Sturgeons (Acipenseriformes)

Acknowledgements

Individuals:

Fabio Carocci, FAO
Christiane Lagrange, FAO
Véronique Levavasseur, FAO
Alexander Yakimushkin, Deputy Observer of the Russian Federation to FAO

Institutions:

Ornamental Aquatic Trade Association (OATA)
Shilat (Islamic Republic of Iran)
State Committee for Fisheries of the Russian Federation

Companies:

Agroittica Lombarda SpA (Italy)
Chanco Co. (Islamic Republic of Iran)
TIC HU (Czech Republic and Azerbaijan)

Introduction

The order Acipenseriformesbelongs to the Actinopterygii class (ray-finned fishes) and encompasses two families: Acipenseridae (sturgeons) and Polyodontidae(paddlefishes). The Acipenseridae family encompasses 25 species split among 4 different genera:

- 17 Acipenser
- 2 Huso
- 3 Scaphirhyncus
- 3 Pseudoscaphihryncus.

The Polyodontidaefamily encompasses two genera (Polyodon and Psephurus), each consisting of only one species (Josupeit 1994; Fishbase 2003; United Nations Environment Programme, UNEP-World Conservation Monitoring Centre WCMC data).

The sturgeon is one of the most ancient and valuable fish in the world, its first fossil record dating back to the upper Cretaceous^[10] (Fishbase 2003). The sturgeon usually lives in freshwater, coastal waters and inner seas throughout Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, China, the Islamic Republic of Iran (hereinafter: Iran), Kazakhstan, Romania, the Russian Federation (hereinafter: Russia), Turkmenistan, Turkey, Ukraine, other European countries and North America. The sturgeon industry is extremely important for many of these countries in terms of income generation and employment opportunities.

The main processed product from the sturgeon fishery is the unfertilised sturgeon roe, caviar, a gourmet delicacy. The other important processed product is its meat, which may be sold smoked, frozen or marinated. Small quantities of caviar are used as ingredients in cosmetic products, such as facial creams (CITES 2000c). The swim bladders are dried, and then used to produce isinglass which is used to clarify wine and beer. Finally, live specimens, mainly of sterlet Acipenser ruthenus,are used for ornamental purposes (OATA, Pers. Comm.) and some companies have started marketing handicraft made of sturgeon leather (Chanco Co., Pers. Comm.).

The main producers of caviar on a world-wide level are four states bordering the Caspian Sea: Azerbaijan, Iran, Kazakhstan and Russia. The fifth Caspian State, Turkmenistan, is not a producer country; however Russia and Kazakhstan allocate to it a portion of their yearly sturgeon catch and export quotas^[11].

The status of sturgeon resources in the Caspian Sea became particularly worrying after the break-up of the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics (hereinafter: the Soviet Union). As existing state management and control systems struggled to adjust to the changes, increased illegal fishing and trade added further pressures to a resource already being threatened by overexploitation and habitat degradation.

According to FAO Fishstat + figures (see Figure 2), world catches of Acipenseriformesreached 21 265 MT in 1970 and peaked to 32 078 MT in 1977. In the following years they dropped from 29 076 MT in 1980 to 18 192 MT in 1990. From 1990 onwards catches have dropped constantly to reach 5 906 MT in 1995 and 2 658 MT in 2000. During this period catches of sturgeons from the Caspian States (including the former Soviet Union) experienced the following fluctuations: from 20 200 MT in 1970 to the highest peak of 30 959 MT in 1977 then down to 1 989 MT in 2000.

In order to prevent further decline of sturgeon resources, the whole Acipenseriformes order was placed under the species protection system of the CITES Convention in 1997. Since then CITES has set up a global initiative on sturgeons and paddlefishes based on the implementation of both trade and management measures.

The purpose of this study is to provide an overview of the world sturgeon and caviar industry, with a geographic focus on producing and exporting countries around the Caspian Sea.

Figure 1: The Caspian Sea, traditional home of sturgeons.

(Copyright: National Geographics)

Figure 2: The declining patterns of world Acipenseriformes landings and landings of Caspian Sea States, 1970-2000.

Table 1: Acipenseriformes (adapted from UNEP-WCMC data and Fishbase 2003).

Legend:

- ex= extinct

- int= introduced

- x= crossing of different species (ex. Acipenser baerii x gueldenstaedtii)

-?= outstanding query over status

- Country abbreviations: Iran (the Islamic Republic of Iran), Moldova (the Republic of Moldova), Russia (the Russian Federation), UK (the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland), USA (the United States of America).

Sturgeons and caviar

Background information on sturgeon

The paper will focus its analysis on the Acipenser species combining commercial relevance with economic/social importance and endangered conservation status.

Russian sturgeon (Acipenser gueldenstaedtii) and Persian sturgeon (Acipenser persicus)

The Russian sturgeon and the Persian sturgeon are very similar from a morphological point of view, the species being mostly differentiated on the basis of immuno-biochemical characteristics. Both species are being used for the production of the variety of caviar called Osetra(CITES 2000b).

A. gueldenstaedtii reaches some 2 m length and can weigh 65 to 115 kg, with an average life expectancy of 38 years (CITES 2000b). Russian sturgeon inhabits temperate freshwater, brackish and marine waters, namely the basins of the Black Sea, the Sea of Azov and the Caspian Sea (Fishbase 2003). The female spawns in the tributaries of these seas, however the construction of dams has disrupted the spawning habitats of most rivers, with some isolated exceptions such as the Ural River (CITES 2000b). The spawning period occurs from May to June. Currently, the fish is propagated through artificial insemination in hatcheries. The Russian sturgeon mostly feeds on molluscs, crustaceans and some small fish such as anchovies, sprats and gobies (Fishbase 2003).

