by
I. Norling
Assistant Professor
Institute of Sociology, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
in collaboration with The National Board of Fisheries and the Research Group
This paper gives a summary of what is currently being done in Sweden in the field of sport fishing. A considerable quantity of data and information is reproduced regarding important socio-economic data such as, for example, quality of recreation, multi-objectives in sport fishery, sport fishery and the career model, pollution problems, and sport fishery and fishery laws and regulations. It is mentioned that a series of studies have been made in this field and that several government studies in respect of sport fishery are in progress These deal with, inter alia, fishery laws and access in sport fishery, river planning and hydro-electric power and land and water use.
A study of salt water sport fishery is planned. The resource-oriented ecological and fishery biology research is very well developed in Sweden and findings and results are published regularly in international journals.
Ce document donne un résumé des réalisations suédoises actuelles dans le domaine de la pêche sportive. On y cite de nombreuses données et informations socio-économiques: qualité récréative et objectifs multiples de la pêche sportive, son rapport avec la pêche professionnelle, problèmes de la pollution, législation et réglementation de la pêche sportive. Une série d'études ont été faites dans ce domaine et plusieurs en cours pour le compte du Gouvernement, notamment sur la réglementation des pêches et l'accès à la pêche sportive, l'aménagement des cours d'eau et l'énergie hydro-électrique, et l'utilisation des terres et des eaux.
Une étude sur la pêche sportive en mer est envisagée. Les recherches écologiques et biologiques en fonction des ressources halieutiques sont très développées en Suède et conclusions et résultats sont régulièrement publiés dans des revues internationales.
Some minor studies in sport fishing were undertaken during the nineteen sixties (Norling, 1968 and 1965) mostly in cooperation with the Swedish Anglers Association. The EIFAC paper on economic evaluation in sport fishing (Norling, 1968) states a broader interest but the real breakthrough came when the National Board of Fisheries got a special section for sport fishing in 1971. Also contributing is the broad interest for applied research in out-door recreation within SNV - The National Swedish Environment Protection Board.
A series of studies have been made and are in progress as a cooperative project between the National Board of Fisheries and the Norling group at Socialhögskolan and the University of Gothenburg (Norling et al., 1975). A more research-oriented project is in progress by the Norling group and SNV dealing with basic concepts and methods for the outdoor recreation area (Frankenberg, 1975).
Other institutions and associations are partly dealing with studies connected with sport fishing, for example, on tourism and river planning. The world famous equipment factory, ABU, has completed a study on sport fishing in Sweden in 1974 (ABU, AB, 1973 and 1974). The Swedish Anglers Association has completed a study on the economy of licensed fishing waters (Runnström, 1974).
Several government studies with relevance to sport fisheries are in progress. One is focused on fishery laws and access of sport fishing, another is dealing with river planning and hydro-electric power and a third is a large inventory of resources and use of water and land. A study of salt water angling is planned. The resource-oriented ecological and fishery biology research has since long been well developed in Sweden. Results are continuously published in international journals.
Two studies have been made without any restrictions to special population groups, in 1968 (Lundahl, 1968) and 1973 (ABU, AB, 1973 and 1974). The results, when comparable, are quite similar. Of Swedens' seven million people between 15–67 years old, 2.6 million have been fishing once or more in 1973, that is 45 percent. Thirty three percent or 1.8 million have been fishing at least 2–3 times per year and 20 percent or 1.1 million at least once a month.
The sex distribution is 3/4 male anglers. Fifty two percent of the households contain at least one angler. Twelve percent fish more regularly in the winter.
The regional distribution of anglers is very even in the middle and south-western part of Sweden, with about 50 percent higher frequency in the north and 25 percent lower in the south-eastern part.
The age distribution is rather even with half the angling population younger than 35 years. Still very little is known about the anglers less than 15 years old. Accurate and comparable data on trends are not available. Estimates of existing data show an upward trend but a deeper analysis is not possible. Figures from 1968 and 1973 show an upward trend of just over 20 percent for the number of anglers. However, the methods used are not fully comparable and produce too large a figure (ABU, AB, 1973, 1974; Lundahl, 1968).
Anglers in Sweden, as elsewhere in the western world, are not very organized in state-wide interest groups. Only 4 percent are members of the Swedish Anglers Association. Locally and in connexion with certain waters, many clubs exist, often including anglers and owners of fishing rights. Eight percent are members of such clubs (ABU, AB, 1973 and 1974).
Most of the fishing with a rod is for pike and perch. Many anglers also use nets. Figures on salt water fishing compared with data on freshwater are not yet available.
There are large differences between what anglers catch and what they want to catch. There is a demand for salmonids and river fishing (Norling, 1965; Norling et al., 1975 and 1973). The Swedish water and fish resources for sport fishing are either very good, rather good, not so good or bad. Generally speaking Sweden has many angling waters and happy anglers. But there are also large areas, urban centres such as Gothenburg, seriously threatened by pollution and also large areas, for example, river basins in the north, exposed to threats from the power exploitation. Fishing for salmonids in rivers and natural lakes is already seriously damaged.
A great deal of rehabilitation and compensation work has started but this process has earlier been restricted by passiveness from the anglers themselves and a lack of understanding from the authorities. These phenomena should not be looked upon as conscious destructiveness but merely as a view based on restricted and biased facts about sport fishing, its socio-economic and ecological value.
A series of Swedish studies are dealing partly with socio-economic aspects of sport fishing, but none of them are as complete as the best from the U.S.A. and Canada.
