by
J.-L. Gaudet
Secretary, European Inland Fisheries Advisory Commission
FAO, Rome, Italy
Growing number of sport fishermen. The economic and social importance of this sport in Europe, and the various measures for its management in the different countries. Water pollution and stock assessment problems, and EIFAC's part in efforts towards resolving these problems.
Le nombre croissant de pêcheurs sportifs. L'importance économique et sociale de ce sport en Europe et les diverses mesures relatives à son organisation et exploitation dans les différents pays. Problèmes de pollution des eaux et de l'évaluation des stocks, et le rôle de la CECPI dans les efforts tendant à résoudre ces problèmes.
One of the major reasons for the slow progress in the economic evaluation of sport fisheries in Europe has been the lack of adequate recognition of their value to the individual, the economy and society at large (Norling, 1968).
A rapid survey made in the region at the end of 1972 has yielded interesting data on sport fishermen, fishing waters, fishing rights (licences), species exploited, the management of sport fisheries, and sport fishing for local populations and tourists and has brought into clearer focus the economic issues and opportunities facing Europe in this field. It emerges that there is a growing awareness in the various countries of the region of the need to measure the national importance of sport fishing which was evidenced at the First European Consultation on the Economic Evaluation of Sport and Commercial Fisheries (Gaudet, 1972).
For a variety of reasons - political, economic and social - only a few countries have made definite progress in attempting to assess the importance of their sport fisheries. The majority, however, are still in total darkness or at best have only very general data. Ireland, Sweden and the Netherlands are among the few where priority is given to questions of economic evaluation of sport fisheries. Details are given in Gaudet, 1972, together with the historical aspects of the development of this subject in Europe.
The number of sport fishermen in Europe is surprisingly high; Table 1 illustrates this point without going into details or defining sport fishermen. Excluding the U.S.S.R., there are well over 16 million sport fishermen in Europe and indications are that in most countries their number is rapidly increasing. In fact, Poland reports an annual increase of eight percent while Spain mentions 12 to 16 percent yearly and Bulgaria roughly 10 percent. In France, the number of sportfishermen increased by 54 percent between 1950 and 1967 while, in that same period, casting fishermen alone increased by 322 percent. It appears that since that date, however, the total number has decreased slightly to increase again in 1974. In Romania, the number of sportfishermen has doubled in the last ten years. If, with increased affluence, these trends were to materialize in other European countries, and if, for example, the number of sport fishermen were to average at 10 percent of the population by 1980 - which is much lower than the actual figures for Finland, Norway and Sweden and about the present level for France - the total number of sport fishermen in Europe would then be well over 50 million.
In Europe, the social composition of the sport fishermen varies greatly although the majority comes from the working class. However, it is reported in Sweden and in the Netherlands that there is little class difference in the distribution of sport fishermen.
In spite of increasing industrialization and resulting water pollution which has ruined hundreds of rivers in Europe, there are still a fair number of salmon and trout streams and plenty of coarse fish water bodies. Poland, which considers itself poor in inland waters with a fishing density of one angler per 1.23 ha of lakes, rivers and reservoirs, nevertheless reports 1 100 lakes totalling 110 000 ha in the Mazury Lake District alone. The southern European streams which are shorter and more tempestuous than the large European rivers (Volga, Danube, Rhine, Elbe) are nevertheless plentiful, particularly in Spain, where they stretch over 100 000 km, including 20 000 km of trout streams and 2 000 km of salmon waters. Finland, Norway, Sweden, Ireland like Canada have thousands of lakes where fishing can take place. Norway reports 300 000 registered lakes, 20 000 km of coastline which is further increased by 56 000 islands as well as 150 large salmon and sea trout streams (Norway, 1971). Finland also reports 60 000 lakes covering an area of about 32 000 km2 with a shoreline of about 160 000 km. In addition the long coast and numerous islands off the coast and the great archipelago in the south-west region add another 50 000 km of shoreline. Northern Ireland, like the Republic of Ireland, is fortunate in having a plentiful supply of fresh water which is generally unpolluted. There are some 2 000 km of river, large lakes like Lough Neagh and Upper and Lower Lough Erne and over 200 small lakes. Yugoslavia reports hundreds of rivers, streams, lakes and reservoirs some still “virgin” from the fishing point of view. Romania with the coast line of the Black Sea, the Danube delta and over 25 000 km of rivers with little or no pollution still offers a big potential. Areas for sport fishing in Bulgaria cover approximately 40 000 ha. In the Netherlands, the quantity, if not the quality, of surface waters is actually increasing. Polders, reservoirs, rivers and lakes increased from 104 700 ha in 1958 to 109 000 in 1965, exclusive of Lake IJssel 200 000 ha; the Lauwerszee 2 000 ha - reclaimed in 1969; the Grevelingen 11 000 ha - reclaimed in 1971 and the Haringvliet and Holland Diep 13 000 ha.
