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4 Importance to people: food, income, trade

WILD EDIBLE FUNGI AND LIVELIHOODS

This chapter looks at the ways in which wild edible fungi are important to people, particularly those in developing countries, and attempts to relate this information to the way in which people live. Development support is adopting new approaches towards helping poor people in devloping countries. Pragmatic and practical approaches to reducing poverty seek improvements sooner rather than later. Wild edible fungi already play an important role in the lives of many people and more benefits could be achieved. A knowledge of the fungi themselves is important but will not of itself lead to changes unless the choices and options defined by livelihoods are closely examined (Box 6)8.

Wild edible fungi provide two main benefits to people: they are a source of food and income. Around six percent of edible species also have medicinal properties (next section; Table 14). This contribution to human welfare is difficult to assess and has received little attention. The medicinal properties of mycorrhizal fungi have not been well investigated (Reshetnikov, Wasser and Tan, 2001).

The awareness of wild edible fungi and their importance to people are generally poor. Subsistence uses in developing countries have often been ignored and it is only in recent years that initiatives on NWFP have begun to explain their widespread use and roles in livelihoods. There has been much interest in the last years surrounding commercial harvesting of matsutake in the Pacific northwest of North America, supported by a substantial literature. However, matsutake and the continued interest in truffles and truffle cultivation (Hall, Zambonelli and Primavera, 1998) reflect a very different pattern of use, where wild edible fungi are seen as a luxury food.

Beyond the glare of publicity of commercial harvests, information from development projects and national initiatives – for example China, Mexico and Turkey – has slowly been emerging. Commercial harvesting also benefits rural people in several countries but the sum of the money earned is less than the total benefits gained from widespread subsistence uses. Substantial benefits are derived by people in developing countries, and in particular the most vulnerable communities living in rural locations – the “poor of the poor”.

Global statistics are not available and the evidence to support statements about widespread benefits is based first on case studies, discussed in more detail below, and second on more anecdotal accounts. Information has been poorly documented in the past because of fewer opportunities for scientists to study wild edible fungi in developing countries. There have also been cultural biases against wild edible fungi and an often unjustified assumption that they are of minor importance (Piearce, 1985; Wasson and Wasson, 1957). The latter publication has done much to stimulate wider interest and more research (Table 13).

Donor-funded projects on wild edible fungi in the United Republic of Tanzania (Härkönen et al., 1993), Malawi (Boa et al., 2000) and Benin (De Kesel, 2002, personal communication: Wild edible fungi from Benin) have taken a broader view of social and economic issues related to wild edible fungi. National programmes in Mexico have established a sound knowledge of the many species of wild edible fungi used throughout the country (Villarreal and Perez-Moreno, 1989). Research attention is now being turned on social and economic factors, encouraged by a wider awareness of the importance of NWFP to rural economies and people.

The importance of wild edible fungi to people in developing countries may also have gone unremarked for the simple reason that many of the collections are for personal use (Yorou and De Kesel, 2002). The limited mycological expertise in West Africa is said to be responsible for the mistaken belief that it is a “mushroom desert” (Ducousso, Ba and Thoen, 2002). Reports from Ghana (Obodai and Apetorgbor, 2001) and Sierra Leone (Down, 2002, personal communication: Wild edible fungi from Sierra Leone) indicate that local use is widespread. The regular use of wild edible fungi in tropical rain forests was revealed when careful observations of local practices were undertaken in Brazil (Prance, 1984), now supported by evidence from Kalimantan (Leluyani, 2002, personal communication: Edible fungi of Kalimantan) and Sarawak (Chin, 1988; Jones, 2002, personal communication: Wild edible fungi use in Sarawak).

Information is published in a number of different places or disciplines (Table 2) and is sometimes presented in broader studies of communities (e.g. Shackleton et al., 2002: South Africa; Ertrug, 2000: Turkey; Gunatilleke, Gunatilleke and Abeygunawardena, 1993: Sri Lanka). These and many other reports listed in the reference section emphasize that the contributions of wild edible fungi to diet and income of rural people should not be underestimated.

The following sections take a closer look at the types of benefits obtained from wild edible fungi. Their relative contributions to livelihoods vary greatly. A meal of wild mushrooms is a delicacy in Switzerland or the United States but a necessity in Malawi. The money earned from selling Lactarius deliciosus provides a small financial fillip in northern Spain (de Román, 2002, personal communication: Trade in níscalos from North Spain to Catalonia and truffle production) while collecting morels in India allows people to pay for sending their children to school (Singh and Rawat, 2000).

The importance of wild edible fungi from a development perspective is defined by comparison with other sources of food and income. Alternatives do exist and proposals to increase the use and benefits of wild edible fungi will always be compared with available options. The lure of jobs in the tourist trade in Hunan, China, is an attractive alternative to climbing up and down mountains, with no guarantee of finding wild edible fungi to sell (Härkönen, 2002). The contraction of job opportunities in the forestry business does not mean that collecting wild edible fungi is either an attractive or economic proposition, even to people desperate for work (Tedder, Mitchell and Farran, 2002).

BOX 6

Development projects and wild edible fungi

Two different approaches to wild edible fungi are compared. In the first hypothetical project, all the species of wild edible fungi in a region are described and nutritional characteristics are analysed. Local names are gathered and general observations made about local marketing.

In the second project, researchers assess sources of food and income for local communities. They compare their relative importance and examine the opportunities and constraints to improved nutrition and income, which include edible fungi. New schemes and initiatives are agreed and piloted.

The two approaches are complementary but the first project does not lead to change in local practices. The second project seeks to make improvements to the way people live based on available information. More improvements might be achieved if better technical knowledge was available, yet local communities can still plan new initiatives using local names for wild edible fungi or seek efficiencies in local marketing based on a clear understanding of local practices and opportunities.