A. persicus has been considered a synonym of A. gueldenstaedtii for a long time. Their form is very similar and their stocks coincide in some basins, such as the southern Caspian Sea. On several occasions, catch statistics and quotas for both species have been combined. However, in 2001 Iran started to separate its export quotas for these species. Persian sturgeon stocks occur in the Black Sea and in the Caspian Sea. The species is distributed throughout the Caspian Sea, but it mostly feeds and spends the winter in the southern areas of the basin. The spawning population also concentrates in the southern Caspian and ascends the rivers Kura, Sulak and Samur. No detailed information is available on A. persicus in the Black Sea (CITES 2002a).

Processed products from Russian and Persian sturgeon, such as caviar and meat, are mainly destined for international markets. Historically, Osetra caviar always provided a significant portion of global caviar production (CITES 2000b). In 1998, exports of Osetra caviar reached 95.3 MT, with Russia and Iran being the main exporters. (CITES 2000b). Osetra caviar grade one encompasses three varieties: royal caviar, the rarest, with a typical golden colour; colour A: grey gold, and colour B: dark grey. Grade two has smaller grains and a medium grey colour (US Customs Service 1997). Osetra caviar has a fruit-like, nutty flavour (Poseidon Fish Corporation 2002). Other processed products from Russian and Persian sturgeon include meat, fish glue and isinglass, the latter derived from the swim bladders which are exported from countries such as Iran and processed abroad (CITES 2000b).

The construction of dams affecting spawning sites, high levels of pollution and overfishing, including poaching, have been the main factors generating the decline of most sturgeon species, especially A. gueldenstaedtii (CITES 2000b). Catches of this speciesin the Caspian Sea dropped from 21 550 MT in 1977 to less than 1 000 MT in 1999 (CITES 2002a). On the other hand catch data for A. persicus show that this species did not follow the same declining trend. While catches of A. gueldenstaedtii, A. stellatus, A. nudiventris and H. huso declined seriously, catches of A. persicus peaked in 1991, declined until 1995 to rise again and fluctuate around an annual average of 475 MT. The reason may be the success of the restocking programme undertaken by Iranian hatcheries since 1992^[12] (CITES 2002a).

A. gueldenstaedtii is listed in Appendix II of the CITES Convention and its Caspian Sea stock is under the Review of Significant Trade. Furthermore, it is classified as “endangered” in the Red List of the World Conservation Union (IUCN) Species Survival Commission (SSC). A. persicus is listed in Appendix II of the CITES Convention. More recently, it has been included in the progress report on the Review of Significant Trade for 2002 by the CITES Animals Committee (CITES 2002a). In the IUCN Red List of Protected Species, the Caspian Sea stock is classified as “vulnerable”, while the Black Sea stock is classified as “endangered” (IUCN SSC 2000).

Starry sturgeon (Acipenser stellatus)

The starry, or stellate sturgeon reaches some 2 m length and a maximum weight of 80 kg. It may reach the age of 28 years. A. stellatus swims in temperate freshwater, brackish and marine waters. It feeds on fish, molluscs, crustaceans and worms (Fishbase 2003). It mainly inhabits the basins of the Black and Caspian Sea, and of the Sea of Azov (Fishbase 2003). The biggest population occurs in the Volga-Caspian region. There are two different spawning cycles for this species. Some fish spawn in the winter and some in spring (CITES 2000b).

The main processed products from starry sturgeon are the sevruga caviar and its meat, which is sold fresh and frozen, and eaten pan-fried, broiled and baked (Fishbase 2003). Sevruga caviar grade one is dark to light grey in colour, grade two is dark grey with smaller grains (US Customs Service 1997). It has the boldest flavour of the three types (Poseidon Fish Corporation 2002). Sevruga caviar has the largest market share of all internationally traded sturgeon products (CITES 2000b).

A. stellatus has also been threatened by the reduction of spawning habitats due to the construction of dams, overfishing (including poaching) and environmental pollution, thus the resource has experienced a significant decline. Catches in the northern Caspian Sea dropped from 4 600 MT in 1990 to some 1 600 MT in 1994 (CITES 2000b).

A. stellatus is listed in Appendix II of the CITES Convention and its Caspian Sea stock is subject to the Review of Significant Trade. It is listed as a “protected” species in Appendix III of the Convention on the conservation of European wildlife and natural habitats, also called the Bern Convention (Council of Europe 1979). It is also classified as “endangered” by the IUCN Red List (IUCN SSC 2000).

Beluga (Huso huso)

Reaching 5 m length and more than 2 MT in weight, this impressive animal is the largest sturgeon and the largest European freshwater fish. Beluga swims in temperate freshwater, brackish and marine waters. It mainly inhabits the basins of the Black and Caspian Seas and the Sea of Azov^[13]. It uses the tributaries of these seas, in particular the Volga, as spawning habitats. Beluga mostly feeds on fishes, crustaceans and molluscs. It is a long-lived species; in fact it may reach the age of 100 years (Fishbase 2003).

The main products obtained from beluga are caviar and, to a lesser extent, meat and skin. Beluga caviar is light to dark grey in colour. As a general rule the larger the grains and the lighter the colour the more valued this caviar will be. Grade one Beluga has large grains, the following categories applying: 000, light grey (the most expensive), 00, medium grey, 0, dark grey. Grade two Beluga has smaller grains, its colour ranging from light to medium grey (US Customs Service 1997). From centenary belugas come Almas (Persian name for diamond), white in appearance, the world’s rarest and most expensive caviar, reaching some US$24 000/kg (inVogue 2002). Beluga caviar tastes more “like the sea” with a buttery aftertaste (Poseidon Fish Corporation 2002). Beluga meat is sold fresh, smoked and frozen; it may be served baked, boiled, broiled or fried.

