 1986. Wild plants for human nutrition in the Sahelian Zone. Journal of arid environment 11(1): 61-64.

Cunningham, A.B. 1997. An Africa-wide overview of medicinal plant harvesting, conservation and health care. In Global Initiative for Traditional Systems of Health & FAO, eds. Medicinal plants for forest conservation and health care. FAO Non-Wood Forest Products Series No. 1. Rome

Erkkila & Siskonnen 1992. Forestry in Namibia 1850-1990. University of Jensuu.

FAO. 1989. Forestry and nutrition - A reference manual. Rome.

FAO. 1997. Wildlife and food security in Africa, by Y. Ntiamoa-Baidu. FAO Conservation Guide No. 33. Rome.

FAO. 1998. Non-wood forest products of Namibia, by J. Haiwla. EC-FAO Partnership Programme, Project GCP/INT/679/EC. Rome.

Fox, S.W. & Young, M.E.N. 1982. Food from the veld. Edible wild plants of southern Africa. Delta Books Ltd.

Giess W. 1965/66. Veldkost in Sudwestafrica. Journal of SWA Scientific Society: 59-68.

Kuipers, S.E. 1993.Trade in medicinal plants. In FAO, ed. Medicinal plants for forest conservation and health care. FAO Non-Wood Forest Products Series No. 11. Rome

Léger S. 1998. The hidden gift of nature. A description of today's use of plants in west Bushman land (Namibia). Windhoek. German Development Service.

Namibia Forestry Strategic Plan. 1996.

Palgrave, K.C. 1983. Trees of southern Africa. Cape Town. Struik Publishers.

Pohjonen, V., Aho, M., Finne, B., Siambango, B.S. & Silfverberg, K. 1990. Forestry development in Namibia. Report of the project identification and preparation mission. Ministry of Agriculture, Rural Development, Finnida; Fisheries and Water Affairs, Namibia. Helsinki, Windhoek.

Schmidt, M.; J. Eich; G. Betti. 1998. Improvement of pharmaceutical drug quality: A cultivation project for Harpagophytum procumbens in Namibia. Paper presented at the First International Symposium on the Conservation of Medicinal Plants in Trade in Europe. Royal Botanic Gardens. Kew.

United Nations.1986. Namibia: Perspectives for national reconstruction and development. Lusaka.

Yaron, G., Healy, T. & Tapscott, C. 1996. The economics of living with wildlife in Namibia. In J. Bojoe, ed. The economics of wildlife. Case studies from Ghana, Kenya, Namibia and Zimbabwe. Washington. World Bank.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This report has been realized thanks to the funding of the EC-FAO Partnership Programme "Data Collection and Analysis for Sustainable Forest Management in ACP Countries". The content is based on available information at FAO Headquarters in Rome, as well as on information provided by Mr Joseph Hailwa, Directorate of Forestry, Ministry of Environment and Tourism, Namibia.

Additional information on NWFP in Namibia would be appreciated and duly acknowledged.

ANNEX 1. FOREST SERVICES

Hunting is one of the most valuable forest services in Namibia. In 1991, around N$ 44 million was earned as foreign exchange derived from trophy fees, accommodation, airfares and trophy export charges. Trophy hunting has a growing success on private farms, while wildlife utilzation combining tourism, hunting and cropping has shown favourable returns in communal areas (Yaron, Healy and Tapscott, 1996).

Eco-tourism is another forest service with a notable potential, given the fact that Namibia has a unique eco-system and a variety of both plants and animals. The tourism industry is one of the fastest growing sectors in the country. With an annual value of N$218 million, it represents 20.6 percent of the economic value of the country's total forest resources (Namibia Forestry Strategic Plan, 1996).

QUANTITATIVE DATA ON NWFP OF NAMIBIA

Importance: 1- high importance on the national level; 2 - high importance on the local/regional level; 3 - low importance
Part used: an - entire animal; ba - bark; bw - beeswax; le - leaves; nu - nuts; fi - fibres; fl - flowers; fr - fruits; gu - gums; ho - honey;
la - latex; oi - oil; pl - entire plant; re - resins; ro - roots; sa - sap; se - seeds; st - stem; ta - tannins
Habitat: F - natural forest or other wooded lands; P - plantation; O - others: trees outside forests (e.g. agroforestry, homegardens)
Source: W - wild, C - cultivated
Destination: N - national; I - international

3.4.7 South Africa (E)

INTRODUCTION

Main Non-Wood Forest Products

The most important non-wood forest products (NWFP) are medicinal plants, ornamentals, fodder, plants and plant products (fruits, nuts, beverages), as well as bushmeat (e.g. mammals, birds) and insects.

Other documented NWFP are fibres (e.g. Adansonia digitata), tannins (e.g. Acacia mearnsii), essential oils (e.g. Eucalyptus spp.) and colourants (e.g. Moringa oleifera). Faunal NWFP exploited are live animals, honey, beeswax, hides, skins and medicines.

PLANTS AND PLANT PRODUCTS

Food

NWFP obtained from natural forested areas constitute important foodstuff. Especially in the less developed areas, edible plants are important dietary supplements for the rural communities, particularly during drought periods and in areas of marginal agricultural potential. One example is Sclerocarya birrea which is highly estimated by the rural population for its fruit; consequently it is seldom cut down.

Most foodstuff is consumed directly. Only the marketing of, and trade in, palmwine is reported to be more organized. Traditional wine is made by tapping of certain palm species for sap, e.g. date palm (Phoenix reclinata) and ilala palm (Hyphaene coriacea). Palm tapping of these two main palm species poses a threat on the natural resources, since 3 percent of tapped palms are dying (Maliehe, 1993).