TABLE 13

Ethnoscientific studies of wild fungi with edible and medicinal properties

COUNTRY

WILD FUNGI EMPHASIS

SOURCE

Australia

Useful (includes edible) species in aboriginal culture

Kalotas, 1997

Balkan region

Medicinal species: study of eastern Slavs

Didukh, 2001

Brazil

Study of Sanama Indians (includes edible species)

Fidalgo and Prance, 1976

Canada

Aboriginal plant use, including edible and medicinal wild fungi

Marles et al., 2000

China

Comparison of Hunan and China (mostly edible species)

Härkönen, 2002

Guatemala

Folklore concerning Amanita muscaria

Lowy, 1974

General

Fungi in folk medicine

Birks, 1991

General

The origins of ethnomycology, as a discipline

Davis, 2000

General (Mexico)

Personal stories of ethnomycology, myths and ceremonies

Riedlinger, 1990

Himalaya, eastern

Edible fungi of medicinal value

Boruah and Singh, 2001

India

Fungi in folk medicine

Vaidya and Rabba, 1993

India, central

Ethno-myco-medicinals

Rai, Ayachi and Rai, 1993

Japan

Uses of fungi and lichens by Ainu

Yokoyama, 1975

Malawi

Edible, medicinal and species used for ceremonial purposes

Morris, 1992

Mexico

Medicinal mushrooms: traditions, myths and knowledge

Guzmán, 2001

Nepal

General observations (mainly edible species)

Adhikari and Durrieu, 1996

Nigeria

Medicinal practices in Yoruba culture

Oso, 1977

Papua New Guinea

Mainly concerned with edible species

Sillitoe, 1995

Peru

Fungi, mostly edible, part of ethnobotanical study

Franquemont et al., 1990

Poland

Polish folk medicine

Grzywnowicz, 2001

Russian Federation

Khanty folk medicine

Saar, 1991

Russian Federation, far east

Medicinal mushrooms in nature

Bulakh, 2001

Tanzania (United Republic of)

Compares use of wild edible fungi with customs in Hunan in China

Härkönen, 2002; Härkönen, Niemelä and Mwasumbi, 2003

Turkey

Edible fungi, part of an ethnobotanical study

Ertrug, 2000

Zambia

Customs and folklore about mostly edible species

Piearce, 1981

Note: See also Volume 3 (1–2) of the International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms for abstracts from a conference on medicinal mushrooms, many of which have a ethnoscientific slant.

NUTRITION AND HEALTH BENEFITS

Useful macrofungi consist of those with edible and medicinal properties9. There is no easy distinction between the two categories. Many of the common edible species have therapeutic properties; several medicinal mushrooms are also eaten (Table 14). Ganoderma species (ling zhi or reishi) are the most valuable medicinal mushrooms (Plate 9): the global value of ganoderma-based dietary supplements has been estimated to be US$1.6 billion (Chang and Buswell, 1999).

Lentinula edodes and Volvariella volvacea are widely cultivated edible fungi with medicinal properties. Only Inonotus obliquus, out of the 25 medicinal species listed in Table 14, appears not to be cultivated. Of the 182 medicinal fungi reported in Annex 3 only 5 percent are ectomycorrhizal (see Reshetnikov, Wasser and Tan, 2001). This is probably an underestimate (Mao, 2000) since research efforts have concentrated on saprobic species that can be cultivated, thus providing a guaranteed supply and uniformity of product.

There has been a spectacular increase of interest and commercial activity concerned with dietary supplements, functional foods and other products that are “more than just food” (Etkin and Johns, 1998; Wasser et al., 2000). Although these new products have clear economic potential, their relevance to developing countries is at present still marginal. Medicinal wild fungi are collected in China. There is a substantial trade of Cordyceps sinensis in Sichuan (Plate 9) (Priest, 2002, personal communication: Edible and medicinal fungi in China and general information; Winkler, 2002) and in other countries such as Nepal. Rural people earn substantial amounts from commercial harvesting.

The main benefits of wild useful fungi are, however, as food. They are collected, consumed and sold in over 85 countries (Annexes 1 and 2) and their contribution to diets is discussed below.

TABLE 14

Nutritional composition of some wild edible fungi

   

COMPOSITION, PERCENTAGE DRY WEIGHT

BINOMIAL

COUNTRY

PROTEIN

CARBOHYDRATE

FAT

MINERAL MATTER (ASH)

Amanita caesarea

France? (1)

15

nk

14

10

Amanita loosii

Democratic Republic of the Congo (2)

20

nk

nk

nk

Amanita rubescens

Mexico (3)

18

nk

nk

nk

Boletus edulis

Turkey (7)

38

47

9

1

Boletus edulis

Finland (8)

23

nk

2

7

Boletus erythropus

Jordan (5)

15

57

1

8

Boletus frostii

Mexico (3)

16

nk

nk

nk

Boletus loyo

Chile (12)

22

50

1

6

Cantharellus cibarius

Turkey (6)

21

62

5

2

Cantharellus cibarius

Democratic Republic of the Congo (10)

15

64

5

13

Lactarius phlebophyllum

United Republic of Tanzania (7)

30

51

9

5

Lactarius deliciosus

France? (1)

23

nk

7

6

Lactarius deliciosus

Chile (4)

27

28

7

6

Lactarius indigo

Mexico (3)

13

nk

nk

nk

Lactarius torminosus

Finland (8)

21

nk

2

7

Lactarius piperatus

Turkey (6)

27

65

2

1

Ramaria flava

Mexico (3)

14

nk

nk

nk

Ramaria flava

Finland (8)

24

nk

2

6

Russula cyanoxantha

France? (1)

17

nk

8

8

Russula delica

India (9)

17

nk

nk

nk

Russula sp.

Democratic Republic of the Congo (10)

29

55

6

6

Suillus luteus

Chile (4)

20

57

4

6

Suillus granulatus

Chile (4)

14

70

2

6

Terfezia claveryi

Iraq (11)

8

17

nk

10

Termitomyces microcarpus 1

United Republic of Tanzania (7)

49

29

10

11

Termitomyces microcarpus 2

United Republic of Tanzania (7)

35

37

6

23

Termitomyces microcarpus

Democratic Republic of the Congo (10)

33

38

5

14

Tricholoma populinum

Canada (13)

13

70

9

7

Tricholoma saponaceum

France? (1)

5

nk

7

8

Tirmania nivea

Iraq (11)

14

21

nk

5

nk – not known. Figures rounded to nearest whole number.

Sources: (1) Kiger, 1959 – assumed to have tested specimens from France but not stated; (2) Degreef et al., 1997; (3) Leon-Guzman, Silva and Lopez, 1997; (4) FAO, 1998b; (5) Ereifej and Al-Raddad, 2000; (6) Caglarirmak, Unal and Otles., 2002; (7) Härkönen, Saarimäki and Mwasumbi, 1994a; (8) Kreula, Saarivirta and Karando, 1976; (9) Purkayastha and Chandra, 1985; (10) Parent and Thoen, 1977; (11) Al-Naama, Ewaze and Nema, 1988; (12) Schmeda-Hirschmann et al., 1999b; (13) Turner, Kuhnlein and Egger, 1987.

