FARMER PARTICIPATORY RESEARCH: THE TURNING POINT FOR CASSAVA DEVELOPMENT IN NORTHEASTERN BRAZIL

PREPARED BY:

Aristóteles Pires de Matos
Ana Maria Mascarenhas Eloy Canto
Bernardo Ospina Patiño
José da Silva Souza
Nicolau Miguel Schaun
Wania Maria Gonçalves Fukuda

REVISED BY:

Almir Dias Alves da Silva (IPA)
Antonio Dias Santiago (EPEAL)
Antonio Raimundo dos Santos (EMATERCE)
Antonio Soares de Melo (EMEPA)
Aristoteles Pires de Matos (EMBRAPA/CNPMF)
Astrogildo Peixoto Gomes da Silva (EBDA)
Bernardo Ospina Patiño (CIAT)
Carlos Henrique deS. Ramos (Projeto Rio Gavião)
Genário Marcolino de Queiroz (EPACE)
Ítalo Delalibera Júnior (EMBRAPA/CNPMF)
José Fortunato da Silva (EBDA)
José Raimundo Ferreira Filho (EBDA/EMBRAPA)
José da Silva Souza (EMBRAPA/CNPMF)
Josias Cavalcanti (EMBRAPA/CPATSA)
Luiz Carlos Nunes (Projeto Pró Sertão)
Maria Olívia de O. Cano (EMATERPE)
Marcio C. Marques Porto (EMBRAPA/CNPMF)
Mauto de Souza Diniz (EMBRAPA/CNPMF)
Nicolau Miguel Schaun (EMBRAPA/CNPMF)
Pedro Luiz Pires de Mattos (EMBRAPA/CNMPF)
Wania Maria G. Fukuda (EMBRAPA/CNPMF)

EDITED BY:

Aristóteles Pires de Matos (EMBRAPA/CNPMF)
Marcio C. Marques Porto (EMBRAPA/CNPMF)

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The National Research Center for Cassava and Tropical Fruit Crops (CNPMF) of the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA) accepted the invitation from the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) to prepare a case study as part of the Global Cassava Development Strategy. This case study was elaborated by researchers, who are currently engaged in activities related to the cassava crop, being five of them from EMBRAPA/CNPMF and one from CIAT (working at EMBRAPA/CNPMF in cooperative projects). Information was provided by national and state institutions that contribute to cassava research and development in North-eastern Brazil.

During the early nineties, three projects funded by international agencies, were conducted in Northeast Brazil, in a cooperative way involving international, national and state level institutions. These interventions were: a) Development of Cassava Germplasm for Semiarid Zones of Latin America, Asia and Africa, funded by IFAD; b) Integrated Development of the Cassava Crop in the State of Ceará, funded by W. K. Kellogg Foundation; and c) Ecologically Sustainable Cassava Plant Protection in South America and Africa: an environmentally sound approach, funded by UNDP. These three interventions, selected to compose this case study, had as common strategy the use of farmers participatory methods that enabled a very good integration between cassava farmers, researchers and extension workers.

This case study recognizes cassava as an important crop in Brazil, especially in the Northeast Region of the country. More than 58% of the Brazilian land area devoted to cassava production is in Northeast, where cassava productivity is 10.7 t/ha, the lowest yield in Brazil. This low yield is probably due to the fact that cassava is grown on fragile and low fertility soils, under uncertain rainfall conditions, and suffers an estimated 50% economic reduction in root yield due to pests, diseases and weeds. Cultivation of cassava varieties with low yield potential, and problems related to technology transfer as well, also contribute to the low productivity levels observed in the region.

This study also shows problems related to commercialization. The irregularity of rains, characteristic of that region, gives rise to oscillations in cassava production, thus influencing the price of the cassava flour and, consequently, the farmers' income.

Choosing "Farmers Participatory Research (FPR): the turning point for the cassava development in North-eastern Brazil" as the subject of this case study was based on the following considerations: 1) farmers participatory methods involves the participation of small cassava farmers in the establishment of the research agenda; 2) FPR has created a higher level of adoption of technologies, especially improved varieties; and 3) the use of farmer participatory methods follows a multi-institutional approach, a type of collaboration that EMBRAPA/CNPMF has been looking for in studies involving cassava in tropical areas.

A critical analysis of the present case study shows clearly that the use of Farmers Participatory Research Techniques is a very efficient mechanism for the identification of crop constraints, and the generation, evaluation, diffusion, transference and adoption of technologies for cassava in Northeast Brazil.

The interventions reported in this case study show that there is a need to implement several actions in order to consolidate the benefits from the projects already conducted, as well as to promote a better development of the cassava crop in Northeast Brazil. It is proposed to strengthen cooperative links at international, national, state and municipality levels that make possible the implementation of the following actions:

(1) to increase training of farmers, extension workers and researchers in FPR methods;

(2) to stimulate the creation of farmers' organizations, where Local Agricultural Research Committees (COPAL) can be established;

(3) to increase the genetic diversity of the cassava available to the farmers in semiarid zones; 4) to develop production and plant protection systems adapted to each cassava growing zone, able to increase yield, reduce production costs and increase the crop competitiveness with other agricultural products;

(4) to stimulate the consolidation of existing markets for cassava flour and dry chips, besides creating alternative markets for products such as: starch, flour for bread; fresh cassava, and enriched flour;

(5) to promote multiplication of planting material in farmers' communities, located in semiarid zones;

(6) to stimulate the use of cassava for animal feeding; and

(7) to increase cooperation with state institutions and/or rural development projects such as Project Rio Gavião, funded by IFAD, as well as with international institutions and national research systems, especially in the Southern hemisphere, thus increasing South-South collaboration.

INTRODUCTION

As part of the discussions of the Global Cassava Development Strategy Meeting organized by the International Fund for Agriculture Development (IFAD) in May 1996, it was proposed that countries from Africa, Asia and Latin America would carry out Country Case Studies aiming at analyzing the past and present situation of cassava, with a view of describing the lessons learnt from past experiences and their implications for a strategy for future investment in cassava research and development.

From that meeting it was established that, the Research and Development of the National Research Center for Cassava and Tropical Fruit Crop (CNPMF)/Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA) would be responsible for coordinating the elaboration of the Cassava Case Study of Brazil.

Following recommendations from the Working Group # 1: Country Case Study, meetings were organized at EMBRAPA/CNPMF, with the participation of the Cassava Researchers Team, in which both the subject and the team in charge of the preparation of the document were defined. The following key elements should be included in the Case Study:

• A description of the evolution of cassava development which includes the identification of significant interventions that have influenced that evolution.

• An analysis of the success and failures of the above interventions in removing the constraints and/or realizing the opportunities to the development of the crop.

• An enumeration of the lessons learnt from past experiences.

• A drawing out of the implications for a future cassava development strategy in Brazil.