Beluga is a threatened fish resource, mainly as a result of:

- overfishing, including poaching, which has, historically, been more intensive than for other sturgeon species due to the particularly high value of Beluga caviar;

- loss of spawning habitats due to the construction of dams;

- disruption of egg production, and of food availability due to pollution;

- its very low resilience to environmental change and overfishing thus amplifying the above threats.

According to CITES data, the catch of beluga in the northern Caspian Sea dropped from approximately 2 800 MT in 1970 to less than 300 MT in 1994 (CITES 2000b). In the middle Danube River, catches were reported to be an average of 23 MT per year from 1972 to 1976, dropping to an average of 7.5 MT per year over the period 1985-89, following the construction of the Djerdap dams I and II. Landings from the lower Danube River in Romania and Bulgaria, in turn dropped from 62.1 MT in 1997 to 42.7 MT in 1999. In the Caspian Sea, 90 percent of the spawning grounds have been lost and currently more than 90 percent of H. huso originates from hatcheries (CITES 2000b).

There are several international initiatives aimed at the recuperation of this valuable resource. H. huso is listed in Appendix II of the CITES Convention. Within the CITES regime, the beluga stocks in the Caspian Sea are among the resources under the Review of Significant Trade process. In addition, H. huso is listed as a “protected” species in Appendix III of the Bern Convention (Council of Europe 1979). It is also classified as “endangered” by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (IUCN SSC 2000).

Other significant Acipenseriformes

Fringebarbel or ship sturgeon Acipenser nudiventris mainly inhabits the Caspian and the Black Sea. It is listed in Appendix II of the CITES Convention and its Caspian Sea stock is subject to the Review of Significant Trade. Its products, such as caviar, are still traded commercially, but A. nudiventris is a highly endangered species, already extinct in the Aral Sea and critically endangered in the Danube River (IUCN SSC 2000).

Sterlet Acipenser ruthenus is the smallest sturgeon species, reaching 1 m length and 6.5 kg weight. It is a freshwater species inhabiting the rivers flowing into the Caspian, Black, Baltic, White, Barents, Kara seas and the Sea of Azov. The commercial relevance of A. ruthenus is related to international trade in its meat and in live juveniles for ornamental purposes (CITES 2000b).

River Amur sturgeon Acipenser schrencki and kaluga Huso dauricus are both endemic to the Amur River. In China, the whole production of caviar from sturgeon harvested in the wild, for both domestic consumption and export, comes from these species (CITES 2000b).

Shovelnose or hackleback sturgeon Scaphirhynchus platorynchus is a North American species, native to the Mississippi-Missouri system. Historically, this fishery has been of major importance for the area. Today, stocks have undergone severe reductions due to habitat degradation. Currently, reproduction takes place in hatcheries in North America, using wild brood stocks (Hochleithner and Gessner 2001). The shovelnose sturgeon gives an appreciated caviar variety.

White sturgeon Acipenser transmontanus is one of the most important sturgeon species in the American continent. It inhabits the whole Pacific Coast. Currently, its capture is prohibited in Canada and strictly regulated in the United States, with zero quotas allowed for the export of caviar from wild origin. Main marketed products are meat and caviar, both from farmed fish (Josupeit 1994; CITES 2002a). Caviar from white sturgeon resembles Osetra, in flavour and appearance (Harlow 2001). A. baerii is another sturgeon species bred in captivity for its meat, however consumption is limited within the European Union (EU). (CITES2000b).

American paddlefish (Polyodon spatula) is endemic to the American continent and widely distributed in the large river drainage systems of the eastern United States. Historically, overfishing and habitat degradation have been the main threats to this fish, listed under CITES Appendix II in 1992. American paddlefish is strictly managed in the United States, where only six States allow commercial catches. International trade is mainly in live specimens from aquaculture and fertilised eggs (CITES 2000b).

Nevertheless Paddlefish caviar is also traded internationally and resembles Sevruga in flavour and colour. Environmental groups in the United States are advocating the consumption of caviar from farmed American paddlefish, P. spatula, and farmed white sturgeon A. transmontanus as “environmentally friendly” alternatives to the caviar from the more threatened sturgeons from the Caspian Sea, H. huso in particular (Caviar Emptor 2002).

Figure 3: World trade in caviar, caviar substitutes and other fish roe, value 1976-2000.

The sturgeon and caviar industry

From the myth to the dissolution of the Soviet Union

The Persians were the first eaters of caviar. They called it Chav-Jar, which can be approximately translated into “Cake of Power”. They believed that caviar cured a variety of diseases and used to eat it to improve their stamina. In the Middle Ages the English called sturgeon “the Royal Fish” since King Edward II (1307-27) had decreed that any sturgeon that was caught should be given to the Feudal Lords. French caviar production was controlled by Louis XIV’s minister Jean Baptiste Colbert in the mid-17th century. Colbert placed his headquarters on the Gironde, at the time a major caviar production centre using the now critically endangered common sturgeon Acipenser sturio. In Russia, the caviar offered to the Tsars was the rarest: the small golden eggs of the sterlet Acipenser ruthenus, which have nowadays lost commercial interest (Bolourchi 1996).

Despite always being appreciated for its taste, caviar has not always been as rare or expensive as it is now. Until 1900 the United States produced about 68 MT of caviar per year. Most of this domestic caviar came from the Delaware River at Penns Grove, New Jersey. Caviar was also produced in impressive quantities in the Gironde estuary region, the North Sea, the Baltic and the Sea of Azov. In 1899 a kilogram of French caviar used to cost a mere 20 centimes. Just before World War 1, 40 centimes bought the same kilogram, putting the price of caviar just slightly higher than that of bread (Bolourchi 1996).