Nutritional value

The constituents of an edible fungus are not necessarily a good guide to nutritional value (Breene, 1990). The digestibility of different components varies, while analytical methods are not always reliably used in testing (Crisan and Sands, 1978; Lau, 1982). The use of different techniques for analysing nutritional value also limits a comparison of results from different studies (Degreef et al., 1997). Estimates of (usable) protein content should exclude chitin present in fungal cell walls, for example. This is not always observed in studies.

A summary of nutritional analyses is presented in Table 14. Note the good protein and mineral content of key wild edible species in their dry state. (Moisture content varies between about 85 and 95 percnet for the fleshy mushrooms and similar types.) Edible species are low in fat, contain essential amino acids and useful minerals and, though they are not energy-providing foods (Table 16), they are a substantially better source of nutrition than is often assumed or inferred (Richards, 1939).

Contribution to diet

Tables 15 and 16 compare the nutritional value of edible fungi with other foodstuffs. These data confirm that wild edible fungi are nutritious and a suitable alternative for well-known foodstuffs. They compare favourably using standard measures that assess the nutritional value of foods. The contribution to diet will depend on the amounts eaten by people, the species involved and the frequency of consumption (see below).

People regularly eat wild edible fungi in many countries and they make a valuable and often essential contribution to diets, as shown by a study in Malawi (Abbott, 1999). This detailed study of eating habits in villages revealed that 1.3 kg of dried leafy vegetables and/or wild edible fungi was enough (when rehydrated) to feed a family of four for two weeks (Abbott, 1999).

The shelf-life of wild edible fungi can be short but harvests are also preserved in a number of ways. In the Russian Federation and China wild edible fungi are commonly preserved in brine (Plate 8). Russians also freeze wild edible fungi for later use (Vladyshevskiy, Laletin and Vladyshevskiy, 2000). In southern Africa, edible fungi are eaten fresh and less commonly dried. Throughout the miombo region of southern Africa wild edible fungi are an important source of nutrition at a time of year when other food supplies are low – the so-called “famine months”. Here the normal diet consists of nsima (a maize or cassava-based porridge) to which relishes are added (Plate 6). The relishes provide key nutrients and add piquancy to the bland nsima.

Information on the amounts of wild edible fungi consumed includes:

Mozambique: in the north, close to the border with Malawi, people collect from 6 to 10 kilograms of wild edible fungi during a season (December to March). It was estimated that each household ate 72 to 160 kg per year. Average consumption of Termitomyces schimperi was reckoned to be 30–35 kg per household per year. Similar eating habits might be reasonably expected to occur in Malawi and other miombo regions. (Masuka in Boa et al., 2000).

Zimbabwe: households eat up to 20 kg in a productive year but only 5–10 kg in deforested areas (Masuka, 2002, personal communication: Collection of mushrooms in Zinbabwe).

Russian Federation – Siberia: people collect 15–100 kg in a year and eat 80–90 percent directly. The population of Krasnoyarsk region is three million over an area of 2.3 million km2; it is estimated that 40 percent of families collect wild edible fungi, for personal use, recreation or sale (based on interviews with 500 respondents). Use of wild edible fungi has increased by 200–300 percent in recent years and now provides 30–40 percent of household income. (Vladyshevskiy, Laletin and Vladyshevskiy, 2000).

As a general rule, the poorer the people the more likely they are to collect and use wild edible fungi. Some traditions are lost as people become better educated and live away from the land and they show an increasing reluctance to eat all but the most common species (Box 3) (Lowy, 1974). In the Republic of Korea, China, the Russian Federation and Japan the tradition of eating wild edible fungi is much stronger and appears to have withstood the changes experienced elsewhere.

Rural people eat wild edible fungi both as a matter of choice and as a food of last resort. Little reliable information is available, however, on the use of wild fungi as famine foods. In the Russian Federation, food distribution systems have collapsed and state subsidies for food have disappeared, forcing people “back to the land”. A renewed dependency on natural products has developed and traditions of collecting and eating wild edible fungi have been reinforced. The extent of these changes is not well understood but emphasizes again that closeness to the land is associated with eating wild edible fungi.

BOX 7

Amino acids, protein and the nutritional value of wild edible fungi

Various measures (scores, indexes, values) based on amino acid composition are used to compare the nutritional value of wild edible fungi with other foods. Fat and carbohydrate content are of less interest because they are rarely limiting factors in diets. Feeding studies of edible fungi would provide the most direct evidence of nutritional value but until now have not been carried out.

The AMINO ACID SCORE is based on the amount of the most limiting amino acid present in a food item in comparison with a reference protein (e.g. hens’ eggs). The ESSENTIAL AMINO ACID INDEX measures the presence of amino acids that people cannot synthesize and gives a stronger indication of potential nutritive value. However, this index does not indicate how well these essential amino acids are retained and used by the body, which is the reason for computing the BIOLOGICAL VALUE, itself derived from the ESSENTIAL AMINO ACID INDEX.

The ESSENTIAL AMINO ACID INDEXES for wild edible fungi compare favourably with other foods (Table 16). Given that there are restricted sources of protein for rural people in the developing countries, the contribution of wild edible fungi is more important than widely recognized. The NUTRITIONAL INDEX allows comparisons to be made between wild edible fungi with small amounts of high quality protein and those that have large amounts of a lower nutritional value. The data in Table 15 show the greatest range of values for the limited number of species tested.

The ultimate contribution made by wild edible fungi to diets depends not only on their intrinsic value as calculated by these measures, but the amounts (and species) eaten in comparison with other foods. The nutritional analyses show that wild edible fungi are a valuable source of protein in the developing counries and have the potential to contribute more to human diets in many countries.

After Crisan and Sands (1978).

Contribution to health

Medicinal fungi are routinely used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and awareness of their uses is increasing (Ying et al., 1987; Hobbs, 1995). Wild medicinal fungi are also collected and used in Mexico and several other countries (Table 13) but widespread and regular use is most closely associated with China and Asian people. Medicinal fungi are often sold in Chinese markets though the contribution from wild harvests is still unclear (Chamberlain, 1996).

Worldwide, the majority of sales are from cultivated sources though many species are also collected from the wild (Table 17). The incentive for collecting wild Cordyceps sinensis in Tibet Autonomous Region, Sichuan (Winkler, 2002) and other parts of China (see distribution map in Mao, 2000) is to earn money (Plate 9). Beyond China there is no discernable international trade in medicinal fungi.