Table 1
| Country | Number of sportfishermen (in thousands) | Population (in millions) | Percentage | |
| Austria | 200 | 7.4 | 2.7 | |
| Belgium | 230 | 9.6 | 2.4 | |
| Bulgaria (1973) | 115 | 8.5 | 1.3 | |
| Cyprus | 3 | 0.6 | 0.5 | |
| Denmark | 300 | 4.9 | 6.1 | |
| Finland (1973) | 1 000 | 4.7 | 21.3 | |
| France | 5 000 | 50.3 | 10.0 | |
| Germany (Fed.Rep. of) | 622 | 58.7 | 1.1 | |
| Ireland | 50 | 2.9 | 2.0 | |
| Italy | 850 | 53.2 | 1.6 | |
| Netherlands | 740 | 12.8 | 5.8 | |
| Norway (1972) | 242 | 3.8 | 6.4 | |
| Poland1 | 400 | (registered) | 32.6 | 1.3 |
| Romania | 200 | 20.0 | 1.0 | |
| Spain | 450 | 32.9 | 1.4 | |
| Sweden | 1 800 | 8.0 | 22.5 | |
| Switzerland | 250 | 6.2 | 4.0 | |
United Kingdom (England and Wales) | 2 800 | 48.4 | 5.8 | |
| Yugoslavia | 158 | 20.3 | 0.8 | |
| Total: | 16 410 | 383.8 | 4.5 | |
| 1 refer to section of Dr Leopold's paper | ||||
In Europe, the Netherlands is unique in that it experiences great difficulties in procuring, storing and processing a sufficient quantity of water suitable for the supply of drinking water. Because the surface water is not good in many places, water quality has also become a limiting factor for the development of fish stocks and horticulture. Early in 1972 the discharge of the River Rhine was so low (800 m3/s) that the salt content of the water was exceptionally high. Fortunately, it rained subsequently, but this serves to illustrate the delicate balance that now exists in some European waters.
Cyprus, which until recently, had no freshwater bodies, now claims 12 small reservoirs where trout fishing can take place with proper stocking because they are emptied every year.
In addition to inland waters, one can add the sea coast of Europe, where a certain amount of sport fishing takes place in season. On the northern coast of Finland a study has been carried out which showed that 62.4 percent of those replying to a questionnaire considered themselves (sea) sport fishermen in that the cost of their hobby exceeded the commercial value of their catch.
France has still important salmon rivers which need to be protected. To this effect, the Government has established a five years plan to develop Atlantic salmon and to maintain and restore stocks.
The species caught for sport in Europe vary with the quality of water from salmon, sea and freshwater trout in the clearer waters to cyprinids such as the common carp, roach, rudd, bream and coarse fish predators in the more eutrophic waters. As an example, in Czechoslovakia we find 60 species most of them popular with the sport fishermen. In the Netherlands, rainbow and brown trout are even found in two large lakes in the southern delta (Lake Veere 2 000 ha stocked in 1968 and Grevelingen 11 000 ha stocked in 1971) where salinity ranges from brackish to that of sea water. In France there is a definite shift to species of high sport quality such as carnivorous species, while in the Netherlands selective breeding aiming at a more sporty carp is fairly successful.
Blanc et al., (1972) lists 396 inland freshwater fish species in Europe, many of which are caught by sport fishermen. There appears to be a definite correlation between the quality of fishing waters and the density and quality of fish populations. Unlike North America, angling for the elusive cyprinid is popular in Europe.
In Europe, although we are still very far from being able to put a figure to the value of sport fishing, indications are that it is very high indeed. A U.K. National Survey of Angling (1972) estimated the number of anglers in England and Wales at 2.8 million; they spend on average about £80 per annum, and over half of these anglers fish at least once per week. Their gross expenditure was between £200 to £250 million, about two-thirds of it relating to inland waters. According to the report, the travel element of the gross expenditure, about £70 million, could be reduced substantially if water with lower levels of pollution, or better fish stocks, were to become available nearer at hand. Not surprisingly, therefore, the national value of fisheries (price paid for the fishing rights) is very high. In England and Wales, the sales value of salmon fisheries, based upon the average catches during the last five years are from £500 to £750 per fish caught. Thus, a fishery in which the 5-year annual catch was 100 salmon would fetch between £50 000 and £75 000 on the open market. Trout fishing value, based mainly upon quality, length of bank and whether one or both banks are involved, may rise on a first class river to as high as £7 600 to £10 900 per km. Fisheries for coarse fish can also fetch surprisingly high figures in the open market. A mixed fishery, one bank only, for salmon and coarse fish, in which the latter predominated, sold for the equivalent of £11 200 per km (Natural Environment Research Council, 1972). Fisheries suitable for large-scale match fishing, such as national or international championships, can command much higher prices even than this. Although the above figures are likely maximum values, they point towards a very high national value for inland fisheries.