In Russia the caviar industry had been a state monopoly since the reign of Peter the Great in the XVII century, but by the beginning of the XX century most of the enterprises were privatised. Following the Bolshevik Revolution, the Soviet State took control of the sturgeon fishery, which was then almost entirely located in the city of Astrakhan near the northern end of the Caspian Sea. Thus, between the Bolshevik Revolution and the break-up of the Soviet Union, only two states, the Soviet Union and Iran, controlled the sturgeon fisheries in the Caspian basin and therefore more than 90 percent of world caviar production.

In the Soviet Union, the construction of hydroelectric power dams on many rivers, such as the Volga in 1959, closed off 85 percent of the sturgeon’s spawning grounds. In order to keep the sturgeon populations viable, the Soviet Ministry of Fisheries launched an intensive restocking programme along the Volga, Ural, Kura, and other Caspian tributaries. Eggs from gravid females were mixed in tanks with sperm to be fertilized. The resulting fry were then released into the Caspian to grow and mature: according to estimates, some 100 million fry have been released every year since the late 1950s (Tidwell 2001). The State company in charge of the entire caviar production chain, from catch to marketing, was CIBPO, the Caviar Caspian Balyk Industry Association (Russian Caviar 2000a). Iran’s caviar was, and still is, controlled by Shilat, the state monopoly controlling the entire fishery industry and overseeing all activities related to caviar, including domestic and international sales (Javaudi and Sagheb 1994).

An agreement between the Soviet Union and Iran dating back to 1927 was aimed at ensuring a steady supply of caviar by guaranteeing the survival of sturgeon stocks in the Caspian. They prohibited the catch of sturgeons in the open sea and restricted fishing to the rivers where sturgeons returned to spawn. In this way newly-born sturgeons and survivors managed to come back to the safety of the open sea to subsequently spawn again in the river (Leutwyler 2002). Other conservation measures launched during the sixties by the Soviet Ministry of Fisheries included the banning of trawling in the Caspian with large, bottom-damaging nets, which destroy the sturgeon’s food sources on the sea-bed, and limiting sturgeon fishing to spring and autumn (Tidwell 2001).

The importance of the Soviet Union as a sturgeon producer can be easily understood from Figure 4. Out of an average global production (catch and aquaculture) of 22 891 MT per year (1950-1987) the Soviet Union alone harvested an average of 19 857 MT over the period. Iran averaged 1 968 MT, with the United States ranking third with only 747 MT.

The strict environmental management of the Soviet regime outweighed the likely negative effects of pollution and damming from 1960 to 1977, when sturgeon production was following a constantly upward trend. In 1977 post-war sturgeon production reached its peak with world production at 32 078 MT and the Soviet Union 29 138 MT. The last record available for the Soviet Union is 20 991 MT produced in 1987: above the average of the period but considerably less than the record peak of 1977. The downward trend started at the end of the seventies. It was not contained and was dramatically aggravated in the following years (FAO Fishstat + data).

Figure 4: Total production of sturgeons by main harvesting countries, 1950-1987.

The production and export of caviar represented an important source of foreign exchange for both the Soviet Union and Iran. From 1976 to 1991 (Fishstat + data), exports of caviar generated average revenues of US$24 million for Iran and US$19 million for the Soviet Union (Figure 5). Both countries used to channel their exports through a small group of foreign partners. Before the end of the Soviet Union, the main western distributors of Soviet caviar were the French company Petrossian SA of Paris, practically holding a monopoly in Europe, and Romanov, a brand mainly distributed in the United States, and a competitor with Petrossian on the American market. Iranian caviar was mainly distributed by George Fixon Eagle’s corporation (Javhaudi and Sagheb 1994).

Figure 5: Income generated from caviar trade in main exporting countries, 1976-1991.

Overview of the modern sturgeon industry (from the dissolution of the Soviet Union to the present)

The decline of catches in the nineties

From 1988^[14] to 2000, world production of sturgeons experienced a dramatic decline. In 1988 this was 21 518 MT, of which 15 420 MT were produced by Russia (Figure 6). It fell progressively from the 15 344 MT harvested in 1991 to 9 126 MT in 1993. Even sharper was the decline for Russia, which was undergoing the hardest period of institutional transition from the old Soviet Union. Russian production fell from 9 539 MT in 1991 to 4 751 MT in 1993. As a consequence of the decline in wild catches, production of farmed sturgeon started to increase. The steady development of aquaculture helped overall production to maintain an average of 5 858 MT per year in the 1996-2000 period (Fishstat + data).

Figure 6: Total production of sturgeons by main harvesting countries, 1988-2000.

Trade figures for caviar show a decreasing trend for Iran^[15] from the US$42 million worth of caviar exports in 1992 to US$22.7 million of “caviar and caviar substitutes” in 1996. These then recovered to reach US$29.5 million in 1997 and US$37.4 million in 2000 (Figure 7). Russian exports of caviar increased from US$6.6 million in 1992 to US$19.8 million in 1995, to fall back to US$3.6 million in 1999, and rise again to US$17 million in 2000. During this period, new players emerged among western distributors of Caspian caviar to counterbalance the quasi-duopoly of Petrossian and Romanov. These included the Swiss “Caviar House”, and the US-based firms Caviarteria and Caviar Russ.

Figure 7: Income generated from caviar trade in major exporting countries, 1992-2000.

The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 led to the creation of four new states bordering the Caspian Sea: Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Russia and Turkmenistan. In the three sturgeon producing countries of Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, and Russia, large joint-stock companies^[16] took over the activities of the former CIBPO:

- in Azerbaijan, the TIC UH, producing the brand “Azerbaijan Caviar” and “Aristocrat Caviar” (TIC UH 2000);

- in Kazakhstan, the Atyraubalyk Joint Stock Company (GLOBEFISH databank);

- in Russia, the Open Joint Stock Company “Russian Caviar” (Russian Caviar 2000b).