The therapeutic benefits of wild fungi are summarized below (Table 17), noting that many are also consumed as food.

TABLE 15

Estimated nutritional values of some edible fungi

SPECIES

ESSENTIAL AMINO ACID INDEX

BIOLOGICAL VALUE

AMINO ACID SCORE

NUTRITIONAL INDEX

Agaricus bisporus *

86.8

83.0

65.0

22.0

Cantharellus cibarius

94.2

91.0

68.0

3.31

Macrolepiota procera

98.7

95.9

90.0

7.4

Suillus granulatus

89.7

86.1

73.6

13.5

Termitomyces spp.

86.3

82.4

23.9

World species

87.6

83.8

61.6

16.0

* cultivated. Based on FAO reference patterns and mean values for species from several sources. Unpublished data prepared by Graham Piearce. See Box 6 for a discussion of nutritional indicators.

TABLE 16

A general comparison of nutritional values of various foods compared to mushrooms

ESSENTIAL AMINO ACID INDEX

M

AMINO ACID SCORE

M

NUTRITIONAL INDEX

M

100 Pork, beef, chicken

 

100 Pork

 

59 Chicken

 

99 Milk

 

98 Beef, chicken

 

43 Beef

 

91 Potatoes, beans

 

91 Milk

 

35 Pork

 

88 Maize

 

63 Cabbage

 

31 Soybeans

 

86 Cucumbers

 

59 Potatoes

 

26 Spinach

 

79 Groundnuts

 

53 Groundnuts

 

25 Milk

 

76 Spinach, soybeans

 

50 Maize

 

21 Beans

 

72 Cabbage

 

46 Beans

 

20 Groundnuts

 

69 Turnips

 

42 Cucumbers

 

17 Cabbage

 

53 Carrots

 

33 Turnips

 

14 Cucumbers

 

44 Tomatoes

 

31 Carrots

 

11 Maize

 
   

28 Spinach

 

10 Turnips

 
   

23 Soybeans

 

9 Potatoes

 
   

18 Tomatoes

 

8 Tomatoes

 
       

6 Carrots

 

M – shaded column shows the range of values for mushrooms. Indexes and scores calculated against reference patterns published by FAO; biological values closely follow essential amino acid indexes. Data after Crisan and Sands (1978).

LOCAL MARKETING AND INCOME

There are two distinct patterns of wild edible fungi use: for subsistence or personal use and commercial harvesting. Information about personal collections is scarce, but the extent of this practice is global and there are increasing reports that help to demonstrate the importance of WEF to rural people in developing countries. Many more species are eaten locally compared to the small number involved in commercial harvesting.

Finland has the most detailed information on personal collections of wild edible fungi. Wild edible fungi are a less important part of the diet in Finland today, in times of relative affluence, but there is still government support for collecting them. There is a stronger tradition of collecting and consuming wild edible fungi in the east of Finland, a region where Karelian people originally from the Russian Federation have settled. Around 25 percent of Karelian families collect to sell in markets, though the amounts vary from year to year because of fluctuating harvests. 1976 was a poor year and about 45 percent of families interviewed did not collect any wild edible fungi during this period. Poorer communities collected more often to sell in local markets (Härkönen, 1998).

The total amounts sold in local markets can be considerable (Table 18). Anecdotal evidence from China points to huge quantities collected and taken to markets in small towns and from there to larger cities (Plate 9). Preserving wild edible fungi in brine is an important feature of this trade and it allows much larger quantities to be offered for sale. The financial contributions to rural livelihoods are not known though the widespread sale of wild edible fungi within China and the substantial export business (over 60 percent of Boletus edulis imported by Italy comes from China – Borghi [2002, personal communication: Porcini and other commercial wild edible fungi in Italy]) clearly demonstrates that substantial amounts of money are earned.

Experiences in Malawi showed that money earned by local collectors is small but substantial, and that there is an expanding local market for wild edible fungi (Boa et al., 2000). Women frequently go on collecting trips in many parts of southern Africa and a number of reports confirm the importance of this activity during the three- to four-month season each year (Richards, 1939; Thomson, 1954).

The distance from collecting sites to potential markets is a crucial factor in selling wild edible fungi. The roadside markets at Liwonde in Malawi are close to the forest areas where wild edible fungi are collected. The road is the main thoroughfare from Blantyre to Lilongwe and the makeshift stalls sell round 5 tonnes of wild edible fungi during a four-month season. There is no shortage of people wanting to collect and sell, and this has led to increased competition for fungal resources: people now have to walk further to collect (Lowore and Boa, 2001).

The market structure in Malawi is typical of many African countries (e.g. Sierra Leone: Down, 2002, personal communication: Wild edible fungi Sierra Leone): small-scale and local. Sales at Liwonde and elsewhere depend on the flow of traffic and some days few buyers stop. Some traders wait until the end of the day and buy the unsold produce, moving it quickly to more central markets in the bigger cities. The prices they offer are low but the alternatives are either to dry the fungi or discard them. Local markets in Madhya Pradesh, India, are also small-scale (Harsh, Rai and Soni, 1999) and appear to operate in a similar manner, but within towns rather than by the roads.

In the Russian Federation the collapse of state organizations and state buying has significantly affected the amounts of money people can earn from wild edible fungi (Table 18). Previous displeasure about the low prices offered by the state are, in hindsight, viewed less harshly following the collapse of local markets (Vladyshevskiy, Laletin and Vladyshevskiy, 2000).

The removal of state control in China has unleashed a greater entrepreneurship, though it has not been without its failures. Factories for processing matsutake in Sichuan are barely surviving (Winkler, 2002); similar facilities for producing ganbajum (Thelephora ganbajum) never operated effectively and were eventually shut down (Rijsoort and Pikun, 2000). The local trade in ganbajum has continued, though collectors spend longer in cleaning their harvest for market (up to two hours per kilogram). Consumers pay a higher price for better quality produce.

TABLE 17

Properties and features of 25 major medicinal macrofungi

BINOMIAL

MEDICINAL PROPERTIES

USED AS FOOD?