The subject chosen for the document was: "Farmer Participatory Research: the turning point for cassava development in Northeast Brazil".

A preliminary version of the document was prepared and presented for discussion by a group of cassava experts from research and extension agencies of Northeast Brazil. During that meeting, which was held at EMBRAPA/CNPMF headquarters June 03-04, 1997, the final version of the Case Study was elaborated.

This Case Study takes into account three interventions that were conducted in Northeast Brazil, in the last decade. Those interventions were part of three projects funded by international agencies, and were conducted in a cooperative way involving national and state level institutions. One of the projects ended in 1992 while the other two are still going on. The interventions selected to compose this Case Study were:

(a) Development of Cassava Germplasm for Semiarid Zones of Brazil, Asia and Africa, funded by IFAD.

(b) Integrated Development of the Cassava Crop in the State of Ceará, funded by the W. K. Kellogg Foundation.

(c) Ecologically Sustainable Cassava Plant Protection: an environmentally sound approach (PROFISMA), funded by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP).

The main objective of this Case Study is to show the importance of those interventions, summarize their results and, based on lessons learnt, to propose future activities able to consolidate the results obtained.

The three interventions were carried out as cooperative activities involving national institutions (EMBRAPA/CNPM), state institutions (EBDA, EPACE, IPA, EMART-CE, EMATER-PB and EMATER-PE) and international institutions (CIAT and IITA). These activities had as common strategy the use of farmer participatory methods that enabled a very close relationship between cassava farmers, researchers and extension workers, who worked together in the identification of the limiting factors to the crop, planning and carrying out research activities, as well as validation and adoption of technologies.

BACKGROUND

Brazil is the second largest cassava producer in the world. Forty-nine percent of the production is concentrated in the Northeast Region (Figure 1), partly because the environmental conditions are unfavourable for the cultivation of most other food crops. The North-eastern region comprises nine States, with a total area of approximately 1.6 million square kilometres, corresponding to 18.8% of the nation's total area. In this region, skewed land distribution and semi-arid conditions go hand in hand with high poverty levels, with 72 percent of the total number of families considered to be living below poverty line.

According to FAO figures, the area planted with cassava in Brazil is 2.035 million hectares, with a production of 26.39 million metric tonnes and an average yield of about 12.984 tonnes/ha. Brazil's contribution for the world's cassava production is around 16.2 percent (FAO, 1996) and for Latin America's is 77 percent (FAO, 1995). On a country basis, cassava holds the eighth place in planted area and the seventh place in monetary value.

The population of Northeast Brazil represents 28% of the total population of the country, with 42% of the population living in rural areas and with over 50 % of the total labour force engaged in agricultural activities. There is a serious calories deficit problem in the Northeast, thus constituting a major reason for migration to forest areas and urban centers.

FIGURE 1. PERCENT OF TOTAL CASSAVA PRODUCTION IN BRAZIL BY REGION

SOURCE: ANUÁRIO ESTATISTICO DO BRASIL, IBGE, 1992

FIGURE 2. CASSAVA YIELD IN BRAZIL BY REGION

SOURCE: ANUÁRIO ESTATISTICO DO BRASIL, IBGE, 1992

Most cassava in the Northeast is grown by tenant farmers who cultivate plots of less than one hectare with generally low soil fertility and uncertain rainfall. Land distribution is characterized by a great disparity, with the number of farms with size less than 10 ha accounting for 70% of the total number of farmers, who occupy a mere 6 percent of the total farm land. In contrast, the number of farms larger than 100 ha represents only 6 % of the total number of farms and occupies more than 40% of the total farm land available (IBGE, 1989). More than 58% of the Brazilian land area devoted to cassava production is in the Northeast, where cassava productivity is 10.7 metric tonnes/ha, the lowest yield in Brazil (Figure 2).

Considering cassava's high productive potential, estimated at 90 metric tonnes per hectare (Cock et al, 1979), the low yields are probably due to the fact that in Northeast Brazil, cassava is grown on low fertility soils, under uncertain rainfall conditions, and suffers an estimated 50% reduction in root yield due to pests, diseases and weeds. Cultivation of cassava varieties with low yield potential also contributes for the low productivity levels observed in the region. Problems related to technology transfer also determine the low root yields in the Northeast.

For centuries, the principal market for cassava root has been small-scale processing units, named "casas de farinha", where roots are processed into cassava flour, a basic staple food, especially in rural areas of the Northeast. Such a concentration of cassava root processing into flour is a very risky situation, as the consumption of cassava flour is non elastic and contributes to significant seasonal changes in prices, showing oscillates during the year. Cassava roots are also increasingly being used as animal feed in the region. In the State of Ceará, animal feeding at the farm level, as fresh roots, accounts for 25% of total cassava produced in the State.

The consumption of cassava in Brazil is higher in rural areas where it is consumed in two principal ways: as cassava toasted flour (farinha), the most important consumption product, and as fresh cassava. In the Northeast region, cassava is the most important source of calories, with a per capita consumption of 43.7 kg of flour, while the Brazilian per capita consumption of flour is only 17.6 kg. Development programs have emphasized increased production through introduction of improved varieties and expanding marketing opportunities through post-harvest utilization.

Problems related to technology transfer

One of the main problems regarding the adoption of improved cassava varieties seems to be the fact that all the work is carried out in the experimental station, where the evaluation criteria are defined by the researcher. Thus the "promising" varieties brought to the growers reflect only the breeders' opinion.

Despite efforts of cassava breeders all over the country, and especially in the Northeast, to select and develop cassava varieties with higher yields and resistance to pests and diseases, most of those materials were not adopted by farmers, who preferred to keep on planting their own. This indicates that high yield and resistance to pests and diseases are not enough to ensure rapid adoption of cassava varieties. Such a situation suggests that the improved varieties were not adequately transferred, or not adopted by farmers.

Several hypotheses were analyzed to explain the low adoption level of recommended cassava varieties. It seems that one of the most important points is that selection was carried out only by the breeders. Besides, such a procedure does not imply feedback that enables the breeders to identify the characteristics most valued by the farmers.

Cassava production technology levels in the Northeast are also very low, differing significantly from the level of technology used by breeders in the experimental station. In this regard, the selection is carried out under single cropping systems while, throughout the Northeast, cassava is commonly grown in association with other food crops. It is well known that inter-cropping may determine a strong competition with cassava, depending on the variety. Such a competitive capacity is not usually considered during the selection process, thus constituting a problem once the farmers' varieties have been selected under stressed environmental and edaphic conditions and as part of a multiple cropping system. This process of generation and selection of cassava varieties within the experimental station without farmers' participation was a common situation up to the late eighties. During that time the technology transfer process used to be implemented vertically and in only one direction: researcher Þ extension worker Þ farmers, without feedback to the generator of the technology. Also, at that time, the Brazilian agricultural development model was based on increasing production and yield by using high technology inputs and mechanization, a development system not devoted to small holders in Northeast Brazil.