Fodder

Many trees and shrubs are used as forage for domestic livestock and wildlife. Especially where pastures are degraded due to over-grazing and high population pressure, forage species are very important (Maliehe, 1993).

Medicines

There are 27 million consumers of indigenous medicines in South Africa (FAO, 1998b). About 80 percent of the population consult a traditional healer before going to a doctor (Maliehe, 1993) The ratio of traditional healers to total population is 1:700-1 200 in the Venda area as compared to a medical doctors to total population ratio of 1:17 400 in the ex-homeland areas. About 200 000 traditional practitioners work in South Africa (Maliehe,1993).

Traditional medicine is important to rural communities, as well as to the rapidly growing urban population, for medical and economic reasons. A local and national multi-million dollar trade is documented between rural sources and urban markets (Maliehe, 1993). At the national level, 20 000 t/a may be traded corresponding to a value of approximately US$60 million (FAO, 1998b). Out of a total of 1 000 species used for medicinal purposes in the area, more than 400 are traded on the urban markets in Kwa Zulu, Natal (Kuipers, 1997).

Data on exports of medicinal plants are rare. Trade data indicate exports from South Africa of Glycyrhiza sp., Origanum sp., Salvia sp., Euphorbia resinifera, Aloe ferox and Siphonochilus aethiopicus. Synaptolepis kirkii is exported to Lesotho (Lange, 1997; Cunningham, 1993).

The use of medicinal plants has been a constant cause of concern with respect to sustainability since the indigenous medicine is based almost entirely on indigenous plants harvested from wild plant stocks. Due to harvesting for medicinal purposes many species are on the verge of extinction. Endangered medicinal plant species are, among others:

· Siphonochilus aethiopicus - a slow growing plant with limited distribution, gathered for commercial purposes. Demand exceeds supply.

· Walburgia salutaris, probably the most expensive traditional medicine in South Africa.

· Ledobouria hypoxidoides (Eastern Cap region) and Mystacidium millaria, endemic species with very localized distribution, threatened due to harvesting and commercial sale as a traditional medicine (Cunningham, 1997).

· Ocotea bullata, of which 95 percent has been exploited for bark, with 40 percent ring barking and dying.

· Aloe ferox - its trade is under the control of CITES (Lange, 1997).

Utensils, handicrafts and construction materials

Fibres are an important component in the manufacture of household items, handicrafts and clothes. Useful species are the baobab tree (Adansonia digitata), Grewia bicolor, Moringa oleifera and Securidaca longepedunculata. The majority of fibre products is sold on regional and national markets (Maliehe, 1993).

Ornamentals

Ornamentals are a prosperous new industry that has sprouted. The development of an export market for fern (Rumohra adiantiformis) has flourished since 1981 into an industry earning over US$300 000 per annum, giving employment to about 250-300 people. Indigenous flowers and bulbs contribute approximately to 1 percent of the total national value of agricultural production in South Africa (Maliehe, 1993).

ANIMAL AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS

Honey and beeswax

Honey is the most important product from insects. Approximately 2 000 beefarmers produce 3 200 t/a of honey. In 1996, 30 t of honey (worth US$96 000 and 4 t of beeswax (worth US$16 000) were exported (FAO, 1998a). This figure does not make a distinction between forest honey and honey coming from agricultural lands.

Hides and skins

Skins of reptiles are used in the leather and fancy goods industry (Maliehe, 1993).

Medicines

Also animal bodies are used in the traditional medicine. There is a variety of species (e.g. scrub hare, cape hare, porcupine, polecat, pangolin) that have medicinal or curative properties (Maliehe,1993).

REFERENCES

Cunningham, A.B. 1993. African medicinal plants: Setting priorities at the interface between conservation and primary health care. People and Plants Working Paper 1. Paris. Unesco.

Cunningham, A.B. 1997. An Africa-wide overview of medicinal plant harvesting, conservation and health care. In Global Initiative for Traditional Systems of Health & FAO, eds. Medicinal plants for forest conservation and health care. FAO Non-Wood Forest Products Series No. 11. Rome

FAO. 1997. Wildlife and food security in Africa, by Y. Ntiamoa-Baidu. FAO Conservation Guide No. 33. Rome.

FAO. 1998a. FAO statistics. In Internet http://www.fao.org

FAO. 1998b. Marketing of indigenous medicinal plants in South Africa - A case study in Kwazulu-Natal, by M. Manders. Rome.

Kuipers, S.E. 1997. Trade in medicinal plants. In Global Initiative for Traditional Systems of Health & FAO, eds. Medicinal plants for forest conservation and health care. FAO Non-Wood Forest Products Series No. 11. Rome.

Lange, D. 1997. Untersuchungen zum Heilpflanzenmarkt in Deutschland. Bonn, Bundesamt für Naturschutz.

Maliehe, T.M. 1993. NWFP in South Africa. In Commonwealth Science Council & FAO, eds. Non-wood forest products: A regional expert consultation for English-speaking African countries, 17-22 October 1993, Arusha, Tanzania.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This report has been realized thanks to the funding of the EC-FAO Partnership Programme "Data Collection and Analysis for Sustainable Forest Management in ACP Countries". The content is based on available information at FAO Headquarters in Rome.

Additional information on NWFP in South Africa would be appreciated and duly acknowledged.

ANNEX 1. FOREST SERVICES

In South Africa tourism is the most important forest service. The game parks and nature reserves attract thousands of tourists each year going on photo safaris, trophy hunting, etc. Tourism is reported to be the fifth highest foreign exchange earner; in 1992 it yielded approximately US$800 million and provided jobs for 300 000 people (FAO, 1997).