WILD COLLECTION1

CULTIVATED

COMMERCIAL PRODUCT

Agaricus blazei

1

“edible”

+

yes

no

Agrocybe aegerita

4

yes

+

yes

yes

Armillaria mellea

4

yes

++

yes

yes

Auricularia auricula-judae

5

yes

++

yes

yes

Dendropolyporus umbellatus

4

no

+

yes

no

Flammulina velutipes

5

yes

++

yes

yes

Fomes fomentarius

2

no

+

yes

yes

Ganoderma applanatum

4

no

+

yes

yes

Ganoderma lucidum

11

“edible”

+

yes

no

Grifola frondosa

7

yes

+

yes

yes

Hericium erinaceus

4

yes

+

yes

yes

Hypsizygus marmoreus

1

yes

+

yes

no

Inonotus obliquus

4

no

++

no

no

Laetiporus sulphureus

2

yes

++

yes

yes

Lentinula edodes

11

yes

+

yes

no

Lenzites betulina

2

no

?

?no

yes

Marasmius androsaceus

2

?yes

?

?yes

no

Oudemansiella mucida

1

“edible”

++

yes

no

Piptoporus betulinus

2

no

++

yes

yes

Pleurotus ostreatus

5

yes

+

yes

yes

Pleurotus pulmonarius

3

yes

+

yes

yes

Schizophyllum commune

5

yes

++

yes

no

Trametes versicolor

5

“edible”

+

yes

no

Tremella fuciformis

5

“edible”

+

yes

yes

Volvariella volvacea

4

yes

+

yes

yes

1 + minor importance; ++ significant amounts collected. Both assessments are in relation to the total amounts used globally, including cultivated production.

Note: The 14 different medicinal properties consist of: 1 – Antibiotic (includes antifungal, antibacterial, antiparasitic but not antiviral); 2 – Anti-inflammatory; 3 – Antitumour; 4 – Antiviral; 5 – Blood pressure regulation; 6 – Cardiovascular disorders; 7 – Hypercholesterolaemia, hyperlipidaemia [high cholesterol, high fats]; 8 – Antidiabetic; 9 – Immune-modulating; 10 – Kidney tonic; 11 – Hepatoprotective; 12 – Nerve tonic (? antidepressant; vague); 13 – Sexual potentiator; 14 – Chronic bronchitis (against).

Source: Wasser and Weis, 1999a.

BOX 8

Permits and regulating the collectors

One of the inevitable consequences of commercial harvesting is the introduction of permits. From Bhutan to Serbia these are ostensibly introduced to regulate the impact of collectors and collecting on future production of wild edible fungi, yet there is little evidence that the money paid to local authorities is invested in the resources needed to police activities.

In Castilla León, northwest Spain, the permit system for collecting Lactarius deliciosus collapsed in Buenavista de Valdavia when only four people bought permits in 2002, at a cost of US$30 for a six-week season. The other collectors decided this was no longer necessary, mainly because the guards from the Servicio de Protección de la Naturaleza proved to be increasingly ineffective in checking permits. Local collectors were concerned about the influx of outsiders to collect the níscalos and were insulted when asked to show their permits. There is no obvious friction between the local people and visiting collectors from nearby villages, but several people said the permit system should be reinstated since they were worried about the long-term prospects for mushroom production.

Around Borgo Val de Taro, Parma, in northern Italy, the permit system appears to work more effectively. The local authority publishes the regulations each year, stating the conditions and costs of collecting WEF. The rates vary from around US$5 for a one-day permit for local residents with slight increases for non-residents. The differences are more marked for the six-month permits, with non-residents paying up to twice as much (up to US$100) as local people. Collecting is restricted to three or four days a week and a daily harvest of between 3 and 5 kg. This area is noticeably better off than Buenavista de Valdavia, where the need to earn money from níscalos is more urgent.

In France, the increase in people collecting wild edible fungi has prompted the introduction of more formal rules regarding when and how much can be collected. Daily limits of 5 kg are stated with no collecting allowed on Tuesdays and Thursdays. A yearly permit costs around US$120.

Sources: Spain – de Román (2002, personal communication: Trade in níscalos from North Spain to Catalonia and truffle production), Italy – author’s observations and Zambonelli (2002, personal communication: Truffles, and collecting porcini in Italy); France – Bérelle (2002).

NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL TRADE

The international trade in wild edible fungi has taken place for many years. In the 1880s New Zealand exported ear fungus (Auricularia polytricha) to China (Colenso, 1884–85; Hall, Zambonelli and Primavera, 1998). In 1868, France exported a staggering 1 500 tonnes of truffles (Tuber spp.) to Italy (Ainsworth, 1976). Italy has long imported Boletus edulis and truffles from different countries (Plates 4 and 5): the former Yugoslavia began exports of B. edulis in the 1970s (Borghi, 2002, personal communication: Porcini and other commercial wild edible fungi in Italy).

The exports of matsutake, chanterelles, morels and other “exotic” wild edible fungi are a more recent event, and where France once exported truffles to Italy, China now exports Tuber sinosum. The last 20 or 30 years has seen an increasing movement of chanterelles, morels and Boletus edulis from the southern to the northern hemisphere. Within Europe, the local supply of wild edible fungi has failed to meet an expanding demand for “exotic mushrooms” (Plate 9).

The increased demand has provided commercial opportunities for countries in eastern Europe, Turkey, and Mexico – to name a few. The United States and Canada have increased exports of a number of wild edible fungi, though they are most associated with matsutake sent to Japan (Box 4). The Japanese demand for matsutake has had an important effect on the livelihoods of people in Asia and North America. Tables 21, 22 and 23 provide an overview of the global trade in matsutake.

The price paid for matsutake varies considerably, depending on annual harvests around Asia and in the United States and Canada. The financial benefits to collectors are difficult to quantify, although the signs of increased wealth are clear to see in parts of Sichuan. In Kyanbga the money earned from selling matsutake and Cordyceps spp. provides 60 percent of cash income (Winkler, 2002). The enthusiasm for collecting, clandestine planning of trips (rising early in the morning and hunting with torches in Bhutan: Namgyel 2000) and sometimes violent clashes between collectors (Yeh, 2000) indicates the perceived attraction of the potential financial rewards.

The quality of matsutake significantly affects prices obtained by collectors. Exports from the Republic of Korea are worth a similar amount to the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea when averaged over a five-year period (Table 23) even though the average volume exported over the same period was only about 25 percent of that for the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea. The Italian traders have provided technical support to improve and maintain the quality of Boletus edulis exports from Serbia, and there has been a steady increase in the amounts of money earned at a national level (Borghi, 2002, personal communication: Porcini and other commercial wild edible fungi in Italy).