Indeed, sport fishing has become so important in some countries that the suggestion has often been made for the abolition of commercial fishing (mainly nets) for salmon and sea trout, so that the entire stocks of these fish could be available for exploitation by anglers for sport. This suggestion was considered by the Bledisloe Committee for Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries in Britain in its Report of 1961 (Great Britain, 1961) but after some discussion it was rejected despite the fact that commercial fishing in England and Wales employs comparatively few people (2 000 as against 560 000 salmon and trout anglers in 1958).
In Finland, according to a very rough evaluation, sport fishermen invest at least $25 million annually in sport fishing. In Poland, the powerful Polish Anglers' Association keeps many hotels, inland harbours and camping centres. In 1964 it operated 60 places of that type with sleeping quarters for 1 300 persons. For the five-year plan 1966–70, estimates of capital outlays were for over 50 million zlotys, tourist facilities 21 million, economic expansion 24 million and public facilities in angling 5 million (Paladino, 1965). An idea of the importance of sport angling in that country is evident in the fact that in 1965 it employed 96 fishery guards and 7 489 honorary guardians. Weekly fishing radio broadcast are also the fashion.
The fees collected for fishing licences amount to substantial sums of money when viewed for Europe in general. In Italy, it represents at least $5 million, $2 million for Switzerland, $700 000 for Belgium, $400 000 for Norway and, $8 million for France (France, 1972). 2.7 million fishermen paid the fee for fishing lices in France in 1972. Ancillary revenues are not recorded, but Belgium alone reports 800 sport fishing shops.
A most important aspect of the angling resources of a few fortunate countries in Europe such as Scotland, Northern Ireland, the Republic of Ireland, Norway, Denmark, Finland and Yugoslavia is the potential value as a tourist attraction. Millions of anglers live next door to them and the countries have everything required for the enjoyment of angling - in particular, numerous underfished accessible waters holding large stocks of fish. It should be possible to attract a large number of angling tourists there, particularly with the advent of a larger common market. In Yugoslavia it is reported that the number of tourist anglers equals that of Yugoslav anglers. In France, the total expenses of the fishermen are estimated at $100 million. The market for fishery equipment was valued at $22 million in 1973, including $3.5 millions of exports.
The social value of sport fishing in Europe is probably greater than the monetary value. It was said at the First EIFAC European Consultation on the economic evaluation of sport and commercial fisheries (The Hague, 24–25 January 1972) that labourers and white collar workers were moving to less industrialized areas because, among other things, of the lack of recreational fishing facilities. In fact, the detailed planning of recreation and sport fishing development in the Netherlands forms an integral part of the overall planning of new reclaimed areas. That is why the Dutch sport fishermen look upon the invading fishing foreigner from the southwest with mixed feelings. They feel the freedom of international travel brought about by the Common Market deprives them of important stretches of fishing shoreline developed specifically for them. The situation is exactly the reverse in Ireland where fishing tourists are seriously courted.
The amount and value of fish which are caught by sporting methods and are consumed are also not negligible. In France estimates range from 20 000 to 100 000 tons (France, 1972). In Belgium a total of 440 tons are caught in rivers and canals alone for a fishing intensity of 14.5 kg/ha/year. In Poland as much as 20 kg/ha/year are reportedly caught by sport fishermen, while in Finland the inland sport fishery represents a catch of 10 to 12 000 tons a year. Spain has 21 hatcheries to re-stock salmon, trout, carp and black bass in its streams.
In Europe, the management of sport fisheries is usually the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture although, in some cases - Denmark, Ireland and Norway 1 - it falls partly under the Ministry of Fisheries. In some countries fishery administration is historically linked with water, wild game and forestry administration (France, Spain, Italy). In France, this association dates back to the 13th century at which time the “Maître des Eaux et Forêts” was responsible for supplying the King's table with fresh fish. Biologically, fish and wild game are closely related, particularly from the point of view of management of natural resources. Both have affinities with forest and national park management, water control (irrigation, drainage, flood control) and other general problems of land use.
1 Moved to the new Ministry of Environment Protection as of January 1973
The machinery set up in each country to manage sport fisheries varies with existing norms governing ownership of water, fishing rights and fishing licences. These in turn vary from country to country and often within each country.
Inland fisheries, unlike international sea fisheries, usually come under the political control of one single government and, consequently, should give rise to less controversy or governmental intervention. This is not always the case because hereditary rights, documentary titles, methods of defining fisheries limits, separation of fishing rights from the ownership of land, etc., do create many administrative and legal complications (Gaudet, 1968).
As a general rule, in Western Europe, inland water fishing rights belong to the owner of the adjacent land whether it is the State, a province, a municipality, an organization or an individual. Incidentally, Roman law made it clear that fish living in private waters belonged to the owner of that water area. Poachers could be sued on two grounds: trespassing and theft.