QUANTITATIVE DATA ON NWFP OF SOUTH AFRICA

Importance: 1- high importance on the national level; 2 - high importance on the local/regional level; 3 - low importance
Part used: an - entire animal; ba - bark; bw - beeswax; le - leaves; nu - nuts; fi - fibres; fl - flowers; fr - fruits; gu - gums; ho - honey;
la - latex; oi - oil; pl - entire plant; re - resins; ro - roots; sa - sap; se - seeds; st - stem; ta - tannins
Habitat: F - natural forest or other wooded lands; P - plantation; O - others: trees outside forests (e.g. agroforestry, homegardens)
Source: W - wild, C - cultivated
Destination: N - national; I - international

3.4.8 Swaziland (E)

INTRODUCTION

Main Non-Wood Forest Products

In Swaziland, fodder (e.g. Adenium obessum), medicinal plants (e.g. Walburgia salutaris), fruits (Sclerocarya birrea) and bee forage (e.g. Bruchellia bubalani) are important vegetal non-wood forest products (NWFP). Insects, honey and beeswax are reported to be the main animal based NWFP.

General information

The Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives (1992) is currently carrying out four sub-programmes within the National Forest Research Plan (1993-2002), which deal with NWFP in four areas:

· the utilization of foliage and fruits of trees as forage for livestock in order to reduce pressure on grazing land by using trees as alternative sources of fodder;

· investigation on the biology of marula tree (Sclerocarya birrea) to assess the possibility of using its fruits as a source of food for livestock;

· medicinal properties of indigenous tree species in order to provide a scientific basis for the alleged medicinal properties of trees in Swaziland; and

· the use of trees as a source of food for beekeeping.

PLANTS AND PLANT PRODUCTS

Food

Throughout Swaziland, more than 200 species of wild plants are commonly consumed. Wild leaves such as those of Grewia sp. are consumed primarily in spring and summer, while fruits are eaten during winter and spring when they are the main source of vitamin C supply. Other forest and bush foods also used seasonally are mushrooms, caterpillars and termite larvae (Falconer, 1990). The top four species of socio-economic significance are: Sclerocarya birrea sub-species caffra, Bequaertiodendron megalismontum, Syzgium cordatum and Ximenia caffra. Currently these plant species occur in natural forests and as trees outside forests. Their fruits are picked by children and women for sale on roadsides as a means to generate cash income. In the case of Sclerocarya birrea, a traditional liquor is produced from the ripe fruit, mainly by women, and is sold in rural areas, as well as in small and big towns. The nut, on the other hand, is dried and oil is extracted for domestic consumption (FAO, 1999).

Medicines

The importance of medicinal plants is shown by the ratio of 1:110 of traditional healers to total population, while the medical doctors to total population ratio is 1:10.000 (Cunningham, 1993). Important medicinal plants which are gathered for commercial purposes are, among others, Walburgia salutaris, Alepidea amatymbica and Siphonochilus aethiopicus. W. salutaris is reported to be exported to South Africa and Mozambique (Cunningham, 1993 and 1997).

Another medicinal plant, that is being harvested at an overwhelming rate and utilized by the local people and further smuggled into South Africa, is called African potato. This plant is associated with the treatment of HIV/AIDS.

The Swaziland National Trust Commission, in collaboration with the Swaziland Genetic Resources Centre at the Malkerns Research Station has declared highly protected some of the areas where this species grows (FAO, 1999).

REFERENCES

Cunningham, A.B. 1993. African medicinal plants: Setting priorities at the interface between conservation and primary health care. People and Plants Working Paper 1. Paris, Unesco.

Cunningham, A.B. 1997. An Africa-wide overview of medicinal plant harvesting, conservation and health care. In Global Initiative for Traditional Systems of Health, & FAO, eds. Medicinal plants for forest conservation and health care. FAO Non-Wood Forest Products Series No.11. Rome.

Falconer, J. 1990. "Hungry season" food from the forest. In Unasylva 41(160): 14-19.

FAO. 1999. The status of NWFP in Swaziland, by S. Dlamini. EC-FAO Partnership Programme, Project GCP/INT/679/EC. Rome

Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives. 1992. National forestry research plan. Mbabane.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This report has been realized thanks to the funding of the EC-FAO Partnership Programme "Data Collection and Analysis for Sustainable Forest Management in ACP Countries". The content is based on available information at FAO Headquarters in Rome, as well as on information provided by Mr Cliff S. Dlamini of the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Swaziland.

Additional information on NWFP in Swaziland would be appreciated and duly acknowledged.

3.4.9 Zambia (E)

INTRODUCTION

Main Non-Wood Forest Products

The most important NWFP are foodstuffs such as honey and beeswax, mushrooms as well as bamboo canes used as household utensils.

Other important NWFP include caterpillars, edible roots and fruits, medicinal plants and fodder.

Rattans, resins, gums, latex, tannins, colourants, ornamentals, essential oils and bushmeat are also used (Roper, 1997; Njovu, 1993; Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, 1997b).

General information

The majority of the population in Zambia still depends on NWFP. Although most NWFP are used for self-consumption, some of them such as basketry, bee products, caterpillars are sold on the market and provide employment especially for rural communities. Records exist on exports of medicinal plants (Pterocarpus angolensis), mushrooms, honey and beeswax. Trade in honey and mushrooms is the most developed one. Honey and mushrooms fetch millions of US dollars on both national and international markets (Chishimba, 1996; Chidumayo and Marjokorpi, 1997). Though documentation on the value of NWFP is not available, it is estimated that their combined value exceeds the monetary value of timber manifold (Roper, 1997).