The amounts paid per kilogram for truffles (Tuber spp.) and matsutake generate much interest but this is not necessarily reflected in the amounts earned by collectors. It is possible to make a good living from truffle collecting but the numbers who benefit are relatively small (Plate 4). Rural people earn useful amounts in a short period of time from collecting morels (Morchella spp.) in India (Prasad et al., 2002) and Pakistan (Pakistan Economist, 2001), but trade in Nepal and Afghanistan appears to be less lucrative. The morels are collected in the Himalaya and collectors can earn US$ 6–7 per day. The total money earned in a season provides 20–30 percent of the annual cash income in 140 villages (Singh and Rawat, 2000) and an annual income of US$150 from another survey of 1 600 families in 40 villages (Prasad et al., 2002)

In Turkey, around 11 tonnes of fresh Lactarius delicious were sold in 13 villages (Table 18). The total annual value of four key wild edible species was around US$100 000, a substantial source of local income. The role of traders is important in facilitating local markets and the international trade. They provide transport, credit and even technical support. More importantly, they provide some guarantee of a sale. They also benefit financially from the higher prices when produce is sold on, and this has attracted some criticism (Harsh, Rai and Ayachi, 1993). But without traders there would be no export markets and this would reduce the substantial benefits earned locally and nationally from the commercial harvesting of wild edible fungi.

The sale of harvesting permits (Chapter 3, section Regulating collection) and local taxes are other sources of potential revenue. It has been estimated that twice the officially recorded harvests of Tuber spp. take place in a year (Hall, Zambonelli and Primavera, 1998). Similar estimates and higher have been made for former Yugoslavia and a range of commercially important species (Ivancevic, 1997). Revenue from permits and taxes does not always reflect the amounts of wild edible fungi collected.

The income from commercial harvesting is uncertain. Fluctuating harvests and competing supplies from other countries can result in wide fluctuations in prices offered, particularly with truffles and matsutake. The quality of the collected produce is also important and attention to this detail is a simple way of maximizing income for collectors. The increased supply of chanterelles to the United Kingdom during the 1990s has depressed the wholesale price by two-thirds (Livesey, 2002, personal communication: Import of wild edible fungi to the UK), though increased volumes exported by Poland (Table 20) have increased total revenues.

The overall effect is that there are few who make their sole living from collecting wild edible fungi. There is no evidence from commercial collecting (Dyke and Newton, 1999) to support a quoted income of around US$3 000 from a week’s endeavours in the United Kingdom (Rotheroe, 1998). The commercial trade in wild edible fungi has, however, earned many countries substantial amounts of money. The Democratic People’s Republic of Korea earned US$150 million from matsutake exports to Japan over a five-year period (Table 23). More detailed studies are needed to examine how collectors benefit from this trade.

The patchy data on volumes of exports for key commercial species suggest that relatively small amounts are involved (Table 24). Poland exported just over 9 000 tonnes of chanterelles in 1984, the former Soviet Union around 3 000 tonnes. Turkey exported 730 tonnes of Boletus edulis in 1990 while India, Pakistan, Nepal, Afghanistan and possibly Iran collect around 2 000 tonnes fresh weight of morels in a year. The benefits to rural livelihoods are significant and widespread and large numbers of people earn significant amounts of money.

TABLE 18

Local collection, marketing and use of wild edible fungi

COUNTRY

COLLECTIONS AND USE

AMOUNT

SOURCE

Bhutan

People regularly collect for personal consumption and sell in markets. Some matsutake were sold previously in markets but mostly by accident. People sell to agents who sell to exporters.

not known for personal collections

Namgyel, 2000

Chile

Cyttaria spp., total collection in one season, for local sale and consumption.

500–700 kg

Schmeda-Hirschmann et al., 1999a

China (Sichuan)

Many species collected and eaten. Matsutake “discovered” by Japanese in 1988. Exported through Kunming and ?Chengdu. Matsutake are bought by traders with access to suitable transport, taken to a town 65 km away and sold on at a profit of 75%.

not known for personal collections

Winkler, 2002; Yeh, 2000

China (Yunnan)

Daily collection of edible species in Guilong, Deqing over an eight-month season. Sold locally.

60–100 kg

Rijsoort and Pikun, 2000

Congo (Democratic Republic of the)

Annual consumption in Shaba region from local collection.

20 000 tonnes

Degreef et al., 1997

Estonia

Self-picked mushrooms, average annual amount per capita

2.4 kg

Paal and Saastamoinen, 1998

Finland

1. Gyromitra esculenta bought by trade in (a) 1988, (b) 1996. The Russian Federation is another possible source.

2. About two million people involved in collecting WEF and berries for personal use or for sale. An average of 8% of collectors sold their harvest in 12 districts, 25% in North Karelia and not at all for two districts (1976 survey). Export activity limited.

(a) 109 tonnes(b) 26 tonnes

1. Härkönen, 1998

2. Pekkarinen and Maliranta, 1978

Germany(Munich)

For sale during summer of 1902, all species. Source(s) of wild edible fungi not known.

400 tonnes

Arnolds, 1995

India(Himalaya)

Daily harvest of morels by experienced collectors, all for export.

Up to 1 kg

Singh and Rawat, 2000

India(Madhya Pradesh)

Termitomyces heimii sold in 15 markets during one year for local consumption.

Cannot be stored for more than a day; some are dried and eaten later. T. heimii does not get price premium it deserves. Medicinal polypores are collected but bought at low prices compared to retail price in New Delhi.

2.5 tonnes

Harsh, Rai and Soni, 1999

Italy

Tuber spp. collected in average year, including 50% hike for black market activity. Sold locally.

160 tonnes

Hall et al., 1998a

Malawi(Liwonde)

All edible species, sold in 2000 over two months, from approx. 10 small stalls.

5 tonnes

Boa et al., 2000

Mexico(Mexico City)

Huitlacoche (maize infected with Ustilago maydis) sold in markets

300–400 tonnes

Villanueva, 1997

Mexico(Tlaxcala)

Harvest from one day’s collecting, all species

4–5 kg

Montoya-Esquivel et al., 2001

Russian Federation(central Siberia)

Individual collection of all species in favourable years. 80–90% are for personal consumption, the rest are sold. More families are freezing harvests. In north Taiga people eat WEF almost every day. Marketing has collapsed as state organizations have declined: previously GOSPROMKHOV bought up to 1 000 tonnes at fixed prices when harvest was good and purchase prices were lower.