In Finland, the primary ownership unit is the village and each farmer or landowner has his share in the collectively owned water area and enjoys fishing rights according to the size of his farm. However, in that country, the collectively owned water area may be parcelled or divided between the farmers according to their shares. It is easy to imagine the controversy that this system may engender between landowners and industry in cases of dam building and water pollution control.
Swedish law differentiates between private and public waters. In private waters, as a main principle, fishing rights are reserved exclusively for the landowner. In such waters, accordingly, the public is not allowed to fish without special permission from the land-owner. In public waters, as well as in certain private waters along the coasts and in the major lakes, public fishing is free from licence, although these restrictions concern mostly the fishing gear.
In Denmark and the Netherlands, the separation of fishing rights from landownership is forbidden. In England and Wales, in non-tidal waters, the fishing rights are presumed to belong to the owner of the soil thereunder, but the owner may sell or lease these rights separately from the land. In Finland, irrespective of ownership, the government monopolizes salmon and trout fishing in the rivers flowing into the Gulf of Bothnia. Also, in that country, every citizen has the right to angle with natural bait within the limits of one's own commune without any licence or permission from the owners. In large lakes (over 8 km in diameter) as in coastal waters facing the open sea, the riparian right of the village reaches 500 m out from 2 m depth. It is, nevertheless, possible for the landowner to sell or lease the fishing rights separately from the land.
In tidal waters, in Ireland, England and Wales, fishing rights are in favour of the public but, again, there are exceptions in cases of historical or immemorial rights.
In Scotland, salmon, trout and all other freshwater fisheries are subject to proprietorship and there is no such thing as public fishery for these fish even if the land is owned by the Crown Estate. A proprietor of a salmon fishing area has no right to the fish until they are caught, but he has exclusive right to catch them within the boundaries of his fishery. Under law, however, salmon and sea trout fisheries in the Orkneys and Shetlands are pertinent to the ownership of land as in the case of ordinary freshwater fishery.
In France no fishing can take place without the permission of the owner of the fishing right, private or public. However, in order to facilitate sport fishing, the State has taken exceptional measures allowing licensed fishermen to angle in all public waters. This includes as many as 17 000 km of canals and rivers and 72 000 ha of lakes and reservoirs.
Fishing rights of water areas owned by the State in Turkey are normally publicly auctioned, while in France they are leased for five year periods.
In Israel, fisheries are owned collectively in kibutzim while fisheries in inland waters belong to the State. In Poland, commercial fishing rights may be given to any legal or natural person with proper qualifications. Sport fishing rights may be given on the condition of being a member of an anglers' association and on paying for a fishing licence. The same system is applicable in Bulgaria.
Very little information is available on the licensing system in use in the various European countries. From the data at hand, it appears that licensing serves both to regulate the fishing effort and to ensure some revenues for the improvement of fisheries in general.
To finance the protection services in Ireland, the Boards of Conservators may impose a fishery rate on all fishery hereditaments. In addition, they obtain revenues from licence duties which are fixed by statute at uniform rates throughout the country and from grants from the Salmon Conservancy Fund which is fed by a levy on sales of salmon and a form of levy on salmon rod licences.
In France, being a member of a recognized fishing or fish culture association and the payment of an annual fishing tax (taxe piscicole) are compulsory. The proceeds of the fishing tax are earmarked for improvement of lakes and rivers.
In Poland, also, a licence has to be paid by anglers for particular types of fishing. Membership in the Polish Anglers' Association is compulsory. To fish in lakes of State fish farms permission from the farm manager is necessary.
In Denmark, a departmental Committee has, during 1973 and 1974, discussed the practical, political and legal consequences of an introduction of a general fishing licence. It is expected that this law will be passed by the Danish Parliament.
In Scotland, there is no fishing licence at all, either for sport or commercial fisheries. The same is true in Denmark where anybody can fish freely for sport or commercially, provided the fisherman pays the owner of the water for the fishing rights.
Angling for brown trout in Ireland is not subject to licensing control.
In the United Kingdom the executive control of fisheries is vested in 27 River Authorities and 2 River Conservancies, which are responsible for pollution prevention and fisheries management. Each Authority has a Fisheries Department, staffed by a fisheries officer and a variable number of water bailiffs. Their task is to ensure that the various byelaws which are proposed by the Authority, and confirmed by the Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, are adhered to. Owners of private fisheries also employ water-keepers and bailiffs for the management of their fisheries. A reorganization of these bodies into 10 Regional Water Authorities is in progress, and the executive framework which will cover fisheries is not yet known.
Ireland, Norway, Sweden and Scotland have boards which fulfil similar needs. In Norway Inland Fisheries Boards organized in each of its 450 communities cooperate with district Salmon Fisheries Boards to supervise and improve inland fisheries. In Sweden there are several governmental inspectors of fisheries whose primary tasks are to work for the development of fishing and the conservation of fisheries, to counteract water pollution and, at request, to give expert advice to courts, authorities and private owners of fisheries. In Denmark fisheries administration is oriented commercially and the relevant laws emphasize the commercial exploitation of inland waters. In recent years, however, there has been an increasing pressure from the Danish sport fishing organizations (especially the Union of Danish Anglers' Association) to change this traditional view. One of the results is the aforementioned proposed law on a general fishing licence. There is no doubt that in a few years the fishery administration will be moved to pay more attention to recreational fishery in view of the decreasing importance of the commercial exploitation of Danish inland waters.