The Zambian Forestry Action Plan 1992/93 gives an overview on the importance of NWFP in various parts of the country:

· In northern Zambia, caterpillars are a major source of nutrition and income for (especially poor) rural households. Other recorded NWFP are wild plant foods (mushrooms, fruits), medicines and honey. Beekeeping is practised by the Forest Department whereas local people collect honey by hunting wild hives (Chulumanda, 1992).

· In north-western Zambia, honey is the most important NWFP. Trade in honey and beeswax is a major source of income. Other NWFP are beverages, fodder, fibres, foodstuffs and medicinal plants (Njovu,1993a and 1993b).

· In western Zambia, semi-commercial exploitation and exports of small quantities of basketry commodities as well as local utilization of bark, fruits, seeds and edible oils are recorded (Mtongo, 1993).

· In the central region, mushrooms, caterpillars and edible plants (leaves, roots, fruits, etc.) are believed to be important NWFP. Honey production, on the other hand, is believed to be of minor importance (Chaponda, 1993).

PLANTS AND PLANT PRODUCTS

Food

Vegetal NWFP including fruits, nuts, roots, tubers, leaves and mushrooms are mainly used as food (mostly as sources of proteins, vitamins, minerals and starch) (Chishimba, 1996; Nkomenshya, 1996 and 1997). Vegetal products are used at both subsistence and commercial levels. About one-third of rural households harvest wild foods in the form of fruits, mushrooms and root tubers with a gross output of 31 kg per household (Chishimba, 1996).

Forests provide edible food in the rainy season from November to February, when cultivated food crops are scarce.

In the Luangwa valley, wild food is an important component of the diet, especially during the period of food shortage. For example, in the Mukupu village during the month of September wild vegetable food provides ingredients in 42 percent of the meals served, compared with only ten percent for cultivated vegetables. In June, on the other hand, more cultivated vegetables are used than wild food plants (Falconer, 1990). In Central Zambia, ten species of edible leaves and four species of edible roots are consumed. Many of the wild vegetables are believed to be found in disturbed areas outside the forests and woodlands (Clarke, Cavendish and Coote, 1996).

Of all the NWFP reported as being valuable for food, six were classified as being important for trade in three provinces covered by a survey conducted by Chishimba (1996). The main products traded are:

· fruits of Uapaca kirkiana, Anisophyllea pomifera and Parinan curatellifolia;

· mushrooms;

· roots of Rhynchosia spp.; and

· tubers of Satyria siva.

The trading levels differ from community to community depending on ethnic background and product. The level of trade is determined by product availability, distance from the market and access to reliable means of transportation. Estimates of quantities sold at Kunda Mfumu (Luapula Province), a village on a highway, indicate quantities as high as 193.6 kg of Rhynchosia spp. and 155.6 kg of Satyria siva, with a corresponding monetary value of US$102 and US$115, respectively (Chishimba, 1996).

Mushrooms, particularly chanterelles, are offered for sale on the international market. Other vegetal NWFP are mostly sold on community and district markets. There is very little inter-provincial trade in vegetal NWFP. Imports between provinces are only recorded for mushrooms (Rhynchosia spp. and Satyria siva), but they are all on a small scale. These commodities are mainly moved along the rail line from rural to urban provinces where they fetch good market prices (Chishimba, 1996).

Beverages are widely used across the country and good records on their use exist. Some beverages can get a good market price, such as beer made from roots of Rhynchosia spp. Other fruits, which are used commercially for processing into beer and wine, are Sclerocarya birrea and Zizyphus mucronata (Birgham, Chihongo and Chidumayo, 1996).

Edible roots are used as food and drinks (see above) and are also sold on the market at a good price. The rate of extraction of roots for food and drinks has increased in this decade when Zambia has experienced severe food shortages due to heavy rains and/or droughts.

Rhynchosia spp. and Satyria siva are widely used and sold so that they have now become goods of nation-wide importance as a source of income and food security to many Zambians. The roots of Rhynchosia insignis are used in the brewing of a sweet beer known as munkoyo (Njovu, 1993). Other important edible roots consumed during drought periods include Colocasia edulis and Dolichos elipticus.

The trade in products such as Rhynchosia and Satyria siva roots can be very lucrative. On the copperbelt, about 150-200 g of Satyria siva can fetch as much as US$0.1 (Chishimba, 1996). In the Luapula Province, 300 g of Satyria siva can cost up to US$0.22. A small bundle of Rhynchosia roots, weighing 200 g, costs US$0.1 on the copperbelt. As a result of the intensive trade in Rhynchosia spp. and Satyria siva, both species are under serious threat of extinction (Chishimba, 1996).

Mushrooms have a well-established market both locally, in urban markets and internationally. Harvesting of mushrooms has little impact on the resource base. Deforestation, on the other hand, negatively affects mushroom productivity of species that live symbiotically with trees.

Fruits such as Uapaca kirkiana, Parinari curatellifolia and Strychnos sp. are very important as a food security commodity for both rural and urban households while, at the same time, providing extra income through sales that are conducted almost throughout the year. Zambia is endowed with many fruit trees, both exotic and indigenous, which are used as food. Some fruits are also crushed to make juices, drinks and jams.

There is a vast variety of fruits that are consumed in many rural and some urban settings. In the past fruits were not offered for sale because they were very abundant and, therefore, could not fetch a good price. However, most fruits are becoming significant trade commodities as many species are getting scarce at the local level due to deforestation, brought about by the demand for wood fuel, and to agricultural expansion. Therefore, a future upward trend is likely in the sale of many fruits (both exotic and indigenous) as the population rises and alternative income sources become limited.

Fruit trees of national importance are reserved under the Forest Law. These include Strychnos cocculoides, Strychnos spinosa, Uapaca kirkiana, Anisophyllea spp. and Vangueriopsis lancifolia. These can only be cut under licence although in practice this has proved to be very difficult to enforce due to inadequate resources of the implementing Government agency (Forestry Department).