15–100 kg

Vladyshevskiy, Laletin and Vladyshevskiy, 2000

Tanzania (United Republic of)

Sold by the road (often close to the spot where Termitomyces grow) and in markets. There are no known exports from the United Republic of Tanzania.

not known

Härkönen, 2002

Turkey

Collections from 13 villages of (a) Cantharellus cibarius; (b) Boletus edulis; (c) Morchella sp.; (d) Lactarius sp.– total value of US$107 000. Most for local sale. Total volume 26 tonnes. Data for 1990.

(a) 7.6 tonnes(b) 2.5 tonnes(c) 2.3 tonnes(d) 11.1 tonnes

Cavalcaselle, 1997

Zimbabwe

Collection of Boletus edulis per person per day, for export only.

15–20 kg

Masuka, 2002, pers. comm.: Collection of mushrooms in Zimbabwe

Note: Amounts are fresh weight or presumed to be so in the absence of other information.

TABLE 19

World production of cultivated mushrooms

ITEM

1986

1989/90

1994

1997

2001*

World production (tonnes)

2 182 000

3 763 000

4 909 000

6 202 000

7 500 000

China production (%)

   

54

70

 

Value world production (US$ billion)

 

7.5

16

 

22.5

Agaricus bisporus (%)

56

38

38

32

nd

Lentinula edodes (shi’itake) (%)

14

10

17

25

nd

Pleurotus spp. (%)

8

24

16

14

nd

* 2001 figures are estimates based on 5 percent annual increase in volume and 5 percent increase in value at 1994 prices.

Sources: Chang, 1991; Chang and Miles, 1991.

TABLE 20

Value of wild useful fungi collected by country of origin

COUNTRY

COLLECTION AND EXPORT

VALUE US$(MILLIONS)

SOURCE

Canada

Before tax revenue of 16 companies involved in harvesting, buying or selling all wild edible fungi. Around 6 000 collectors are involved. Range is for “bad” and “good” years.

15–27

Wills and Lipsey, 1999

China(Sichuan)

(a) Cordyceps annual harvest 1949 to mid-1980s.(b) Cordyceps sinensis harvest in Litang

(a) 5–20(b) 1.2–1.8

Winkler, 2002

China(west Sichuan)

Tricholoma matsutake, income for farmers.

5–6

Winkler, 2002

Chile

Salted (salmuerados) and dried (deshidratados) wild edible fungi exported, 1980 – 1990. Annual value: (a) average (b) range

(a) 1.8(b) 1.3–2.8

FAO, 1993a

Mexico(in six states)

Tricholoma magnivelare for export: (a) 1996; (b) 1997. Involves 3 000 families.

(a) 1.1(b) 0.6

www.semarnat.gob.mx

Turkey

Terfezia boudieri, Boletus sp., Morchella sp., Cantharellus cibarius for export in (a) 1991 (b) 1999

(a) 14.4(b) 9.5

Sabra and Walter, 2001

United States

(a) morels; (b) chanterelles; (c) matsutake; (d) boletes.Data for 1992.

(a) 5.2 (b) 3.7 (c) 8(d) 2.3

Schlosser and Blatner, 1995

Zimbabwe

Boletus edulis for export in one year. Said to involve 2 000–5 000 collectors.

1.5

Boa et al., 2000

World trade in cultivated mushrooms

There has been a spectacular increase in world production over the last ten years (Table 19). In 1997 shi’itake (Lentinula edodes) and Pleurotus spp. together exceeded the value of sales of Agaricus bisporus, a mushroom celebrated more for its shape than its taste. An estimate of world production for 2001, based on figures for 1997, puts the global value of cultivated mushrooms at around US$23 billion. This exceeds the value of many other commodities.

The trade in wild edible fungi and the business of cultivated mushrooms have both steadily expanded. Packets of wild and cultivated species are sold in shops (Plate 9). Sales of wild edible fungi have risen steadily as the range of commercial species on sale in the United Kingdom has increased. In China, customers have been observed to prefer the wild species, when in season, to the cultivated mushrooms that are available all year round (Priest, 2002, personal communication: Edible and medicinal fungi in China and general information).

Cultivated mushrooms are now China’s biggest “vegetable” export and there are significant numbers of relatively small-scale producers in countries such as Viet Nam and Indonesia (Gunawan, 2000). Both China and Viet Nam export cultivated mushrooms to Europe (Plate 5).

TABLE 21

Matsutake 1: domestic production and imports in tonnes to Japan, 1950–99

YEAR

DOMESTIC PROD.

IMPORTS

% IMPORT

DOMESTIC AND IMPORTS

CONSUMPTION AS A % OF 1950

1950

6 448

0

0

6 448

 

1955

3 569

0

0

3 139

49

1960

3 509

0

0

3 509

54

1965

1 291

0

0

1 291

20

1970

1 974

0

0

1 974

31

1975

774

0

0

774

12

1980

457

362*

44

819

13

1982

484

551

53

1 035

16

1984

180

1 082

86

1 262

20

1986

199

980

83

1 179

18

1988

406

1 430

78

1 836

28

1989/90

199

2 210

92

2 409

37

1993

na

1 943

[1 943]

 

1994

na

3 622

[3 622]

 

1995

na

3 515

[3 515]

 

1996

na

2 703

[2 703]

 

1997

na

3 059

[3 059]

 

1998

257

3 248

93

3 505

54

1999

147

2 674

95

2 821

44

* first year that imports are noted. na – data not available. Domestic production from 1993 to 1997 thought to be around 200 tonnes per year.

Source: Data have been collected from various authors. The original source appears to be Japanese trade statistics. See www.fintrac.com for data from 1993 to 1997.

TABLE 22

Matsutake 2: exports to Japan in tonnes by various countries, 1993–97

COUNTRY

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

AVERAGE TONNES/YEAR

FIVE-YEAR VALUE US$ MILLIONS

Bhutan*

1

1

2

3

3

2

1

Canada**

279

447

340

510

618

439

95

China*

1 064

1 127

1 192

1 152

1 076

1 122

270

Korea (Democratic People’s Republic of)*

383

1 760

1 141

541

615

888

156

Korea (Republic of)*

131

139

633

170

249

264

169

Mexico**see below

2(26)

22(35)

36(56)

23(42)

9(14)

18

6

Morocco***

20

73

1

86

125

61

12

Turkey***

0

2

4

44

80

26

4

United States**

51

47

164

172

284

144

33

* Tricholoma matsutake. ** T. magnivelare. *** probably T. caligatum. Includes fresh and chilled.