In addition to river authorities and boards, the management of sport fisheries in Europe is facilitated through a variety of fishery trusts, fishery commissions, trust funds, conseil supérieur de la pêche, etc. They can be private or subsidized partly or completely by Governments. In Belgium, the Fonds Piscicole is administered by the Ministry of Agriculture in collaboration with representatives of the fishermen from various provinces. This Fund is financed by 55 percent of the returns on fishing permits. In Spain the final responsibility is vested into the Instituto Nacional para la Conservacion de la Naturaleza (ICONA) in the Ministry of Agriculture which includes two sub-divisions on sport fishing.
In Northern Ireland the Ministry of Agriculture is responsible for the supervision and protection of fisheries and for fostering the establishment and development of fisheries. Two statutory bodies are responsible for the conservation, protection and improvement of the salmon and inland fisheries - the Foyle Fisheries Commission (established jointly by the Governments of Northern Ireland and the Irish Republic) for the Londonderry area and the Fisheries Conservancy Board for Northern Ireland for the rest of the country. The Ministry of Agriculture has acquired or leased fishing rights in a number of waters and can now offer to the public angling in over 40 lakes and stretches of rivers. These waters are stocked as necessary with fish from the Ministry's own fish farm and shore development works (provision of fishing stands, stiles, bridges and paths and clearance of weeds and shore vegetation) are carried out. A wide range of first class angling is, therefore, available to local fishermen and tourists at low cost. Management is facilitated by a modern research laboratory. Because of previous low exploitation, especially with regard to coarse fishing, there was little tradition of management of fishing in Northern Ireland. However, management experience and expertise are increasing as the Ministry is opening up hitherto inaccessible waters and is cooperating actively with angling clubs involved in the development of their waters. To develop interest in coarse fishing, instructional courses and schools angling competitions have been organized and more are proposed. In Sweden the owners of private fisheries often associate in order to manage fisheries - including selling fishing licences to the public - for more extensive water areas.
Courses are offered for the different owners of fishing waters as they have to manage their waters by themselves. A considerable amount of work is currently being done on the management of impoundments and on the regulations concerning power stations. National planning is treated in various departments. Recreational activities form a very strong part of it with fisheries playing an important role.
In Finland there is no central national administration over sport fisheries. The Department of Fisheries and Game, the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry and the National Water Board are jointly doing the planning for the rational development of sport fishing. According to the Fisheries Act, the management of water areas (fisheries) under joint ownership has to be organized by the meeting of owners. The meeting defines the extent of fishing rights for different shares. The owners also are responsible for conservation and management of the area. The costs of the management are partially paid with the fisheries conservancy fees. The State is the sole owner or a shareholder of water areas exceeding 560 000 ha. These areas are administered by the National Board of Forestry.
In federated States such as the Federal Republic of Germany, Switzerland and Austria, sport fishery management is completely decentralized. This complicates the collection of standard data and seems to cause some duplication of effort.
To assist governmental units and the various boards and commissions to manage sport fisheries in Europe, a popular and effective tool is the angling association. In Poland and in France membership is compulsory and it appears to greatly simplify the management task. In other countries, participation in voluntary anglers' association is rather deceptive. In Finland less than 10 percent of the anglers belong to angling associations, while in Belgium almost 20 percent do. Some associations are public, but most are semi-private or private. The latter two may receive financial assistance from the State. These associations regularly assist in re-stocking of sport fishing waters.
The Polish Anglers' Association with a membership of about 400 000 members is powerful indeed. It dates back to the National Fishing Association founded in Kraków in 1879 when the mountain streams were allotted to anglers and the lowland waters to net fishermen. There is still a considerable amount of controversy between anglers and commercial fishermen but the Association helps in smoothing out difficulties. It employs various specialists, fishery biologists and fishermen. It has an ambitious programme of re-stocking, building of facilities and with the cooperation of ORBIS (State Tourist Agency), the creation of facilities for foreign visitors. Its statistical service appears to be very efficient and it has made a number of studies on the management problems in that country (Paladino, 1965; Dabrowski and Walus, 1965). It also breeds fish for stocking in State-leased open waters (lakes and rivers) and conducts selective catches in those waters. It has numerous fish ponds and some hatcheries.
In France we find 4 000 recognized fishing associations grouped into 92 Federations. Yugoslavia claims 493 sport fishing associations and 41 clubs, all of which are associated in eight Unions, according to the political set-up of the country, which are fully responsible for the management of their respective waters. These are further regrouped under a Federal Union of Sport Fisheries Unions. Sport fishery in Bulgaria is only possible for members of the Bulgarian Union of Anglers and Hunters.