Choosing "Farmer Participatory Research: the turning point for cassava development in North-eastern Brazil" as the subject of the Brazilian Case Study was based on the following considerations: (a) farmer participatory research involves the participation of the small cassava farmer on the establishment of priorities for research and it has created a higher level of adoption of technologies, especially new improved varieties. And; (b) the use of participatory methods follows a multi-institutional approach and this exemplifies the type of collaboration that EMBRAPA/CNPMF has been looking for in R&D activities involving cassava in the tropical areas.

Farmer Participatory Research: an option for technology transfer

The use of participatory methods in agricultural research and development started in the 1940's in the US, as a discipline related to Social Psychology. The fundament of that methodology is based on "learning by doing", involving researchers, extension workers, and farmers. This implies that the latter play an important role in the research and development process, starting from the identification of the problems, planning activities, conducting on-farm trials, evaluating the trials and, at the end, providing feedback information. Some aspects are very important in this process, as for instance: (a) cassava must be a traditionally grown crop in the community, and it must have economic and social importance as well; (b) the community should have some degree of social organization, and; (c) the community must express, spontaneously, its interest to participate in the process.

Historically, the extension service in Brazil that started in the1940's, was based on a model in which the extension worker was expected to go to the experimental station looking for available technologies to be brought to farmers. That model can be schematically represented as follows: Researcher Þ Extension Worker Þ Farmer. Such a model did not take into account the farmer participation in the technology development, thus the available technology would not necessarily meet farmers' requirements for new technologies. Technology transfer techniques used to be implemented via field days, demonstration units, and "training" of farmers on specific subjects. Despite several institutional modifications in the Brazilian extension service, that model was maintained unaltered until recently.

In addition to the above, and besides the low efficiency of the extension service model for technology transfer, cassava - a small farmer crop - did not receive enough inputs from that service. It is also interesting to mention that cassava farmers are usually reluctant to accept new technologies. These aspects made clear the necessity of changes on the approach of technology transfer, especially for the cassava crop.

Implementing FPR activities requires the involvement of multidisciplinary teams able to identify - with growers' participation - the problems existing at community level. This kind of activity allows both researcher and extension worker to get more information about the farmers' community in a very short period of time. Such interaction makes researchers and extension workers not mere technology transfer agents, but also persons who learn from the growers.

The very preliminary work using FPR in Northeast Brazil was the "Integrated Cassava Research and Development Project in the State of Ceará". A wider use of participatory methods in cassava research in Northeast Brazil started in early 1990's using an adaptation of the methodology developed by Hernandez (1992, 1993) for cassava improvement, specially directed to the genetic improvement of the crop in the semi-arid areas of the region.

CASSAVA IMPROVEMENT IN BRAZIL

As a consequence of the large diversity of environmental conditions, soil types and genetic variability of cassava in Brazil, a very large number of cassava varieties is used all over the country, showing specific adaptation to several ecosystems. Most of those varieties results either from natural selection or from farmers' selections and, although these materials do not have a high yield potential, they do have a good stability for root yield due to their adaptation to the environment where they were selected.

Background

Cassava improvement programs in Brazil started in the 40's, in the Southeast Region of the Country. These programs were isolated attempts of regional and state institutions aiming at attending regional objectives and demands. To reach those objectives, the following activities were carried out: i) prospective analyses were performed in order to increase genetic variability; ii) several cultivated varieties were evaluated and selected for desirable characteristics; iii) controlled crosses were carried out to generate new varieties, such as Mantiqueira, IAC-14-18, IAC-7-127 and IAC-5-116, that are still planted by cassava farmers in the State of São Paulo.

In the State of Minas Gerais the first cassava improvement program was conducted by the Agricultural Research Institute for the Center West Brazil (IPEACO). Several prospective assessments were conducted enabling the collection of the prevalent cassava varieties in the State. Evaluation of that material made it possible to select the following: Sel-514, Riqueza IPEACO, Mantiqueira and Branca de Santa Catarina (EMBRAPA, 1984). The cassava breeding program of the State of Minas Gerais generated a variety named Hibrida, resistant to the cassava bacterial blight (Corrêa, 1973).

Research on cassava improvement conducted by the Agricultural Research Institute for Southeast Brazil (IPEACS) was based on the evaluation of 195 introduced varieties that enabled the selection of 4 of them, namely Manjari, Licona, Santa Cruz and Espingarda, which were recommended for planting in the States of Rio de Janeiro and Espírito Santo (Nunes & Oliveira, 1972).

The Agricultural Research Institute for North of Brazil (IPEAN) started in 1947 a cassava improvement program based on performing controlled crosses, and collecting regional varieties. Evaluation of generated clones and collected materials enabled the selection of cultivars for specific uses such as: varieties Amazonas and Cariri for human consumption; Mameluca, Hamburguesa, Pretinha e Jaraguá for processing into flour and starch; Cachimbo and Xingu for preparing a kind of local/typical food named "tucupi"; and IAN-1 and IAN-2 for animal feeding (Albuquerque & Cardoso, 1980; 1982).

The cassava improvement for South Brazil started by 1942, as a project of the Secretariat of Agriculture of the State of Rio Grande do Sul, by establishing a collection of 500 accessions. Even though the emphasis was to evaluate the introduced varieties, several hybrids were generated, namely Aipim Gigante L-7 for human consumption; Taquari R-13 for animal feeding; Híbrida S-18-7 and Híbrida S-1-17 for industrial purposes (EMBRAPA, 1984).

In the Northeast, the cassava breeding program started in 1952, in the Agricultural Research Institute for East Brazil (IPEAL) by collecting and evaluating cassava cultivars such as Aipim Bravo, Cigana Preta, Platina and Sutinga (Conceição, 1976; EMBRAPA, 1984). During the 1960's, cassava clones were generated from poly-crosses, some of them, namely SIPEAL 01 to 08, showing desirable characteristics and adaptation to Northeast States (Conceição, 1979). Also during the sixties the Agricultural Research Institute for Northeast Brazil (IEANE) started collecting and evaluating cassava varieties. Three out of 120 introduced accessions were selected; they were Lagoa, Saracura and Amazonas (Santos, 1972).

By 1969 the College of Agriculture of the Federal University of Bahia started a very big cassava improvement program for Northeast Brazil. Prospective work was carried out and a collection was established with 267 accessions. Crossings started in 1975 and thousands of hybrids were produced with the EAB-501 and EAB-451 showing very good characteristics (Conceição, 1976; 1979; EMBRAPA, 1984).