Edible seeds and nuts are important at the national level because of the wider coverage of tree species from which they are obtained. Even though most are not offered for sale, seeds such as those for Adansonia digitata and Cajanus cajan have found a niche in the trade market especially in drought prone areas. Others are mainly used as household food security commodities. Many of the tree species giving edible seeds and nuts are also browsed by livestock.

Edible oils are used widely on the national scale although production is very low due to lack of appropriate processing facilities. The possibilities of extracting these with a high recovery rate and higher quality standard in order to compete with conventional (cooking) oils are not known.

Medicines

Medicinal plants in Zambia are used regularly in rural, as well as in urban, centres. The inability to reach modern health facilities strengthens the utilization of medicinal plants. Traditional medicine in Zambia is recognized and supported through the Traditional Healers Practitioners Association (Banda, undated). Many plant species are also found on urban markets. A study in Lusaka has shown that in urban centres traditional medicine is widely practised (Cunningham, 1997).

The results of a recent survey indicated that 70 percent of the respondents had used traditional medicines and that trade in traditional medicine is worth over US$43 million per year (Nswana, 1996). Nswana (1996) has listed 78 plant species of medicinal value. Excessive removal of roots and/or bark from medicinal trees and shrubs may cause mortality either directly or through subsequent pathogenic infections. And as a consequence of deforestation and population growth, valuable medicinal species are now often collected from very distant places because they have become scarce in the immediate vicinity (Nswana, 1996).

At least one medicinal plant, Pterocarpus angolensis, is exported from Zambia. Supply of this herbal medicine to traditional healers is affected by competing uses such as timber logging (Cunningham, 1997). Other medicinal plants, which are over-exploited locally, are Eulophia petersiana and Selaginella imbricata (Cunningham, 1993).

Dyeing and tanning

Colourants are used widely throughout Zambia and there is large knowledge on tree species for such NWFP. They have always found good markets both at the national and international level even though adequate documentation on such trade is not available.

Good documentation on tannins was available in the past, which shows that they are used both at the local and national levels. However, information on their use by specific end products is not available. Lack of adequate information on specific use and market outlets has prevented this field to emerge fully.

Utensils, handicrafts and construction materials

Basketry is the most important activity in the small-scale industry sector. Of the total number of forest-based enterprises in Zambia, 60.3 percent manufacture baskets, mats or hats (Chipeta, 1993).

The most commonly used raw material for basketry is natural stands of bamboo (Oxytenanthera abyssinica). After harvesting, the fresh canes are transported close to the selling points, where baskets are manufactured (Njovu, 1993; Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, 1997a). Basketry and mat making is especially done in western Zambia on a semi-commercial scale. The market is local with very few exports (Mtongo, 1992).

Reeds are widely used for basketry, mat making and thatching wherever rivers with reeds occur, but information on this utilization is not well documented. Reeds generate good trade and markets. Recently, cross-border trade has been noted even though actual destinations still have to be verified.

Fibres have been used since time immemorial for rope and/or string making. Ropes are employed in hut construction, tying of bundles and for basketry in the case of Agave sisalana. The resource base is plentiful; however, in most cases fibre extraction, if not properly done, leads to the death of trees.

Rattan products have been widely used for thatching, mat making and basketry in areas where they are available. Other products are sold at almost all tourist centres and in major towns.

ANIMALS AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS

Wildlife is an important source of proteins. Bushmeat (US$3-4.5 per kg), reptiles and/or birds (US$4.5 per kg), bird eggs, insects (such as caterpillars termites and grasshoppers) and honey are the most important edible animals and animal products. Honey is gathered from natural and artificial beehives for food or beer brewing and sale.

Non-edible products include hides and skins, bones, horns and tusks, feathers, furs and live animals.

Under the National Parks and Wildlife Law, 25 mammal, 36 bird and 4 reptile species are protected and can only be hunted under licence. However, this list excludes the African wild dog, all rodents, bats, shrews and invertebrates, some of which are classified as endangered (Chidumayo and Marjokorpi, 1997).

Honey and beeswax

Honey and beeswax are among the most important Zambian NWFP. In 1992, a production of 90 000 kg of honey (worth US$172 000) and 29 000 kg of beeswax (worth US$74 000) was recorded in official statistics (Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, 1997c; Njovu, 1993). Honey production varies considerably from year to year.

Table 1. Honey production in Zambia

Sources: * Ministry of Environment and Development (1997c);

** Njovu (1993)

It is estimated that only 25 percent of beeswax production and 50 percent of honey production are recorded in official statistics (Njovu, 1993). The Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources (1997b) estimates that annual national production of honey exceeds 1 500 t.

In Zambia honey and beeswax production depends entirely on natural forests. Beekeeping is possible in any wooded area with more than 1 000 mm precipitation. The main tree species are Marquesia macroura, M. acuminata, Syyzygium sp., Parinarin sp. Brachystegia sp. and Julbernardia sp. Their flowers are a major source of nectar while their bark is used for constructing the hives. Construction of hives and honey harvesting (twice a year after flowering) are done by men, transport and processing by women. Honey is traded either semi-processed or unprocessed. Both Government and private agencies are involved in honey trade. Most of the honey is used within the country as food and for brewing beer. Beeswax is also used locally in the pharmaceutical industry; for food preparation; and for polish, candle and batik making.

Beekeeping is best developed in the north-western province, where some 6.000 beekeepers with about 500 000 hives produce over 600 t of honey and 100 t of wax. Less than 100 t of honey are sold commercially, the rest is used locally in beer production (Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources 1997b). In this region, barkstripping of trees in order to make hives is the only negative impact of beekeeping. However, the impact of these practices on the tree resources is lower than that of logging, shifting cultivation or charcoal production (Njovu, 1993).