In Romania departmental associations are grouped under the General Association of Hunters and Sport Fishermen with their headquarters in Bucharest. Similarly to the one in Poland, it administers sport fishing activities countrywide.
One management tool which should be underlined is the “cotos” system used in Spain (Spain, 1963). The term “coto” literally means “refuge”, but in the context of American fishery management (Gottschalk, 1970), it would be more accurately defined as managed stream section. In 1971, there were a total of 523 cotos in Spain: 66 for salmon, 322 for trout, 18 for crayfish, 50 for trout and crayfish and 67 for other species. The programme of fishery management includes stocking, population surveys and careful creel censuses. The principal activity on the fishing streams themselves has to do with improvement of accessibility. The effort to make the fishing experience more attractive to the angler is perhaps best examplified by the provision of fishing shelters (refugios) and fishing piers. The shelters are well constructed and the local fish wardens apparently are in competition to determine the landscape gardener champion. Fishery activities on the streams are greatly facilitated by State ownership of the stream, including the riverbanks on both sides to a distance of three meters above the high-water mark. Exclusive State control was established early in the history of the management programme. The fish wardens keep minute records on the catch of fish from various areas, the movement of fish, size, weight of fish caught and bait used. Licence fees vary according to residence, fishing location, and the class of fishing-society membership to which the angler suscribes.
Membership in a society endows the angler the right to fish in special areas and to receive special treatment generally. A local resident who fishes in a section of a stream set aside in a “coto” with unlimited permits would pay only about 50 pesetas (72 U.S. cents). Fishing in a “coto” where permits are limited would cost twice that amount. Licence fees for those who are not members of societies are substantially higher.
At the international level, one body is particularly active in Europe, that is the Confédération Internationale de la Pêche Sportive (CIPS). It groups 23 member countries (all European except for South Africa). Its main purpose is to facilitate sport fishing at the international level. Its statutes which were revised in 1971 make it possible for international federations such as the International Pêche au Coup Federation, the CIPS Sea-Angling Federation and the CIPS Casting International Federation to operate within CIPS with their own statutes. CIPS has permanent committees on tourism, public relations, youth, and water protection. Although the CIPS has done little by way of measuring the importance of sport fishing, the machinery exists to, at least, strongly encourage such studies at the national level through the existing network of anglers' associations. EIFAC is in close collaboration with CIPS.
The problems facing sport fisheries in Europe are many and complex. They include problems of water ownership, of increased fishing pressure causing changes in the character of the fishery and of controversy between sport and commercial fishermen. This is further complicated by the increasing level of industrial and domestic pollution, the lack of adequate means to quickly assess the stocks and the rising cost of stock improvement.
In countries where waters are not publicly owned, one of the first problems encountered by the authorities responsible for management and development programmes is the difficulty of establishing the ownership of fishing rights. Apart from certain salmon waters, fishing rights in Northern Ireland, for example, were for many years regarded as having little value. Consequently, they are hard to acquire and are often fragmented. The Ministry has no vested powers and has to rely on acquisition by negotiation. The only exception to this is a power conferred by the Fisheries Act to take over on trust and develop any waters which appear to be derelict.
Having acquired rights, access has to be negotiated. As there are almost invariably a number of riparian owners involved at any water, this can be a tedious process, although, fortunately, most landowners are reported to be cooperative.
In the Republic of Ireland, also, there is growing evidence that the fisheries are not used to their full economic potentialities (Norling and Gaudet, 1968) and this one tends to attribute to lack of clear responsibility on the part of owners whether they be of the private enterprise class or of a cooperative development association type such as a trust. When sport fisheries are either entirely in private hands and managed according to the dictates of private enterprise or, alternatively, where exclusive fishery rights are not asserted, there is often no management as such. The exception to the matter is where waters have by local assent been entrusted for development to a fund or trust, as we find in Ireland, then an orderly regime of fishing emerges based on good will and cooperation rather than on enforcement of management regulations.
Increased population density, particularly in large urban centres, and the resulting fishing intensity and pressure on limited stocks may change the character of the fishery.
Until about 50 years ago in the Netherlands inland fisheries were nearly completely in the hands of professional fishermen and the fishing effort was well spread over all species of which the fish stock was composed. Three factors, have, however, changed this picture completely. Pollution has put an end to the salmon fisheries and has affected the wellbeing and economic value of other species. Secondly, fishing has become more and more selective. Apart from a certain amount of roach and bream, cyprinids are hardly caught commercially because there is no market for them. This opens the road to unbalanced fish populations with all its dangers. Finally, the development of recreational fisheries has been explosive, especially after World War II (almost one million sport fishermen out of a total population of 13 million people). Apart from Lake LJssel, the area of inland waters that can support the fish stock is certainly not more than 150 000 ha. Hence, fishing pressure, especially in the rest of Holland, is severe and the Government policy now tends to separate eel fishing, mainly reserved for professional fishermen, from fishing for other species mostly reserved for anglers.