TIC UH is a Czech company which controls the supply of Azeri caviar worldwide. The caviar is sourced from the Caspian Sea and receives the first processing in situ: within a few hours it is transported to the Czech Republic for final processing and packaging (TIC UH 2000). The Open Joint Stock Company “Russian Caviar” controls all the activities of the sturgeon and caviar industry in Russia. Its shares are divided among 576 shareholders, the majority holder being the company “Mirchal”. Russian Caviar channels its exports through US, Japanese and Slovakian partners (Russian Caviar 2000b).

The new states have been struggling to implement an effective management of sturgeon resources and to fight against caviar poaching and smuggling. According to Tayler (Tayler 2001), poachers collectively take some 8 000 MT of sturgeon per year, ten times the legally allowed catch quota for the Caspian basin in 2002^[17]. The establishment of a large and structured parallel industry (TIC HU, Pers. Comm.) has been facilitated by:

- economic hardship in the region, which turned illegal activities relating to caviar into extremely lucrative options;

- difficulties in adapting to CITES enforcement legislation;

- assistance from structured criminal orgnizations.

A representative of the Joint Stock Company TIC HU was convinced that poaching and smuggling were the real issues behind the depletion of sturgeon stocks. The large presence of these activities limits the effectiveness of catch and export quotas as conservation measures (TIC HU, Pers. Comm.). CITES and its member states are tackling these issue through collaboration with Interpol, setting up a universal labelling system for caviar (CITES 2000d) and measures such as recommendations to suspend trade in CITES-listed specimens with countries involved in illegal trade of such specimens (CITES 2001c).

However, according to the CITES Secretariat and Interpol, the data available on poaching and smuggling in the Caspian are limited and existing legislation does not facilitate enforcement. The Secretariat believes that, despite improved communication between importing and exporting countries, more needs to be done. It emphasised the following requirements:

- modernize the traditional hunting and fishing legislation in force in most countries;
- include controls on domestic and international trade; and
- provide for economic incentives or other means to promote compliance.

The Iranian sturgeon industry seems to be the healthiest in the Caspian Sea area. It is still a state monopoly, held by the powerful Shilat, even if discussions for its privatization have been ongoing for some years. According to various sources (GLOBEFISH databank; Shilat 2002), sustainable management of sturgeon stocks and implementation of the CITES regime have proved to be effective for the conservation of sturgeon resources. Over the last ten to fifteen years, Shilat has been investing in the future sustainability of its sturgeon fisheries by:

- conducting extensive restocking programmes during the past decade to increase the population of A. persicus;

- banning the use of gill nets harming juvenile and immature sturgeon stocks;

- diversifying the income generating activities of fishermen using gill nets;

- releasing fingerlings of other commercially valuable species into the Caspian to encourage fishermen to diversify away from the exploitation of sturgeons;

- the development of aquaculture as a means to preserve wild stocks.

As a result of this extensive programme, the adult population of A. persicus was estimated to have reached 540 000 individuals in 2000 (Hosseini 2001). The export quota for A. persicus caviar was fixed at around 55 MT in 2002. This figure represents some 73 percent of the total caviar quota in Iran (see Table 3) while in 1992 caviar from this species represented some 23 percent of total production (Hosseini 2001). In 2000, exports of 72 MT of caviar and caviar substitutes generated some 37.4 million dollars^[18] (Fishstat + data). The aim of the Shilat is to generate revenues of 57.5 million dollars from caviar exports by 2020 (Iranian Fisheries data).

The other producing areas in the world, in Europe, Asia, and North Ameria are affected by similar problems concerning their sturgeon populations. These areas are:

- the Black Sea basin, shared by Bulgaria, Georgia, Romania, Russia, Turkey and Ukraine;

- the Sea of Azov basin, shared by Russia and Ukraine;

- the Amur River, shared by China and Russia.

- the Great Lakes-Saint Lawrence drainage, whose resources are shared by Canada and the United States;

- the Mississippi-Missouri basin (United States).

In the Black Sea and Sea of Azov, the situation has been aggravated by a decrease in the production of fingerlings needed for restocking (Hochleithner and Gessner 2001).In the Amur River, Chinese catches^[19] have, historically, been higher than Soviet catches, which were limited to 100 MT per year since the sixties. During the eighties and the beginning of the nineties, Chinese catches averaged 170-410 MT annually, with an annual production of 15-30 MT of caviar (Hochleithner and Gessner 2001). According to some sources, illegal catches are believed to make up some 50 percent of the total (Hochleithner and Gessner 2001). In 2003, China committed itself to catch quotas of 42 MT A. schrencki and 78 MT Huso dauricus and to export quotas of 2 510 kg of caviar from A. schrencki and 3 430 kg of caviar from H. dauricus (CITES 2003 and table 3). Chinese caviar is mainly sold to Japan and the United States, but is also consumed domestically (Hochleithner and Gessner 2001). Chinese exports of caviar and caviar substitutes increased from 5 MT in 1992, corresponding to US$324 000, to 2 962 MT in 2000, corresponding to US$30.4 million (Fishstat + data).

In North America, sturgeons and paddlefish have been subject to large-scale exploitation over time. Total sturgeon catches in the United States amounted to 700 MT in 1970. They surpassed the threshold of 1000 MT in 1982, 1984, 1986 and 1987 then fell from 1 211 MT in 1987 to 314 MT in 1988. In 2000, catches amounted to 242 MT. In Canada they followed a moderately increasing trend, from 100 MT in 1970 to 283 MT in 2000 (Fishstat + data). Wild stocks of North American sturgeons and paddlefish are now under strict management regimes, and benefit from measures such as size limits, maximum catches, closed seasons or total bans on some fisheries (Hochleithner and Gessner 2001).