Outside the western and north-western provinces, honey hunting is the normal method of honey production. Hunters find hives and usually destroy the colony and the tree by burning. Many of the destructive forest fires are started by these hunters. As a result production is thought to be declining (Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, 1997b).

Other edible animal products

Insects such as caterpillars, termites and grasshoppers are major sources of income and proteins for many rural households probably because harvesting or collection of such animals does not require any form of licence. Large quantities of caterpillars are collected from miombo woodlands (Chidumayo and Marjokorpi, 1997). According to a market survey carried out in 1998/99, 1 kg of caterpillars, termites and grasshoppers is worth US$1.5 (Mulombwa, 1999).

REFERENCES

African Forestry and Wildlife Commission.1992. National progress report on forestry in Zambia. Ndola.

Arnold, J.E.M. 1995. Socio-economic benefits and issues in NWFP use. In FAO, ed. Report of the international expert consultation on NWFP. FAO Non-Wood Forest Products Series No. 3. Rome.

Banda, A.C. Undated. Women participation in forestry development. Paper presented at the national conference on Zambia Forestry Action Plan. Kitwe.

Birgham, T., Chihongo, A. & Chidumayo, E. 1996. Trade in woodland products from the miombo region. In B. Campbell, ed. The miombo in transition: Woodlands and welfare in Africa. Bogor, CIFOR.

Campbell, B., ed. 1996. The miombo in transition: Woodlands and welfare in Africa. Bogor, CIFOR. Chapunda, E.S. 1993. Zambia Forest Action Plan: Draft provincial issues paper - Central Province. Lusaka, Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources.

Chidumayo, E.N & Marjokorpi, A. 1997. Biodiversity management in the provincial forestry action programme area.

Chilufya, H. & Tengnas, B. 1996. Agroforestry extension manual for northern Zambia.

Chipeta, M.E. 1993. Making NWFP programmes succeed. Lessons from small-scale forest-based enterprises. In FAO, ed. Report of the international expert consultation on NWFP. FAO Non-Wood Forest Products Series No. 3. Rome.

Chishimba, W.K. 1996. In-depth study of consumption and trade in selected edible vegetal non-wood forest products in Central, Copperbelt and Luapula Provinces.

Chulumanda, N.C. 1992. Forest Action Plan issues paper: Northern Province discussion paper. Lusaka, Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources.

Clarke, J., Cavendish, W. & Coote, C. 1996. Rural households and miombo woodlands: Use, value and management. In B. Campbell, ed. The miombo in transition: Woodlands and welfare in Africa. Bogor, CIFOR.

Clay, J.W. 1995. An overview of harvesting, forest processing and transport of NWFP. In FAO, ed. Report of the international expert consultation on NWFP. FAO Non-Wood Forest Products Series No. 3. Rome.

Cunningham, A.B. 1993. African medicinal plants: Setting priorities at the interface between conservation and primary healthcare. People and Plants Working Paper 1. Paris, Unesco.

Cunningham, A.B. 1996. Saturniid subsidy: Cash and protein from edible caterpillars of Zambians woodlands. In B. Campbell, ed. The miombo in transition: Woodlands and welfare in Africa. Bogor, CIFOR.

Cunningham, A.B. 1997. An Africa-wide overview of medicinal plant harvesting, conservation and health care. In Global Initiative for Traditional Systems of Health & FAO, eds. Medicinal plants for forest conservation and health care. FAO Non-Wood Forest Products Series No. 11. Rome.

Falconer, J. 1990. "Hungry season" food from the forest. In Unasylva 41(160): 14-19.

FAO. 1997. Wildlife and food security in Africa, by Y. Ntiamoa-Baidu. FAO Conservation Guide No. 33. Rome.

FAO. 1999. A report for the data collection and analysis for sustainable forest management in ACP countries. Linking national and international efforts, by J. Mulombwa. EC-FAO Partnership Programme, Project GCP/INT/679/EC. Rome.

Forest Department. Undated. An introduction to frame hive beekeeping in Zambia.

Kapungwe, E. 1996. Management and utilization of wildlife resources in forest areas in Central, Copperbelt and Luapula Provinces, Zambia.

Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources. 1995. Forestry Action Programme: Issues paper (Revised draft). Lusaka

Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources. 1997a. Zambia Forestry Action Plan. Volume I -Executive summary. Lusaka

Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources. 1997b. Zambia Forestry Action Plan. Volume II - Challenges and opportunities for Development. Lusaka

Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources. 1997c. Zambia Forestry Action Plan. Volume III - Strategies and actions. Lusaka

Mtongo, S.C. 1992. Zambian Forest Action Plan: Western province paper. Senenga

Mtongo, S.C. 1993. Zambia Forest Action Plan: Western Province paper. Senanga

Mulofwa, J., Simute, S. & Tengnas, B. 1994. Agroforestry manual for extension workers in Southern Province, Zambia.

Njovu, F.C. 1993a. Non-wood forest products Zambia. A country pilot study for the expert consultation for English speaking African countries. In Commonwealth Science Council & FAO, eds. Non-wood forest products: A regional expert consultation for English-speaking African countries. 17-22 October 1993, Arusha, Tanzania.

Njovu, F.C. 1993b. Zambia Forest Action Plan: Draft issues paper for North-western Province. Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources. Forest Department. Solwezi

Nkomeshya, A. 1996. Baseline socio-economic study, Central Province.

Nkomeshya, A. 1996. Baseline socio-economic study, Luapula Province.