In Ireland the problems caused by competition and controversies between sport and commercial fishermen were in fact instrumental in bringing the severity of this problem to the attention and study of an international audience at the EIFAC Fourth Session (EIFAC, 1966) and subsequent ones (EIFAC, 1968, 1970, 1972). The First European Consultation on the Economic Evaluation of Sport and Commercial Fisheries (Gaudet, 1972), which culminated from these recent efforts, is also substantial proof that this problem is now in the foreground.
In Poland pressure from anglers and from the existing organized commercial fisheries in inland waters creates considerable controversy between anglers and professional fishermen. Solutions are being sought in legal limitation of fishing both for sport and market depending on the location (access for city population) and the character of the water bodies.
Even in Finland, fishing pressure is evident near large population centres. Fifty percent of the whole population of Finland live in the south and south-west coastal region, which comprises 15 percent of the total area of the country. With limited leisure time, mobility is rather restricted. The demand for sport fishing waters is greatest in southern Finland and especially in the vicinity of the biggest cities. Industry also centres around this area. It has been estimated that 10–15 percent of the Finnish lake area is more or less polluted and the shorelines near larger population centres are generally polluted. Due to changes in the quality of the water the annual catch per sport fishermen has decreased in many areas; fishing trips have become longer, the composition of the catch has changed (population of valuable sport fishing fish species has decreased and that of unwanted, worthless species has increased), flavour defects have been noted in fish caught from the polluted waters, etc.
Increasing population and migration to already large cities and urban centres in Europe not only increases the pressure on limited stocks but also implies a disastrous increase in water pollution. The 20-odd countries contacted for this study were unanimous in classifying water pollution as the most serious and expensive problem facing inland fisheries in Europe today.
In less industrialized areas like the Republic of Ireland, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Norway, water pollution is relatively light, but nevertheless remains a problem. There, enrichment of waters by land drainage, high fertilizer concentrations and pollution emanating from silage pits, poultry and/or pig farms does occur in fertile agricultural areas. This fact was seriously brought home at the FAO/EIFAC Symposium on the Nature and Extent of Water Pollution Problems Affecting Inland Fisheries in Europe (Jablonna, Poland, 1970) (Holden and Lloyd, 1972). In Northern Ireland, where benefit to the land is the major criterion on which decisions about drainage are based, the value of fisheries at risk is taken into account in the cost/benefit analysis which precedes each drainage scheme.
In Europe, some fish species have disappeared altogether. The Seventh Session of EIFAC (Amsterdam, 1972) was told that in the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries in Amsterdam, the maids and servants, before signing a new contract, stated that they did not wish to eat salmon more than three times a week. The fact, as explained by the Head of Fisheries there, is now that very few “maids and also very few Directors, Director-Generals and Ministers in the Netherlands will eat salmon from the Netherlands”.
Eutrophication of lakes resulting from domestic pollution is doing severe and lasting damage in most European countries and is high on the priority list of fishery problems even in Switzerland which is renowned for its clear mountain lakes.
In Spain industrial development and the torrential character of the rivers have necessitated the construction of numerous barrages blocking the ascent of migratory species but at the same time enlarging by as much as 500 000 ha the water surface available for fish.
In Holland and the Federal Republic of Germany water shortage creates very serious conditions. In Holland, salinity increases at times to dangerous levels and the minimum water flow of the Rhine, which occurs too often, increases the effects of pollutants.
Inland waters are not alone in being affected by pollution and the seashore of most of Europe is also polluted. This was strongly evidenced at the FAO Technical Conference on Marine Pollution and its Effects on Living Resources and Fishing, Rome, December 1970 (Ruivo, 1972).
The effects of changes in the quality of the water on fishing in a study area in Finland was shown as mainly detrimental. The main influencing factor is the sewage from the city of Helsinki. In 1970 the annual catch per leisure time fisherman was only 35 percent of what it was 20 years ago. The fishing grounds have changed. In 1950 leisure time fishing was practised mainly in the inner bays, while nowadays the grounds are shifting or have partly shifted to purer areas further from the city necessitating longer journeys. The change in fishing grounds is also reflected in the composition of the catch and the percentage of Baltic herring, cod and flounder in leisure time fishing catches has become significant. On the basis of the study, it has been estimated that changes in the quality of the water and surroundings have been an obstacle to leisure time fishing.
Population, fishing and pollution pressures call for radical action and strong management measures. But the tools available are not the best. One serious drawback is the difficulty of obtaining rapid information on existing stock levels and on stock changes. The problem facing all fishery administrators is one of stock assessment. It is obviously very difficult to apply rational conservation measures without knowing the size and composition of the fish population which is to be conserved. A second major and related problem, which depends upon satisfactory information being obtained on present stock levels is in stock improvement. Both these problems call for research. In the United Kingdom, the laboratories of the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food are actively engaged in research in the field of migratory fish counters (The Natural Environment Research Council, 1972). In France, Poland, the Federal Republic of Germany and Ireland substantive work is being done on electric fishing as a management measure (Vibert, 1967).