The emergence of a new player: the aquaculture industry

According to Fishstat +, the sturgeon farming industry has been constantly evolving from a total production of 150 MT in 1984 to 3 158 MT in 2000 (Figure 8) and in recent years has helped to compensate for the steady decline in wild catches. In 2000, 3 158 MT of total production came from aquaculture and just 2 658 MT from capture fisheries, in contrast to the first sturgeon aquaculture data released in 1984 showing 150 MT and the catch data for the same period, amounting to 26 986 MT (Fishstat + data).

The sturgeon farming industry is now a large-scale initiative. Its objective is not to release in the wild (as for the Caspian Sea hatcheries) but the marketing of meat, caviar and live specimens for ornamental trade. The latter is a relatively new phenomenon, for which the last available Fishstat + data relates to 1984. The Acipenser species more suitable for aquaculture are the sterlet A. ruthenus, the White sturgeon A. transmontanus, the Siberian sturgeon A. baerii and the American Paddlefish P. spatula. Other species, such as Adriatic sturgeon A. naccarii and Russian sturgeon A. gueldenstaedtii, tend to accumulate a yellowish fat which is not well-perceived by the consumer (Hochleithner and Gessner 2001). Out of these species, the most successful results concern the White sturgeon A. transmontanus.

Figure 8 shows the trend of the sturgeon aquaculture industry. According to Fishstat +, in year 2000, the main producers of farmed sturgeons were Russia (producing 2 050 MT), Italy (550 MT) and Poland (250 MT). Other relevant sturgeon farming countries are Spain, France and Uruguay (Fishstat + data).

The company Agroittica Lombarda is behind the success of sturgeon production in Italy. The species farmed is the White sturgeon A. transmontanus (Josupeit 1994). Agroittica is currently marketing some 3 MT per annum of a new variety of caviar called Calvisius, which is sold fresh and pasteurised. Agroittica also markets several other sturgeon products, such as fresh and smoked sturgeon meat (Agroittica Lombarda, Pers. Comm.).

In France, sturgeon culture is widespread in the Aquitaine region. The Gironde Estuary in Aquitaine used to be one of the habitats of A. sturio, once distributed all over Europe, now almost entirely disappeared (Hochleithner and Gessner 2001). Nowadays, fish farmers in the Gironde successfully breed Siberian sturgeon A. baeri for its meat and to re-launch the French caviar industry. In 2000 France produced 90 MT of farmed sturgeons (Fishstat + data).

In 2001, Esturiones del Rio Negro, the first ever farm specialising in sturgeon culture and caviar production in a MERCOSUR country opened in Uruguay (GLOBEFISH databank). In 2000 Uruguay ranked 10^th among top sturgeon producers in the world (Fishstat + data), harvesting 75 MT. Another interesting development is in South Korea. This country is the top exporter of caviar substitutes on a global level, exporting 4 592 MT with a value of some US$86 million in 2000 (Fishstat + data). The Somijn River Cultured Fish Farm imported 600 sturgeon fingerlings from Japan in 1996, and is currently developing its own production of caviar from farmed fish, to be sold at US$596 per kg (GLOBEFISH databank).

In North America The US Stolt Sea farm merged with the sturgeon producing Sierra Aquafarm in 1994 and started producing caviar in 1997 (Sternlieb 2001). The group produces a variety of caviar named “Sterling” from cultured A. transmontanus. Stolt also produces sturgeon meat, whole fish and fillets. Its sturgeon farms are located in the Sacramento Valley of California. From the same area comes the “California Estate Osetra”, produced and distributed under the Tsar Nicoulai brand. This is a Californian brand also producing caviar from farmed white sturgeon A. transmontanus and importing caviar from Russia and China.

Figure 8: The growth of the sturgeon farming industry, 1984-2000.

The main caviar importing countries

According to Fishstat + data, in 2000, in value terms, the main importers of caviar (excluding caviar substitutes), were:

- the United States, with 90 MT, equivalent to US$22.1 million;
- France, with 36 MT, equivalent to US$15.9 million;
- Germany, with 34 MT, equivalent to US$15.7 million.

Despite its scarcity and high price, total imports of caviar increased from 243 MT (corresponding to a value some US$13.8 million) in 1976 to 488 MT (corresponding to some US$80.95 million) in 2000 (Fishstat + data)^[20].

The CITES regime on Acipenseriformes

Up to 1997, only few Acipenseriformeswere listed in the appendices of the CITES Convention. The common sturgeon Acipenser sturio and the shortnose sturgeon Acipenser brevirostrum were listed in Appendix I, while the Atlantic sturgeon Acipenser oxyrinchus and the American paddlefish Polyodon spatula were listed in Appendix II (CITES 2000b; CITES Secretariat 2001). Acknowledging the widespread decline in sturgeon resources, Germany and the United States tabled a proposal at the Tenth Conference of the Parties of CITES (CoP 10)^[21] to list all the remaining 23 species of the Acipenseriformesorder under Appendix II.

The Non Governmental Organization (NGO) TRAFFIC reported that while 5 of the 23 species proposed for inclusion under CITES Appendix II in 1997 met the criteria for listing, the other 18 species were included for look-alike reasons. The species meeting criteria for listing include beluga H. huso, Russian sturgeon Acipenser gueldenstaedtii, Persian sturgeon A. persicus, starry sturgeon A. stellatus (TRAFFIC 1997). The listing proposal was adopted by consensus, and the listing came into force on 1 April 1998 (CITES Secretariat 2001).

The Conference of the Parties accompanied the listing with additional conservation and management requirements as described in Resolution 10.12 Conservation of sturgeons (CITES 1997). In particular, the Conference recommended the Secretariat, in consultation with the Animals Committee, to explore the development of a uniform marking system for sturgeon parts and derivatives and aquaculture stocks^[22]. A framework resolution on conservation, management and trade in sturgeons and paddlefish, including the universal labelling system, was finally adopted during the Twelfth Conference of the Parties to CITES (CoP 12) as CITES Resolution 12.7 Conservation of and trade in sturgeons and paddlefish (CITES 2002b). Furthermore, it recommended that the Animals Committee consider trade in sturgeon specimens in the context of the Review of Significant Trade (CITES 1997)^[23].