Nkomeshya, A. 1997. Baseline socio-economic study of smal-holder communities in and around open forest areas and forest reserves in the Copperbelt Province.

Nswana, A. 1996. Preliminary study on cosmetic and traditional medicine in Central, Copperbelt and Luapula Provinces.

Piearce, G.D. Undated. An introduction to Zambia's wild mushrooms and how to use them.

Roper, J. 1997. Role of non governmental organizations in forestry development. Zambia Forestry Action Programme (Draft)

Simute, S. 1992. Agroforestry manual for extension workers with emphasis on small-scale farmers in Eastern Province, Zambia.

Storrs, A. E.G. 1982. More about trees. A sequel to know your trees.

Storrs, A.E.G. 1995 (reprint). Know your trees. Some of the common trees found in Zambia.

Wildlife Conservation Society of Zambia. 1991. A guide to common wild mammals of Zambia.

Wildlife Conservation Society of Zambia. 1993. A guide to reptiles, amphibians and fishes of Zambia.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This report has been realized thanks to the funding of the EC-FAO Partnership Programme "Data Collection and Analysis for Sustainable Forest Management in ACP Countries". The content is mainly based on available information at FAO Headquarters in Rome, as well as on information provided by Mr John Mulombwa, Zambian Forestry Department.

Additional information on NWFP in Zambia would be appreciated and duly acknowledged.

ANNEX 1. FOREST SERVICES

Forest services include intangible indirect benefits such as game viewing, ornamental and/or amenity tree planting, watershed/catchment protection and management, grazing and improvement of weather and climatic conditions. Other services include trees used for shade, live fences and windbreaks, soil conservation and improvement.

Game viewing

The non-consumptive utilization aspect of game in the many national parks is exclusively achieved through tourism. The South Luangwa and Kafue National Parks are well stocked with game and attract many international tourists, while the Kasanka and Blue Lagoon National Parks also have a potential (Kapungwe, 1996). Tourism in the form of photographic safaris and game viewing has a high potential of bringing benefits to the country through foreign currency earning. For example, in 1996 park entry fees into the South Luangwa National Park totalled US$176 923 (Kapungwe, 1996).

Hunting

Forests are the major habitat for wildlife, which attracts most of Zambia's tourists (Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, 1997a). "In 1987, the total revenue derived from safari hunting, hippo utilization and other related activities (in the Lower Lupande Game Management Area, Luangwa valley) amounted to US$48 620, out of which US$4 596 (9%) went to local communities projects. The benefits to the local communities increased to almost 40 percent in 1988/89. Out of the total revenue of US$240 000 earned in that period, US$96 000 (40%) was allocated for local development." (FAO, 1997).

Through the various forms of hunting licences, the Government raises large amounts of money, some of which is pumped back into the management of national parks. Licence fees for various animals range from $0.5 for a baboon to US$391 for sable/roan antelopes, respectively. Statistics from two GMAs show that a total of US$152 470 was raised from licence fees during the period 01/01/96 to 23/09/96 (Kapungwe, 1996).

Grazing

Forests provide many pastures to both domestic and wild animals. Pastures are present in natural forests and/or woodlands, around homesteads in agricultural fields and other individually and/or communally owned forest areas. Grazing is offered in terms of grass biomass production and browse.

QUANTITATIVE DATA ON NWFP OF ZAMBIA

Importance: 1- high importance on the national level; 2 - high importance on the local/regional level; 3 - low importance
Part used: an - entire animal; ba - bark; bw - beeswax; le - leaves; nu - nuts; fi - fibres; fl - flowers; fr - fruits; gu - gums; ho - honey;
la - latex; oi - oil; pl - entire plant; re - resins; ro - roots; sa - sap; se - seeds; st - stem; ta - tannins
Habitat: F - natural forest or other wooded lands; P - plantation; O - others: trees outside forests (e.g. agroforestry, homegardens)
Source: W - wild, C - cultivated
Destination: N - national; I - international

3.4.10 Zimbabwe (E)

INTRODUCTION

Main Non-Wood Forest Products

Animal products, such as bushmeat and insects, are the most important non-wood forest products (NWFP). Important vegetal NWFP are fodder, medicinal plants and edible fruits.

Other NWFP, on which documentation exists, are gum arabic, resins, and mushrooms.

PLANTS AND PLANT PRODUCTS

Food

In total, there are more than 45 edible species from miombo woodlands Wild fruits are among the most important edible resources. They are mainly harvested from communal lands and consumed as snacks when cultivated food supplies dwindle and requirements for agricultural labour are at their lowest. Diospyros mespiliformis, Strychnos cocculoides and Azanza garckeana are the three most popular species. In the most severely deforested areas, residents have selectively maintained their favourite wild fruit species by incorporating them into their farming system (Falconer, 1990). For example, during the dry season after the 1981/82 drought, the fruits from Grewia flavescens represented nearly 25 percent of total food items in a remote communal area in northern Zimbabwe (Clarke, Cavendish and Coote, 1996; Birgham, Chihongo and Chidumayo, 1996).

Fodder

The most important fodder species used in Zimbabwe are shown in the table below.

Table 1. Important fodder species from southern Zimbabwe

Source: Clarke, Cavendish and Coote, 1996

Medicines

Around 10 percent of the country's flora is used by traditional healers (Birgham, Chihongo and Chidumayo, 1996). The ratio of traditional healers to total population is 1:234 in urban areas while in rural areas it is 1:956 (Cunningham, 1997).

One of the most important medicinal plants is Walburgia salutaris. Due to high demand and limited distribution (Mhangura Forest, Eastern Highlands) it has become expensive and endangered (Cunningham, 1997). Other medicinal plants in national trade, with limited distribution to the Eastern Highlands, are Spirostachys africana, Erythrophleum suaveolns and Phyllanthus engler (Cunningham, 1993).