By 1976 EMBRAPA/CNPMF started coordinating the cassava breeding research nationwide, in cooperation with state institutions. The main objectives of those institutions were to increase genetic variability through prospective work, as well as to introduce and to evaluate cassava cultivars. Several selections resulted from those programs as can be seen in Table 1.

At the same time, EMBRAPA/CNPMF started an improvement program aiming at obtaining genotypes adapted to several ecosystems, and resistant to limiting factors of cassava production. The main results from that work were: identification of genotypes with superior characteristics that can be used as parents in cassava breeding programs; identification of high yield cultivars, as well as showing resistance to pests and diseases, and adaptation to specific environmental conditions.

Table 1. Cassava cultivars selected up to 1996 as a result of the improvement projects conducted as part of the Brazilian Cassava Research Program

Source: Annual Report of the Brazilian Cassava Research Program

Project Development on Cassava Germplasm for Semiarid Conditions of Latin America, Asia and Africa

During the early nineties the FPR methods were adapted for cassava improvement, aiming at increasing the adoption level of improved varieties, as well as making varieties an important component of the cassava production chain. Since a new variety is a low cost technology, it is expected that they will generate a high impact on root yield and quality as well. Starting in 1993, CNPMF began a joint activity with several institutions such as the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), the Research Center for Semiarid Zone (CPATSA), the Agricultural and Development Organization of the State of Bahia (EBDA), the Agricultural Research Organization of the State of Pernambuco (IPA), and the Agricultural Research Organization of the State of Ceara (EPACE), regarding the use of FPR methods in cassava improvement for semiarid zones of Northeast Brazil. This project was part of the bigger project "Development of Cassava Germplasm for Semiarid zones of Latin America, Asia and Africa", funded by IFAD. The Northeast region was chosen as the project site because of its low cassava yield, as well as its low level of technology adoption by cassava growers, especially regarding technologies that imply additional production costs. The project's objectives were: a) to test, with participation of farmers, extension workers, and researchers, a methodology able to increase the possibility of growers adoption of new developed cassava varieties; and b) to establish a feedback system enabling the identification of the farmer's selection criteria that would be incorporated into the cassava improvement programs. It is expected that this method may be used as a tool for recommendation of cassava varieties with higher degrees of acceptability by growers.

In 1993, the EMBRAPA/CNPMF, in collaboration with other research institutions, started a pilot project related to Farmer Participatory Research for Cassava Improvement in Semi Arid Zones of Northeast Brazil, as part of the Cassava Development Project for Semiarid Zones of Latin America, Asia and Africa, funded by IFAD. The first step towards the objective of the pilot project was to train cassava growers, extension workers and researchers in participatory methods. The second was to integrate the selection criteria used by the breeders with the cassava growers' criteria aiming at improving adoption of the new cassava varieties generated by the project. Results showed that the cassava growers of the semiarid zones of Northeast Brazil have their own selection criteria for adoption of a cassava variety, besides high yield and quality of the final product (Table 2); some of these having little or no influence on the final production. Those criteria are, currently, the base for new selection criteria to be used by cassava breeders who are working on developing varieties for the semi arid zone of Northeast Brazil.

In order to satisfy cassava growers' demands, and improving adoption levels, nine cassava clones from the project "Development of Cassava Germplasm for Semi Arid Zones" were tested for semi arid conditions, in 17 rural communities. During the farm trials, farmers performed their own selection of materials and started multiplication of those clones considered promising by them. Figures 3 and 4 show growers preference for improved cassava clones in comparison with traditional varieties; the results are very interesting: in Araripina, state of Pernambuco, some growers preferred to continue planting their own variety, but expressed their opinions regarding the cassava type they would like to test in other on farm trials; on the other hand, cassava growers of Quixadá, state of Ceará, chose the improved variety BGM 260 and started its multiplication. Its is interesting to call the attention to the fact that, specifically with the cassava crop, each farmer who adopts an improved variety acts as a multiplier of that technology, once he will provide planting material for his neighbor, and that process will keep on and on.

Considering that the experience was a success, the project was expanded to two other ecosystems in Northeast Brazil: one in Serra da Ibiapaba, State of Ceará, where the cassava witches' broom is a very dangerous disease, causing high yield losses; and another in the tropical region of the State of Bahia. In the Serra da Ibiapaba the work was carried out in 53 rural communities, belonging to seven municipalities. Seven cassava clones were evaluated in on-farm trials and four of them were selected not only for their resistance to the witches' broom disease, but also for showing desirable characteristics such as high root yield and quality, as shown in Figure 5. Due to farmers' participation during the selection process, those resistant clones were immediately adopted.

Results showed that the cassava growers of the semiarid zones of Northeast have their own selection criteria for adopting a given cassava variety, besides aspects related to root yield and quality. The knowledge of those criteria makes it possible to design cassava improvement programs focusing the growers' demands, thus improving the adoption of new varieties.

Table 2. Profile of a good cassava variety for semiarid zones of Northeast Brazil, as defined by farmers

FIGURE 3. GROWERS PREFERENCE REGARDING TO CASSAVA VARIETIES, AS EVALUATED ACCORDING TO FARMER PARTICIPATORY RESEARCH TECHNIQUES, QUIXADA, STATE OF CEARA, BRAZI, 1995/96, HARVEST PERFORMED18MONTHS AFTER PLANTING (BUJA IS THE LOCAL VARIETY).

FIGURE 4. GROWERS PREFERRENCE REGARDING TO CASSAVA VARIETIES, AS EVALUATED ACCORDING TO PARTICIPATORY METHODS. ARARIPINA, STATE OF PERNAMBUCO, BRAZIL, 1994/95 (HARVEST PERFORMED AT 12 AND 18 MONTHS AFTER PLANTING)

FIGURE 5. CASSAVA GROWERS PREFERRENCE REGARDING TO IMPROVED CLONES, AS EVALUTED ACCORDING TO PARTICIPATORY TECHNIQUES, IN SERRA DA IBIAPABA, STATE OF CEARA, BRAZIL (HARVEST PERFORMED AT 12 AND 18 MONTHS AFTER PLANTING)

CASSAVA PROCESSING AND UTILIZATION

The discussion of participatory techniques' uses for cassava processing and utilization is based on the Project Integrated Development of the Cassava Crop in The State of Ceara, carried out during 1989 to 1992 as a joint activity of EPACE, EMATERCE and CIAT, and funded by the W. K. Kellogg Foundation.

Background

Ceará is the fourth State of Northeast Brazil, regarding size, with a surface area of about 148.817 Km² and an estimated population of 6.4 million people, 36% of them living in rural areas.

A major part of the state is considered to be under semiarid conditions, thus showing socioeconomic problems similar to the other Northeast States, the least developed region of Brazil.