Conference Decision 11.58 (CITES 2000a) and Notification 2001/042 (CITES 2001b) instruct Parties that range states, starting from 1 January 2001, should declare annual export and catch quotas for all commercially traded specimens of Acipenseriformes originating in the same basin or biogeographical region:

- the Amur River (China and Russia);

- the Sea of Azov (Russia and Ukraine);

- the Black Sea (Bulgaria, Romania, Russia, Ukraine and Yugoslavia, the latter as from 2002^[24]);

- the Caspian Sea (Azerbaijan, Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia, Turkmenistan);

- the Great Lakes-Saint Lawrence drainage (Canada and the United States).

States should inform the CITES Secretariat about their quotas prior to 31 December of the preceding year. Failure to do so would result in a zero quota for each non compliant party. Quotas for endemic species exploited by a country within its territorial waters and quotas for specimens bred in captivity are voluntary (CITES 2001b).

In 2001, the catch and export quotas for shared stocks of Acipenseriformes included in the Review of Significant Trade, such as the Caspian Sea stocks, were the result of an agreement between the CITES Standing Committee and the range states. Further to such agreement, catch and export quotas previously published in Notification 2001/005 (CITES 2001a), were substantially revised and published in Notification 2001/042 (CITES 2001b).

In the Caspian basin, the Review of Significant Trade led to, inter alia, the suspension, from spring to the end of 2001, of all harvesting operations of four sturgeon species in Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan and Russia. In 2002 and 2003, the catch and export quotas for Caspian Acipenseriformeswere endorsed by the Secretariat within the framework of a coordinated sturgeon management system proposed by range states. The 2003 quotas per country are presented in Table 3 below, which includes both mandatory quotas for shared sturgeon resources and voluntary quotas for endemic species exploited by a country within its territorial waters and aquaculture stocks (CITES 2003).

The prices

Table 2 shows the retail prices of Caspian caviar.

Table 2: Retail prices of Caspian caviar. Prices for 1.1 lb (0.5 kg). Currency: US$ (adapted from Beluga Caviar Pricing Guide 2002).

Table 3: Catch and export quotas for Acipenseriformes (adapted from CITES 2003).

The sturgeon and caviar industry in selected producing and exporting countries

The following sub-sections will include analyses of the economic and social importance of the sturgeon and caviar industry for major producing and exporting countries. The selected countries are the Caspian states of Azerbaijan, Iran, Kazakhstan and Russia.

The main sources utilized for general data are the United Nations (UN), FAO, and the World Bank. The main source for fishery landings, trade and employment data is FAO, which relies on data provided by its Member States and Observers.

Azerbaijan

The Azeri caviar industry is mainly controlled by the Czech-Azeri consortium TIC HU. More information about this consortium is available under the section “the decline of the catch sector in the nineties”.

Azeri catches declined from 216 MT in 1988 to 61 MT in 1998. In 1999 they amounted to 65 MT, and increased to 71 MT in 2000 (Figure 9). Fishstat + data on caviar exports are available for the 1995-1999 period only. These totalled less than 1 MT in 1995 for a value of US$126 000; an estimated 2 MT in 1996, for a value of US$343 000, and 4MT in 1997, for a value of US$403 000. In 1997, 1998 and 1999, caviar exports were reported to FAO together with caviar substitutes (Fishstat + data). As limited quantities of “caviar and caviar substitutes” (1 MT in 1997 and 1998 and 6 MT in 1999) corresponded to relatively high values (US$118 000 in 1997, US$92 000 in 1998 and US$1.3 million in 1999), it seems probable that caviar made up most of this entry over that period (Figure 10). No data on this entry was available for the year 2000.

Figure 9: Landings of sturgeons in Azerbaijan, 1988-2000.

Figure 10: Exports of caviar and caviar substitutes from Azerbaijan, value 1995-2000.

18 797 MT of fish from inland waters were landed in 2000 by an estimated 1 500 fishers, of which 71 MT were sturgeons. Therefore, it may be estimated that some 60 fishers are dependent on the sturgeon industry in Azerbaijan. However, employment data are far too outdated to ensure a reliable estimate.

Iran

Catches of sturgeons in Iran decreased from 3000 MT in 1970 to 1 288 MT in 1983. In the following years they increased progressively reaching the record peak of 3 036 MT in 1991. In the nineties they decreased again to 1 000 MT in 1999 and 2000 (Figure 11).

Figure 11: Landings of sturgeons in Iran, 1970-2000.

Exports of caviar and caviar substitutes from Iran have been grouped together in statistics from 1997 onwards. According to Fishstat +, in 2000, these were worth US$37.4 million (Figure 12).

Figure 12: Exports of caviar and caviar substitutes from Iran, value 1976-2000.

By comparing the last data available on inland fisheries landings in Iran, 151 000MT in 2000, (of which 1 000 MT were sturgeons) with employment in the sector (19 099 inland fishers in 2000), it is possible to give a rough estimate of some 130 people being employed in the sturgeon fishery.

Iranian authorities appear to be positive about the contribution of CITES to the sturgeon and caviar industry. According to a Shilat representative, smuggling decreased dramatically as a consequence of the CITES listing and the tightening of controls on exports of caviar and other sturgeon products (Shilat, Pers. Comm.).

Kazakhstan

According to Fishstat +, catches of sturgeons in Kazakhstan have declined from 3 181 MT in 1988 to an estimated 270 MT in 1998, followed by 240 MT in 1999 and 270 MT in 2000 (Figure 13).