ANIMALS AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS

More than half of the forest land is managed for wildlife. Wildlife production in Zimbabwe is dominated (76 percent of national production) by the large-scale sector, only 14 percent is produced by the small-scale sector. Wildlife producers in the large-scale sector include individual farmers, large companies, the Forestry Commission and the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management (Campbell and Birgham, 1993).

Production of other wildlife products such as skins, meat and horns amounted to $Z1 million in 1991/1992 (Muir, 1996).

Bushmeat

On small-scale farming areas there is an extensive use of bushmeat (e.g. rodents, rabbits) for household food security. Most of the meat that is generated is sold locally at prices significantly lower than beef prices (Muir, Bojö and Cunliffe, 1996). Contrary to what happens in West Africa, bushmeat is not sold on the local markets, partly because trade in most species is illegal. However, in the informal small-scale sector, mammals, birds and rodents (especially mice and Quelea quelea) are traded (Campbell and Birgham, 1993; Birgham, Chihongo and Chidumayo, 1996).

The consumption of larger mammals is almost exclusively confined to isolated communities with high wildlife and low human population. "Assuming that there are some 25 000 households living in such areas, a rough estimate of the value to the nation of large mammal bushmeat is some Z$4 million per annum" (Muir, Bojö and Cunliffe, 1996).

Other edible animal products

Insects (termites, caterpillars) are collected and eaten by almost all households seasonally and in low amounts. Fourteen species of edible caterpillars were consumed in the past, but availability is reported to have diminished. Termites are considered food for the poor and the elderly (Clarke, Cavendish and Coote, 1996).

REFERENCES

Birgham, T., Chihongo, A. & Chidumayo, E. 1996. Trade in woodland products from the miombo region. In B. Campbell, ed. The miombo in transition: Woodlands and welfare in Africa. Bogor, CIFOR.

Campbell, B. &. Brigham, T. 1993. NWFP in Zimbabwe. In Commonwealth Science Council & FAO, eds. Non-wood forest products: A regional expert consultation for English-speaking African countries, 17-22 October 1993, Arusha, Tanzania.

Chikamai, B. 1997. Production, markets and quality control of gum arabic in Africa: Findings and recommendations from an FAO Project. In J.O. Mugah, B.N. Chikamai & E. Casadei, eds. Conservation, management and utilization of plant gums, resins and essential oils. Proceedings of a regional conference for Africa held in Nairobi, Kenya, 6-10 October 1997.

Clarke, J., Cavendish, W. & Coote, C. 1996. Rural households and miombo woodlands: Use, value and management. In B. Campbell, ed. The miombo in transition: Woodlands and welfare in Africa. Bogor, CIFOR.

Coppen, J.J.W. & Hone, G.A. 1995. Gum naval stores: Turpine and rosin from pine resin. Natural Resources Institute & FAO, eds. FAO Non-Wood Forest Product Series No. 2. Rome.

Cunningham, A.B. 1993. African medicinal plants: Setting priorities at the interface between conservation and primary health care. People and Plants Working Paper 1. Paris, Unesco.

Cunningham, A.B. 1997. An Africa-wide overview of medicinal plant harvesting, conservation and health care. In Global Initiative for Traditional Systems of Health & FAO, eds. Medicinal plants for forest conservation and health care. FAO Non-Wood Forest Products Series No. 11. Rome.

Falconer, J. 1990. "Hungry season" food from the forest. In Unasylva 41(160): 14-19.

Muir, K., J. Bojö, J. & Cunliffe, R. 1996. Economic policy, wildlife, and land use in Zimbabwe. In J. Bojö, ed. The economics of wildlife: Case studies from Ghana, Kenya, Namibia, and Zimbabwe. AFTES Working Paper No. 19. Washington, The World Bank.

Nour, H.O.A. 1995. Quality control of gum arabic. Mission report. Karthoum

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This report has been realized thanks to the funding of the EC-FAO Partnership Programme "Data Collection and Analysis for Sustainable Forest Management in ACP Countries". The content is based on available information at FAO Headquarters in Rome.

Additional information on NWFP in Zimbabwe would be appreciated and duly acknowledged.

ANNEX 1. FOREST SERVICES

The economic uses of forest lands include eco-tourism, based on wildlife viewing, and this forest service has a great potential for expansion. The tourist industry is considered to be the third highest generator of foreign currency after mining and agriculture (especially tobacco and cotton) (Campbell and Birgham, 1993). In 1990/91 tourism earned about Z$731 million. equivalent to 2-5 percent of GDP and 20 percent of total export earnings (Muir, Bojö and Cunliffe, 1996).

Among the large-scale wildlife industries, at the moment hunting is probably the most lucrative forest service, as it requires less infrastructural development than other services. Hunting, together with safari and wildlife management, contributes Z$88 million to the national economy (Muir, Bojö and Cunliffe, 1996).

QUANTITATIVE DATA ON NWFP OF ZIMBABWE

Importance: 1- high importance on the national level; 2 - high importance on the local/regional level; 3 - low importance
Part used: an - entire animal; ba - bark; bw - beeswax; le - leaves; nu - nuts; fi - fibres; fl - flowers; fr - fruits; gu - gums; ho - honey;
la - latex; oi - oil; pl - entire plant; re - resins; ro - roots; sa - sap; se - seeds; st - stem; ta - tannins
Habitat: F - natural forest or other wooded lands; P - plantation; O - others: trees outside forests (e.g. agroforestry, homegardens)
Source: W - wild, C - cultivated
Destination: N - national; I - international

44 N$10 = US$1.83 (mean rate of exchange in 1998).