Land distribution in the state of Ceara is characterized by a great disparity with the number of farms with sizes less than 10 ha accounting for 63% of the total number of farms yet occupying a mere 6% of the total farm land. The Northeast Region is responsible for approximately 50% of the cassava production of Brazil, in about 51% of the area planted with cassava in the country. It is estimated that 110 thousands ha are planted every year in the State of Ceara, with a total output near to 1.2 millions tonnes of roots. During 1991, cassava was second in the State in terms of total monetary value and represented the fifth crop in terms of area planted.

Throughout centuries cassava roots have been processed into a type of flour called "farinha de mandioca", a basic staple food, especially in the rural communities in Northeast Brazil. In Ceará it is estimated that there are more than 14 000 small-scale root processing units called "casas de farinha" with an annual output near to 200 000 metric tonnes of cassava flour. Animal feeding, at the farm level, in fresh form, represents another important use for the cassava crop, accounting for 25% of total production. Besides that, minimal quantities are also used for human consumption (fresh roots, starch).

Cassava, especially as flour, represents one of the most important sources of income for farmers in the state of Ceara. The irregularity of precipitation so characteristic of that region, gives rise to oscillations in cassava production, influencing the price of cassava flour and, consequently, farmers' incomes. Besides, the low quality of the product and low processing technology, contribute to the establishment of commercialization systems into which the farmers usually sell their products for prices lower than production costs.

Based on the above considerations, the agencies of research and extension started a program aimed at the establishment of alternative markets for cassava products that enabled the farmers to sell cassava products other than flour. The alternative market identified was the dry cassava chips for animal feeding.

Project Integrated Development of the Cassava Crop in the State of Ceará

The project was carried out during 1989-1992, and the following outcomes were expected: a) adaptation of a small-scale cassava-based agro-industrial development model to the conditions of Northeast Brazil; b) developing and strengthening community-based organizations and involving national research, extension and development agencies in a concerted effort to improve small-farmer welfare through activities focused on cassava; and c) welfare improvement and stimulation of economic development in the target region by developing cassava processing and alternative markets as income- and employment-generation activities.

Market for animal feed rations

Brazil is one of the largest beef producers in the world. Beef and pig production is lower in North and Northeast areas than in the rest of the country. Beef and pig production remained relatively stable over the 1980-90 periods. On the other hand, poultry meat presented a very dynamic increase during the same period. Brazil has become the third world producer with a share of about 7% of total world market supply. Egg production has also presented a significant steady growth in the past 15 years (Table 3).

Table 3. Animal production in Brazil by region.

Source: IBGE - Anuário Estatístico do Brasil, 1989.

Up to the 1960's, the animal feed industry in Brazil was relatively small in scale and it was directed mainly to dairy cattle. In the early sixties, the use of balanced feed rations for pig production started to grow, stimulating a fast development of the animal feed industry. The demand for balanced feed rations increased more than four times in a fourteen year period, increasing from 2.4 million metric tonnes in 1971 to 10 million metric tonnes in 1985. As a consequence, a strong demand for corn evolved, since corn represents the main animal feed raw material in Brazil, accounting for an average of 65% of rations. During the same period, demand for corn in Brazil went up from 8.4 million metric tonnes to 15 million metric tonnes a year. Due to that, Brazil, a traditional corn exporting country, had to import more than 4 million metric tonnes of corn from 1977 to 1980. Another important point is that Northeast Brazil has a large shortage of corn, as well as of animal feed in comparison with other regions of the Country (Table 4).

The aforementioned scenario offered the opportunity for the use of dried cassava in animal feed, as an appropriate way to improve the Northeast's self-sufficiency in feed grains, animal feed and animal production, and at the same time, placing cassava in the overall context of rural development, using the crop as a vehicle to open an alternative market with favourable effects on small-farmer income and employment opportunities.

Table 4. Maize, animal feed and cassava surpluses and deficits in Brazil, by regions (Data are expressed as metric tonnes)

Sources: IBGE - Anuário Estatístico do Brasil. 1989
Companhia de Financiamento da Produção (CFP), 1989

FIGURE 6. EXPANSION OF CASSAVA DRYING AGROINDUSTRIES IN THE STATE OF CEARA, BRAZIL, 1986-1991.

A pilot project was established to help build up the local capacity needed to implement a cassava-based research and development effort. The pilot project implementation relied on the existence of the State of Ceará Cassava Committee (CCC) and on the experience of 11 farmer groups organized for cassava processing activities prior to project onset. As a consequence of good initial results, CCC gained recognition and credibility at the State level and it was able to identify sources of additional financial resources with different government agencies and programs on behalf of the farmer groups. These grant-type funds allowed farmer organizations to build up processing plants. The pilot project lasted three years and by its end, 158 cassava-based groups were organized around the drying agro-industries with 75% of them only established during the last year (Figure 6). Principal results obtained during the pilot project conduction were as follows:

1. LEVELS OF INSTITUTIONAL SUPPORT

The CCC became the main coordinating body for the project activities and all activities related to promotion and development of the cassava crop in Ceará. CCC was chaired by a representative of the State Secretariat of Agriculture. Later, it became a permanent member of the nationwide "Câmara Setorial de Mandioca" (Cassava Sectorial Chamber), which represents growers, agro-industries, consumers and government organizations and whose main purpose is to recommend policies to the Ministry of Agriculture. Building institutional capacity and support at local level was pursued through the establishment of Cassava Regional Committees (five of them were established in 1992), composed by representatives of the main collaborating agencies as well as farmer groups. Through the Cassava Regional Committee, the project rapidly decentralized its activities, improved communication among extension officers across the state and improved local participation in project management and decision making. The Cassava Regional Committee coordinated the work at community level of the technical teams, composed by extension workers and subject-matter specialists from research and extension agencies. These technical teams were in charge of stimulating the formation of community-based farmer groups for integrated cassava production, processing and commercialization.

2. FARMERS ORGANIZATION

The project concentrated efforts on helping cassava-based communities to get organized around dry cassava processing agro-industries. The promotion of small-scale cassava based organizations resulted in an attractive proposal for producers who rapidly started building up their organizations. Total number of farmers participating in project activities by the end of the pilot project exceeded 3 000. Nearly 60% of group members were small-holders (of whom 28% were living in land reform settlements), 29% were renters, and 11% were sharecroppers. More than half of the total numbers of project beneficiaries were planting less than 1 ha; only 15% were planting more than 2 ha. Farmers received training on cassava production, processing and commercialization as well as community organization through more than 100 training events (short courses, field days, and study trips), involving nearly 850 technicians and more than 2 000 farmers. First-order organizations showed to be very weak in areas of business management, administration and commercialization, and following successful results with second-order farmer organizations in Colombia and Ecuador, it was decided to organize three of these groups in Ceará (Figure 7).