Note: The export tonnage from a “Mexican Government database” (Martínez-Carrera et al., 2002) is shown in italics and includes data for 1998 (24 tonnes); 1999 (14 tonnes) and 2000 (4 tonnes).

Source: www.fintrac.com.

TABLE 23

Matsutake 3: value of exports to Japan by various countries, 1993–97

COUNTRY

1993 YEN, MILLION

1994 YEN, MILLION

1995 YEN, MILLION

1996 YEN, MILLION

1997 YEN, MILLION

TOTAL YEN, MILLION

TOTAL US$, MILLION

Bhutan

5

4

9

17

16

51

0.5

Canada

1 840

1 891

1 506

2 690

2 559

10 486

95

China

5 494

5 746

5 249

6 631

6 579

29 699

270

Korea (Democratic People’s Republic of)

2 291

6 928

4 074

1 060

2 794

17 147

156

Korea (Republic of)

2 321

2 653

6 719

3 076

3 815

18 584

169

Mexico

78

100

206

156

73

613

6

Morocco

117

340

6

368

449

1 280

12

Turkey

0

4

12

140

256

412

4

United States

491

253

782

931

1 153

3 610

33

Total

12 637

17 919

18 563

15 069

17 694

81 882

745

Grand total (US$, million)

115

163

169

137

161

 

745

US$1 = 110 Yen. Grand total includes several countries that were minor and irregular exporters. Data include fresh and chilled matsutake.

Source: www.fintrac.com.

TABLE 24

Volume of exports of named wild edible fungi from selected countries (in tonnes)

COUNTRY

YEAR

BOLETUS EDULIS

CHANTERELLES

MORELS*

Baltic states (86% Lithuania)

1998

nd

3 500

nd

India

annual

none?

nd

50-60

Pakistan

1999

none

none

79

Poland

1984

nd

9 179

nd

South Africa

annual

100–200

none

none

Turkey

1989

22

11

47

1990

730

160

nd

1996

nd

13

152

1997

nd

18

100

1998

nd

375

46

1999

nd

94

104

2000

nd

15

44

Yugoslavia (former – now Serbia and Montenegro)

1993

5 186

2 605

37

1994

1 212

631

2

1995

3 792

1 502

3

Zimbabwe

annual

100

20-30

none

nd – no data. none – no evidence of exports. * dry weight. All other data are assumed to be fresh weight.

Sources: Pakistan Economist, 2001; Boa et al., 2000; Gurer, 2002, personal communication: Unpublished trade data on wild edible fungi for Turkey; Kaul, 1993; Kroeger, 1985; Pott, 2002, personal communication: Export of Boletus edulis from South Africa; Sabra and Walter, 2001

PLATE 6

EDIBLE FUNGI IN AFRICA

Photos from the United Republic of Tanzania by Marja Härkönen; Harry Evans for Ghana.

All others by Eric Boa.

6.1 Roadsides are a common selling point in Malawi. Traders rarely venture beyond markets and collectors must come to them if they chose not to sell themselves.

6.2 Made from dried Uapaca leaves, this basket is used to store dried mushrooms (and leafy vegetables) collected from the forest. Malawi.

6.3 A collector returns with a mornings’ harvest. Malawi.

6.4 Cleaning a successful harvest (Termitomyces). United Republic of Tanzania.

6.5 Cooking chanterelles. This mushroom stew is usually eaten with maize or cassava porridge. United Republic of Tanzania.

6.6 Termitomyces on their way to a local market in Ghana.

6.7 Wild edible fungi are also sold dried. United Republic of Tanzania.

6.8 Carefully excavating Termitomyces in the United Republic of Tanzania. Compare the size with the species from Ghana.

PLATE 7

EDIBLE FUNGI IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN

The strong tradition of collecting and eating wild edible fungi extends from Mexico to Guatemala and then appears to stop abruptly. Only one record (shown here) from Bolivia is known. The Caribbean also lacks a tradition of eating wild edible fungi yet, once more, Haitians regularly eat djon djon wherever they migrate. Photos from Guatemala by Roberto Flores; New York by Gene Yetter; mushroom fair, Oaxaca by Fabrice Eduard, seller by Elaine Marshall; Bolivia by Eric Boa.

7.1 Mushroom fair to raise awareness of edible species. Oaxaca, Mexico.

7.2 Local market in Oaxaca, Mexico; wild edible fungi shown on right (?Amanita) and in front of vendor.

7.3 Patzún market, Guatemala. Lactarius deliciosus and L. indigo for sale (hand in basket).

7.4 Roadside vendor, Guatemala, with Lactarius deliciosus and Amanita caliptroderma.

7.5 Gregoria was the only vendor of k’allampa (Quechua name for Leucoagaricus hortensis) in Cochabamba market, Bolivia.

7.6 Haitian communities around the world regularly buy djon djon, a Psathyrella sp. Brooklyn, New York.

7.7 Fresh djon djon are cultivated in Haiti and exported to the United States, Canada and other countries. Brooklyn, New York.

PLATE 8

EDIBLE FUNGI IN ASIA

Photos from Bhutan by Alessandra Zambonelli; Viet Nam and Kunming by Maria Chamberlain; southern China by Marja Härkönen, all other China photos by Warren Priest.

8.1 Matsutake (Tricholoma matsutake) Bhutan.

8.2 Preparing matsutake for export to Japan from Bhutan. Quality has an important bearing on the prices obtained.

8.3 Selling chanterelles and Ramaria sp. (in hand), Thimpu, Bhutan.

8.4 Cultivating Agaricus bisporus, Pohkara, Nepal. Sponsored by Japanese aid project.

8.5 Collector’s basket, northern Viet Nam.

8.6 Huge amounts of wild edible fungi are sold in brine. Chengdu, China.

8.7 Termitomyces are good baby food in Hanyuan county, Sichuan, China.

8.8 Lyophyllum decastes, for sale in Kunming, China.

8.9 A collector in southern China.

8 See www.livelihoods.org for further information and explanations of what is known as the sustainable livelihoods approach. Throughout this chapter livelihoods is used in the broad sense of the means by which people live.

9 Ceremonial, religious and other non-practical uses of wild fungi are of relative minor importance and are not discussed here (see Davis, 1996 and Riedlinger, 1990, for more information).

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