Figure 13: Landings of sturgeons in Kazakhstan, 1988-2000.

Exports of caviar generated an income of US$3.35 million in 1994, US$594 000 in 1995, US$5 million in 1996, US$7 million in 1997 and US$5 million in 2000. No data was available for 1998 and 1999 (Figure 14). The figure for 2000 is equivalent to roughly 41 percent of the total income generated by fish commodities exports (Fishstat + data).

Figure 14: Exports of caviar from Kazakhstan, value 1994-2000.

According to Fishstat + data on landings and FAO FIDI employment data, an estimated 16 000 fishers landed 25 774 MT in 2000, of which 270MT were sturgeons. This suggests an estimated 170 fishers are dependent on sturgeon fisheries in Kazakhstan

Russian Federation

In Russia, catches of sturgeons have seriously declined, however caviar exports, after the lows of the nineties, were estimated to have increased considerably in 2000 (Fishstat + data). According to Fishstat + data, landings decreased from 14 480 MT in 1988 to 648 MT in 2000 (Figure 15), of which 594 MT came from inland waters and 54 MT from the “Mediterranean and Black Sea” fishing area.

Figure 15: Landings of sturgeons in Russia, 1988-2000.

Sturgeon farming in Russia appears to be a viable activity with production reaching 2 050 MT in 2000 (Figure 16).

Figure 16: The sturgeon farming industry in Russia, 1988-2000.

Income generated from exports of caviar increased from some US$6.6 million in 1992 to US$19.8 million in 1995. It decreased again to US$2.4 million in 1998, recovered slightly to US$3.56 million in 1999 and on to US$17 million in 2000, (Fishstat + data). Exports of “caviar and caviar substitutes” followed a similar pattern over the same period (Figure 17).

Figure 17: Exports of caviar and caviar substitutes from Russia, value 1992-2000.

According to Fishstat + data on landings and FAO FIDI employment data an estimated 62 100 inland fishers landed 292 368 MT in 2000, of which 594 MT were sturgeons. This suggests 130 fishers would be dependent on sturgeon fisheries in Russia.

Conclusions

Sturgeon stocks are seriously depleted, especially in traditional producing basins such as the Caspian Sea. The main factors behind the depletion of Caspian stocks include illegal fishing and habitat degradation. This has generated an increase in official prices for caviar (TIC HU, Pers. Comm.) which in turn has led to a rise in demand for less expensive caviar from poaching and smuggling. However, in some countries, such as Iran, the strict implementation of the CITES regime and tightening of controls on poaching and smuggling have had a beneficial impact against illegal activities.

At the same time, aquaculture is gaining momentum as an alternative to sturgeon capture fisheries. Environmental groups advocate increased production of caviar and sturgeon meat from aquaculture to reduce pressures on wild stocks. However, a decline in the demand for Caspian caviar may also entail negative consequences for employment in the Caspian sturgeon industry and, paradoxically, negative consequences for Caspian sturgeon stocks.

Moving fishing effort away from the commercially exploited sturgeon species would lead to a reduction in investments in hatcheries and re-stocking programmes, which have been essential to preserve Caspian sturgeon stocks over time. Without them these stocks would be more prone to threats like pollution and habitat disruption. Thus an effective global conservation programme for sturgeons is necessary to promote sustainable management of both wild and farmed sturgeon as complementary and not alternative options.

According to Fishstat + data, exports of caviar in 2000 still represented a significant source of income for countries in the Caspian Sea and in other parts of the world. However, due to the implementation of stricter management measures and the ban on international trade in caviar in 2001, data for that year may show a significant decline.

The last available Fishstat + data for Azerbaijan (1999) indicate that the country earned US$1.3 million from the export of merely 6 MT of “caviar and caviar substitutes”. This suggests that the entry included more sturgeon caviar than caviar substitutes.

For Iran, in 1997, exports of caviar and caviar substitutes generated US$29.45 million, in 1998 US$37.9 million, in 1999 US$26 million and in 2000 some US$37.4 million (Fishstat + data). Caviar and caviar substitutes are the most remunerative fish commodity exports according to Fishstat +. In 2000 they amounted to 75 percent of total revenues from exports of fishery products. The major part this data entry in Fishstat + consists of sturgeon caviar, due to the relatively small quantities (111 MT in 1997, 143 in 1998, 75 in 1999 and 72 in 2000) corresponding to the high values mentioned above. Shilat’s relatively good adaptation to the CITES management and trade requirements has maintained the role of caviar as an important source of foreign exchange for the country

In Kazakhstan, exports of caviar generated US$5 million in 2000 (Fishstat + data), equivalent to 41 percent of total income generated by exports of fish commodities from that country.

In Russia, exports of caviar totalled US$17 million in 2000 and those of “caviar and caviar substitutes” some US$4.6 million. Caviar is still among the top 20 fish commodities in terms of foreign exchange earnings (Fishstat + data).

Finally China reported exports of 2 962 MT of “caviar and caviar substitutes”, corresponding to an income of US$30.4 million. However, the relatively large quantity involved suggests a significant component of caviar substitutes.

The limited data available concerning the industry in the case countries does not allow a credible analysis of its social importance. In addition it has not been possible to make any estimate on employment in caviar processing and marketing. The social estimates of this study are limited to:

- 60 sturgeon fishers in Azerbaijan;
- 130 sturgeon fishers in Iran;
- 170 sturgeon fishers in Kazakhstan;
- 130 sturgeon fishers in Russia.

The very rough estimates on employment in fishing and the lack of data on employment in processing and marketing make these figures largely under-representative of the social importance of the sturgeon industry in the Caspian region.

Table 4: Economic and social aspects of the sturgeon and caviar industry in the Caspian Sea (2000 data, source FAO except when explicitly stated).

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