Figure 7. Farmer and institutional organization in the Project "Integrated Development of the Cassava Crop in the State of Ceará

3. PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY: ADOPTION AND BENEFITS

Farmer groups rapidly adapted their farming systems to the introduced processing technology due to its simplicity, and especially because of their long experience with cassava processing activities, performed for centuries. From 1989 to 1992, the groups processed 7,094 metric tonnes of fresh cassava roots with a production of dry chips of about 2,677 metric tonnes. The project was also successful in opening and consolidating an alternative market for cassava. During three years a total of 975 clients purchased dry cassava; 93% of them bought low volumes (less than 5 metric tonnes/year), accounting for 35% of total output sold and only 5% of total number of consumers purchased large amounts of the product accounting for 59% of the total volume commercialized. Farmers groups received three types of benefits from the project: 1) a new market for their cassava production; 2) the additional employment opportunities generated in the dry cassava agro-industries; and 3) the annual share of profits that each organization generated with dry cassava processing activities. This latter benefit was only captured by members of the organizations whereas the former two benefits were also available to any member of the communities surrounding the agro-industries. From 1989 to 1992, total earnings generated by farmers through cassava processing were US$ 163,689. 37% of that amount came from cassava sales, 10% from wages for processing and 53% from farmer's share of annual profits. Small holders received 59% of earnings, renters 32% and sharecroppers only 9% (Figure 8); near three fourths of total income was devoted to growers planting less than 2 ha of cassava.

FIGURE 8. DISTRIBUTION 0F TOTAL FARMERS EARNINGS GENERATED DURING THE CEARA CASSAVA RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT PROJECT (1989-1992).

4. TRADITIONAL MARKET VERSUS NEW MARKET: THE REAL ISSUE

The pilot project was implemented with farmer groups whose cassava-based farming system was built around processing and commercialization of cassava flour, its main source of income, cash and food. This cassava processing is generally performed at household level. The project strategy was to develop a new market - dry cassava for animal feed - so that when market prices for cassava flour are low, the dry cassava agro-industries function as alternative market and farmers would have the option to sell a share of its production to the drying plants. Conversely, when cassava flour prices are good, farmers would process most of their production into cassava flour. Analysis of the data collected for the period 1990-91 (two cassava processing cycles), showed the dynamics and variability of the cassava commercialization system in the region. In 1990, production of dry cassava chips was a more profitable activity for farmers with a net margin of 13.3% per kg whereas cassava flour gave them a net loss of 17.5% per each kg produced. One year later, the situation was reversed and production of cassava flour became a more productive activity with a net profit of 24.5% per kg as compared with only 10.8% for each kg of dry cassava (Figure 9). Selection of the final destiny for their production is not an easy choice for farmers since there are other factors, besides economic ones, that affect decisions, namely land tenure, availability of labour force, lack of processing infrastructure, and environmental conditions.

FIGURE 9. PROFITABILITY OF CASSAVA FLOUR AND DRY CASSAVA CHIPS PROCESSING IN STATE OF CEARA, NORTHEAST BRAZIL.

5. IMPROVED PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY: LIMITED ADOPTION

Despite the fact that the project implementation strategy was based on the transfer and adaptation of available alternative cassava processing technologies, a component of improved production technology was also included among project activities. Two major constraints were identified: low adoption of improved technologies, and lack of good quality planting material. The first constraint was addressed by establishing "pre-production trials", a semi-commercial size type of cassava demonstration plot was planted combining improved components of production technology with traditional farmer production practices. Farmers assumed responsibilities for management of the plots and production expenses were financed by the project (weeding, fertilizers). Initial results showed clearly that improved technology components made it feasible to increase cassava yields in the region by up to 50% in comparison with cassava yields obtained at farmers' plots. These results have to be considered cautiously because they were obtained within the project framework and farmers did not pay any expenses. It must still be assessed if small-scale, low-resource farmers themselves are willing to invest in management practices such as fertilizers and weed control. The limited time period of the pilot project (three years) did not allow to verify this aspect.

To deal with the second cassava production constraint - lack of good quality planting material - the project implemented the production of communal seed plots. The region is drought-prone and every time that a drought strikes, the availability of planting material for next cropping season becomes a major issue. Establishment of the communal seed plots was based on the principle that cassava plants can be pruned during its vegetative growth without seriously affecting yields. The idea was that farmers would prune the communal plots when the rainy season started, thus allowing them to utilize planting material of good quality. This activity was not successful because farmers were not willing to prune the cassava plants giving them more importance as source of roots for the processing agro-industries than as source of planting material.

6. MONITORING AND EVALUATION SYSTEM

An important achievement of the project was the establishment of a monitoring and evaluating system for continuous follow-up and evaluation of project activities and results. That system involved: 1) collection of base line data with continuously updated information from farmer organizations; 2) annual surveys; and 3) intensive monitoring of a small sub-sample of project beneficiaries. Data were collected at the dry cassava agro-industries by farmer managers and extension workers and they were sent through the Regional Committees to the State Committee where the information was processed, analyzed and distributed back to farmers and project personnel. Monthly reports on performance of farmer groups in processing proved very useful for planning project activities and estimating benefits and their distribution among project beneficiaries. This information was also very useful during elaboration of the annual project reports distributed to a wider audience, including donors and decision makers. At the end of the pilot project, the base line data included information about 133 farmer groups with a total of 2,962 cassava farmers

7. INTEGRATED CROP MANAGEMENT

In Northeast Brazil, cassava is a small growers' crop, cultivated in rain-fed areas which have fragile or problem soils. The farmers also have problems with low quality planting material, inadequate planting systems and incidence of pests and disease.

Besides, the use of technology transfer mechanisms not directed to most of the farmers concentrating on higher cassava production in the Northeast, has contributed strongly to the current economic and social situation of the crop.

Project on Ecologically Sustainable Cassava Plant Protection in South America and Africa: an environmentally sound approach (PROFISMA)

In 1993, EMBRAPA/CNPMF, in cooperation with several national and international institutions (Table 5) started the project "Ecologically Sustainable Cassava Plant Protection for Latin America and Africa: an environmentally sound approach" (PROFISMA), funded by UNDP. The project had as main objectives to develop, test, adapt and transfer sustainable plant protection technologies in areas where the crop shows high social and economic importance. Expected benefits were; a) increased cassava root yield and/or quality, thus increasing growers' income; b) strengthened capacity of national research and development systems through training, collaborative research and exchange information; c) diffused sustainable plant protection technologies; and d) established environmentally sound technologies.

This project, based on farmers' participatory methods, was implemented in the States of Bahia, Ceará, Paraiba and Pernambuco, with activities in the States of Alagoas and Sergipe, all of them in Northeast Brazil. To carry out the project, EMBRAPA/CNPMF involved the participation of the following state agencies for research and extension: EBDA, Bahia, IPA and EMATERE-PE, Pernambuco, EMATER-PB, Paraíba, and EPACE and EMARTE-CE, Ceará. Some actions were also implemented in the States of Alagoas, through the Alagoas Agency for Agricultural Research (EPEAL), and in Sergipe, jointly with the Center of Agricultural Research for Coastal Soils (CPATC), as well as part of the project PRÓ-SERTÃO, funded by IFAD and the Government of the State of Sergipe.