Stocking of reservoirs, lakes and rivers is necessary and of course very popular. But the operation of hatcheries is costly and, in fact, Denmark, one of the few countries without fishing licences, is seriously considering its imposition partly to defray the expenses of stocking lakes and rivers. A related problem in that country is that of fish diseases. The Communicable Fish Diseases Control Act requires guaranteed non-contaminated fish for stocking rivers heavily exploited by trout farms.
Despite the alarming situation caused by water pollution, European countries are generally optimistic for the future of sport fisheries. An example of this attitude in the Netherlands is the planned improvement of the old-fashioned fish passes in River Meuse by replacing them with modern fish locks. If water quality were not to improve, it would be a mere waste of money. There is also hope that the modern fish passes in the delta works and in the three recently constructed barrages in the River Rhine will serve their purpose successfully, which will mean giving passage to important fish species, such as salmon.
To increase its water area and reduce mounting fishing pressure, Italy is building small lakes and stocking them regularly. Likewise, the Federal Republic of Germany is building new fish ponds and restoring old ones.
The importance of the sport fishery problems and need for improved management have resulted in the Netherlands in the formation of a Federation of anglers' clubs. The responsibility for the management of scaly fish is shifting to sport fishing organizations. It also creates a situation in which anglers can fish many different waters without being faced with the necessity of becoming members of several clubs and associations.
Similar action is being contemplated in Switzerland but there the problem, as in the Federal Republic of Germany and Austria, is further complicated because of the federal structure of the country. However, discussions with a view to arriving at a national fishery association aimed at improved management practices are promising. In that country, it is felt that a positive step in water pollution control will be the opening of purifying stations in the near future and the application of a new law on fisheries tailored to modern needs.
In an effort to smooth over the controversy between sport and commercial fishermen, it is felt that dissemination of objective information on fishery resources and management will influence public opinion in the right direction. It is also felt that commercial fishing methods should be generally understood as management measures in sport fishing waters.
In less industrialized countries, it is more and more realized that the wealth of sport fishing resources should be better protected particularly since they presently have small commercial value and are, therefore, vulnerable to other conflicting interests.
With respect to water pollution control, the establishment of water quality criteria for European freshwater fish is given the highest priority on the programme of EIFAC (EIFAC Working Party on Water Quality Criteria, 1964, 1968, 1969, 1970, 1972). In fact, major studies have been completed on suspended solids, pH, water temperature, dissolved oxygen, ammonia, and monohydric phenols. Work is continuing on chlorine, zinc, mercury and others. The Commission at various times reasserted its feeling that water quality criteria for fresh-water fish are a first, basic and absolutely necessary step in the management of sport and inland fisheries. Once the criteria for various species of fish and various pollutants are in the hands of the administrators, only then is it possible for them to evaluate the economic and special cost of the water quality they can or must afford in various areas in their country and do so with adequate legislation. Similar criteria are felt necessary for marine fish species and interested international bodies are moving in the same direction as EIFAC in that regard.
Intense research in stock assessment, particularly on those techniques necessary for the rapid assessment of fish population is also being coordinated by EIFAC. An International Symposium on Methodology for the Survey, Monitoring and Appraisal of Fishery Resources in Lakes and Large Rivers is being organized in conjunction with the Eighth Session of EIFAC (Scotland, 1974).
The cautious optimism of EIFAC members is due to their recent awakening to the value of the sport fishing assets which, belatedly, they are attempting to protect and develop for full realization of their potential. The trend is definitely positive and involves an increasing participation of the persons or groups directly concerned.
Some European countries have now recognized the need to evaluate their sport fishing resources not in isolation but in the framework of the total planning of the use of water, recreation in general and the social needs of their population. It is clear that we must determine all of the costs involved in transforming resources into outputs, even social costs. Only when we operate in this fashion will we, as a society, be able to know the exact price of a commodity. As in the case of stock assessment, the techniques need to be developed to assist in this important task. This calls for international coordination such as we find here.
FAO and EIFAC are playing an increasing role in assisting governments in the effective management and conservation of their natural land and ocean resources. A sound balance between environmental requirements, the limited availability of resources, the need for economic growth and social amenities need to be established. Data collection and monitoring techniques will play an increasing role in coping with accelerated changes in resource use. It will be essential to ensure that these data are fully utilized both to assist governments in natural resource planning and management and also to forecast and prevent possible detrimental effects of accelerated development on natural resources and the environment.
This report was compiled from existing information in the EIFAC Secretariat and from data kindly provided by the EIFAC correspondents in all the countries mentioned. Appreciation and sincere thanks are extended to them.
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