Table 5. PROFISMA project's cooperating institutions

PROFISMA's implementation was based on FPR techniques. Due to that, the project provided training for researchers and extension workers from the states where PROFISMA was implanted. Training activities consisted of four phases:

Phase 1. Participatory diagnostic surveys;
Phase 2. Planning activities and technology tests with farmers' participation;
Phase 3. Participatory evaluation of technology tests;
Phase 4. Monitoring and evaluating the impact of the technology tests.

A description of the activities carried out during each phase, as well as the main results obtained from the activities in each phase is given bellow:

Phase 1. Participatory Diagnostic Surveys

Phase 1 conducted during 1994, included an extensive diagnostic survey carried out in 74 rural communities, located in 51 municipalities in the States of Bahia, Ceara, Paraiba and Pernambuco. The surveys were performed by multidisciplinary teams, composed by researchers and extension workers from the participating institutions in each state. A total of 1,652 farmers, 28% of them women, were surveyed.

The results of the extensive diagnostic surveys showed the main constraints of the cassava crop as identified by farmers. The relative importance of the problems was measured as a Priority Index established as a function of the number of times the problem was mentioned by the communities, combined with the level of importance of each problem, varying from 1 (high importance) to 5 (less importance).

The main objective of the survey was to identify phytosanitary constraints to the cassava crop, aiming to organize a research agenda, using participatory methods, able to solve the production limiting problems. However, the results showed that some of the problems identified by the farmers could not be solved by applying production technologies. Typical examples are: lack of credit, low prices, lack of tractor and/or animals for soil preparation, technical assistance being not efficient, and migration to urban centers.

Another important result from the extensive diagnostic was the high significance of production problems, other than phytosanitaries, as identified by the farmers. Two problems were frequently mentioned: poor soils and drought. Such observation imposed a change in PROFISMA's activities, moving from integrated pest management to integrated crop management, as a wider objective.

In the State of Bahia the extensive diagnostic was carried out in 25 rural communities, involving 472 farmers (Figure 10). The most important problems identified by the cassava growers were horn-worm, poor soils, drought, mites and root rots.

Figure 10. Constraints of the cassava crop, according to the farmers, identified during the participatory diagnostic carried out at the State of Bahia

The extensive diagnostic performed in the State of Ceará (Figure 11) involved 20 rural communities and 549 farmers. Results showed that limiting problems were drought, horn-worm, poor soils and root rots.

Figure 11. Constraints of the cassava crop, identified during the participatory diagnostics, according to farmers, State of Ceara

In the State of Paraiba, 174 farmers of 10 rural communities were surveyed. Root rots and poor soils were identified as main problems (Figure 12). Most of the problems identified by the farmers required social and political actions.

Figure. 12. Constraints of the cassava crop as identified by farmers, during participatory diagnostics carried out in the State of Partaiba

The extensive diagnostic of the cassava crop carried out in the State of Pernambuco involved 377 farmers of 19 rural communities. Poor soils, root rots and mealy-bugs were the limiting factors identified by the farmers (Figure 13).

Figure 13. Constraints of the cassava crop as identified during the participatory diagnostic, according to farmers, State of Pernambuco

The problems identified during the extensive diagnostic made it possible to re-define PROFISMA's priorities in order to attend the demand expressed by the farmers. This reflected in planning participatory tests in Phase 2.

Phase 2. Planning participatory technology tests

This phase started with the establishment of Local Agricultural Research Committees (COPAL) in some farmers' communities identified during the participatory diagnostic survey. On farm trials were installed in the COPALs with the participation of researchers, extension workers and farmers.

A COPAL may be defined as a kind of farmers' organization to facilitate farmer participation in the whole process of technology development and transfer. Each COPAL was composed of 4 members elected by the community, who have the responsibility to interact with researchers and extension workers, and administer the technology tests at community level.

During 1994 to 1996, 25 COPALs were established, 6 of them funded by the Bank of Northeast Brazil (BNB), in located in the State of Ceara. Table 6 shows the distribution of the COPALs established up to 1997.

Due to PROFISMA's original concept, most of the technology tests in the COPALs referred to the control of pests and diseases through resistant/tolerant varieties, in a joint activity with the projects Development of Cassava Germplasm, Cassava Crop Management and Cassava Crop Development. Technologies, such as planting systems, including inter-cropping and crop rotation, quality of planting material, improvement of physical and chemical characteristics of the soil by using cover crops, already available in the EMBRAPA/CNPMF, were also tested in some COPALs.

Phase 3. Participatory evaluation of technology tests

Monitoring and evaluation of the technologies tested in a participatory way, involved farmers, extension workers and researchers linked to each COPAL. In addition to the continuous monitoring of the on farm trials, with evaluation of pests and diseases and general behaviour of the varieties at harvest, several farmers were invited to express their opinions on the treatments. The participation of the researchers was restricted to the agronomic evaluation of treatments (weightings and measurements), which were then compared with farmers' qualitative evaluation.

The results showed that, with very few exceptions, the order of preference of treatments preferred by farmers coincided with their agronomic performance, suggesting a high capacity of the farmers to identify the best treatments. A typical example was obtained in the COPAL Barra, at São Miguel das Matas-BA: the higher yields were obtained by varieties 128-8 and 189-11, supplied by the project on Development of Cassava Germplasm for the Semi-Arid Areas of Latin America, Asia and Africa, which were also the ones preferred by farmers (Figure 14).

In general, the yields obtained in the technology tests carried out in the COPALs were higher than the local average yields, reaching up to 35 tonnes/ha at the COPAL Colônia, Inhambupe-BA. This has contributed for the acceptance of the technology by farmers, as well as for the desire for continuation of participatory experiences in farmers' fields.

Figure 14. Evaluation of cassava varieties for resistance/tolerance to whiteflies and preference ranking in the COPAL Barra, São Miguel das Matas, Bahia

Table 6. COPALs established during 1994 - 96, in several municipalities in the States of Bahia, Ceará, Paraíba e Pernambuco, and technology tested

In addition, the COPALs have proved to be an important instrument to facilitate and stimulate the participation of farmers' groups in the activities of technology generation and transfer. We can conclude that the COPALs are efficient mechanisms for integrating farmers, extension agents and researchers, providing farmers the opportunity to express their demands and to request inclusion of their problems and priorities on the agendas of research and development agencies.

LESSONS LEARNT

Project Development of Cassava Germplasm for Semiarid Conditions of Latin America, Asia and Africa

• Looking at the results obtained regarding the delivery of improved cassava varieties to farmers it is possible to conclude that the main reasons why cassava farmers do not adopt new improved varieties are: a) varieties have been selected based only on breeder's criteria within the experimental station, under non stressing conditions and without farmers' participation; b) the methodologies used for technology transfer were not the most adequate, and; c) there was no feedback from the cassava farmers.

• Farmers' participatory research proved to be a very efficient methodology for cassava improvement, constituting the shortest way to reach farmers' adoption of new varieties. Even though the work has been conducted in Northeast Brazil, the results indicate the possibility of using participatory methods on cassava breeding in several cassava growing regions of the country.

• Farmers' participation in the whole process of technology development has enabled a relatively easy and fast adoption of improved cassava varieties, thus showing the great potential of FPR as a tool for diffusion, transfer and adoption of cassava varieties, especially in North-eastern Brazil.

• Cassava grown in semi arid zones has a very small genetic diversity in comparison with other ecosystems. As a result farmers are willing to test new varieties, either for comparison with their own or for increasing genetic diversity. On the other hand, the experience has shown that the adoption process is very difficult and adoption will only occur if the improved variety shows several desirable characteristics highly superior to those of the traditional ones, or if the variety has a characteristic not found in farmers' varieties. This was the situation with the variety BGM 260 (Rosa), selected by the farmers for consumption "in natura", in the municipality of Quixadá, State of Ceará.

• All these difficulties in adopting an improved cassava variety made clear that traditional methods of technology transfer, such as field days and demonstration units are not the best approach for its adoption. Farmers' participation in all phases of technology development is very important, once it contributes for the improvement of selection criteria, besides providing feedback to the system.

Project Integrated Development of the Cassava Crop in the State of Ceara

• Despite the adverse economic situation that prevailed in Brazil, especially in Northeast Region, during the period of implementation of this project, it can be concluded that it was successful in promoting the organization of cassava farmers around small-scale dry cassava processing agro-industries. The initial task of these cassava-based farmers groups was to improve their traditional commercialization system, developed over centuries around the cassava flour for human consumption. The success obtained with the introduction of dry cassava chips for animal feed as an alternative market indicates that there is a great potential in the region for the promotion of a cassava-based rural development model which could contribute to create additional employment opportunities, to open alternative markets, to stimulate local industry, to raise farmer's income and to encourage overall community development.

• The project confirmed the hypothesis that when increased value for the cassava crop is created through the identification of alternative markets and the development of new products suited to new markets, farmers are willing to invest in appropriate production technologies.

• The project was able to efficiently utilize available human and physical resources, to facilitate decentralization, participation, development and operational/organizational strategies adapted to the prevailing local institutional landscape. Additionally, the project has shown that the partnership between international and local institutions is a viable model that helps local agencies to build up their capacities and refine their working methodologies, thus resulting in benefits for poor-resource farmers.

• The project clearly demonstrated that integration of production, processing and marketing activities is crucial to exploit the potential of cassava. It also proved to have effective mechanisms to stimulate the collaboration of local research and extension agencies with farmers' organizations.

• The establishment of State and Regional Cassava Committees proved to be an effective organizational strategy to facilitate coordination and decentralization of project activities. These committees helped the project to establish close ties with agricultural policy makers at the state and country levels, on behalf of small-scale cassava farmers.

• The process of transforming individual cassava growers into organized small-scale agro-industries entrepreneurs, capable of establishing and administrating dry cassava processing agro-industries, was relatively easily assimilated by farmers who acquired adequate expertise in a relatively short period of time (three years).

• Another contribution of the project was the establishment of links of small-scale cassava farmers with alternative markers, providing an effective vehicle for increasing incomes, stabilizing on-farm prices and expanding the market size for the crop with direct benefits for cassava growers.

Project Ecologically Sustainable Cassava Plant Protection: an environmentally sound approach

• The establishment of Farmer's Research Committees (COPALs) as part of PROFISMA activities made possible the diffusion, transference and adoption of technologies that, although available for a long time, were not used by farmers, probably because the approach used to bring those technologies to the farmers were not the most adequate.

• The participatory diagnostic surveys of the cassava crop performed in some Northeast States made it possible to reorganize the research agenda of PROFISMA in particular, and of the research institutions in general, according to the priorities identified by the growers.

• The efficiency of the participatory methods used by PROFISMA for diffusion of cassava production technologies, made possible the adoption of FPR methodologies by several research and technology transfer agencies as part of their activities with other crops, besides cassava.

• Probably the most important lesson learnt from all the projects coordinated by EMBRAPA/CNPMF using FPR methodologies in Northeast Brazil was the necessity of training a large number of researchers, extension workers and farmers able to conduct efficiently all the steps necessary for implementing FPR methods. In this regard, EMBRAPA/CNPMF, in collaboration with CIAT, has already trained a small group of researchers and extension workers on FPR methods and establishment of COPALs.

FUTURE ACTIVITIES

The interventions reported in the present case study showed that there is a need to implement several actions in order to consolidate the benefits from the projects already conducted, as well as to promote a better development of the cassava crop in Northeast Brazil. A critical analysis of the case study shows clearly that the use of Farmer Participatory Research Techniques is a very efficient mechanism for identification of crop constraints, generation, evaluation, diffusion, transference and adoption of technologies for the cassava in Northeast Brazil.

Considering the problems related to traditional methods of technology transfer, the small number of researchers and extension workers trained in participatory methods, and the promising results obtained with the use of participatory methods, it is proposed that this methodology should be used in the identification of crop constraints, generation and diffusion of technologies for cassava. In order to consolidate all the results obtained and to solve the main constraints identified by the farmers in their communities, it is proposed to strength collaborative links at international, national, state and municipality levels, that enable implementing the following actions:

(1) To increase and to intensify training of researchers, extension workers and cassava farmers in farmer participatory research techniques;

(2) To stimulate the creation of farmers' organizations, where COPALs can be established;

(3) To increase the genetic diversity of cassava available to the farmers in semiarid zones, by transferring improved and adapted varieties through FPR;

(4) To develop production and plant protection systems adapted to each cassava growing zone, able to increase yield, reduce production costs and increase the crop competitiveness with other agricultural products.

(5) To stimulate the consolidation of existing markets for cassava flour and dry chips, besides creating alternative markets for products such as: starch, flour for bread, fresh cassava, and enriched flour;

(6) To promote multiplication of planting material in farmers' communities, located in semiarid zones, in order to increase the availability of good quality planting material;

(7) To stimulate the use of the cassava plant for animal feeding;

(8) To increase cooperation with state institutions and/or rural development projects such as the Project Rio Gavião, funded by IFAD, as well as with international institutions and national research systems, especially in the Southern hemisphere, thus increasing South-South collaboration.

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