Gross expenditure figures are not used very much but some calculations are made based on figures from some studies (ABU, AB, 1973, 1974; Norling et al., 1975 and 1973). Different methods give total figures of expenditure by Swedish anglers from S.Kr. 600 million to one billion. If related costs, for example, for summer houses are included, the larger figure will be relevant and probably exceeded (90 percent of summer house owners in river basins have fishing as an important motive for buying the house).
The importance of socio-economic background variables such as income, education, age, family, social class and work have, together with other variables like interest and leisure activities, been studied in connexion with frequency and type of fishing (Frankenberg, 1975; Norling et al., 1975, 1973; SNV 1974:20). The general tendency is that income, social class and education have very little explanation value. Even “exclusive” fly fishermen do not differ from ordinary people and fishermen. Some special tendencies found in stepwise regression analysis are discussed in later sections. More important are interest for outdoor life, outdoor work and access to fishing.
Studies of “willingness to pay” (Jägnert and Lundahl, 1973; Norling, 1965; Norling et al., 1975, 1973) show high sensitivity to consumer or motive adaptive planning. Fishing-oriented services such as access (boats, bridges, etc.) have high values. Comfort services such as hotels, shops, etc., give low values. Large differences are found for species and type of water. Salmonids and river fishing are important whereas “put and take” waters are in constant economic difficulty (Runnström, 1974). Low figures are found for pike and perch fishing. This means, as pike-perch fishing in lakes is the overall dominating fishing, that distance and access factors will be of great importance. Hence the new “on the door-step” philosophy in Canada is probably relevant also for Sweden in the planning of outdoor recreation for ordinary, urbanized and frustrated “ex-vikings”, young and old.
The quality aspect is one of several basic dimensions in the production of fishing recreation, but it is probably the most complicated. The resource-oriented planner often asks: what is the minimum quality for this water in terms of number of anglers, catch per rod day, size and species of fish?
However, data about basic motives behind recreational fishing give a partly different picture. The social motives are very important. This means that small group activities of families and friends within and around the actual fishing (for example, to be in a boat, eat and make campfire together) are very important. The composition of fish size in the lake or river is important. Larger fish should at least be available for experienced anglers. Parents with young children are, at least for the children's sake, interested in catching fish independent of size (Norling et al., 1975, 1973). Many anglers prefer some physical exercise, solitude for thier group and clean unspoiled nature. Planning that interferes with these motives affects the quality in a negative direction (SNV, 1974:20).
Some astonishing and partly contradicting data are found in the studies referred to (Norling et al., 1975, 1973). Interviews with large samples of anglers indicate that they are not affected very much in their fishing by the pollution (“blacklisting”) of some Swedish lakes, rivers and coastal areas. That may mean that a serious disturbance in only one fairly important motive factor will only give reduced effect on the total experience (Frankenberg, 1975; SNV, 1974:20). As is referred to elsewhere (Frankenberg, 1975) service not corresponding to basic motives does not affect the quality of the experience. This reaction is often found in “willingness to pay” data (Norling et al., 1975, 1973).
A lot of rotenone-treated and stocked “put and take” lakes and ponds are found in Sweden. These fishing resources correspond well to a certain demand but they create little tourism (Norling et al., 1975, 1973) and the willingness to pay is so low that many of these areas are in economic difficulties (Runnström, 1974). It some quite evident that the factors which create quality of fishing in rivers and stocked lakes, both with salmonids, are so different that only limited exchange and compensation is possible (Norling, 1974; Norling et al., 1975, 1973).
Time budget and content analyses of the recreation circle (planning, travel to, actual fishing, travel from recollection) have been carried out (Jägnert and Lundahl, 1973; Norling et al., 1975, 1973). It is a tendency that urbanization, pollution, river dam building, etc., force anlgers to travel longer, lose their home water and the broad ecological contact with lakes and rivers. It seems more and more important that anglers should have an opportunity to get broad and rich experiences not limited to catching fish. In turn this will affect the quality of the time consumption, recreation-producing steps, planning and recollection. Data indicate that this is an important planning problem where motives and demand do not correspond very well with resources planning (Frankenberg, 1975; Norling, 1965).
Studies of a large number of anglers fishing in licensed waters (Norling et al., 1975 1973) indicate that they generally give priority to services for good access to the water, for example, boats and good casting possibilities. Very little demand is found for secondary services, for example, food, hotels. Of course, there are differences among groups of anglers where family groups are more interested in the secondary service. Strong tendencies concerning service demand are found in terms of “willingness to pay”.
Studies of licensed waters indicate that mass media, written information, for example, articles and brochures, have a low or very low influence on anglers to fish in new licensed waters. Direct or personal information from an angler with experience of the area and water is the dominating stimulus (Norling et al., 1975, 1973).
Studies in motives and multi-objectives of sport fishing are made or are in progress (Frankenberg, 1975; SNV, 1974:20). One view is that this is one of the basic targets of research but is also very complicated and sensitive to choice of concepts, methods and study groups.
Some of our data and reinforced hypothesis should be mentioned. Sport fishing is a multi-activity (for example, social, therapeutic, physical, ecological) with high flexibility in composition of activities and both large and small differences within and between anglers (Norling et al., 1975, 1973; SNV, 1974:20).
It generally seems as if anglers who have a sound balance between their objectives and actual activities, are satisfied with their sport fishing, their leisure in general and also life quality aspects such as the relation work - leisure (Frankenberg, 1975).
One study (SNV, 1974:20) indicates generally that social motives (together with family and friends, etc.) are very important. Secondly, two other groups of motives follow-therapeutic, nature-based motives (out in nature, leaving home and work, getting rid of tensions and stress, solitude, etc.) and physical exercise. Ranking third comes excitement and competition and catching fish, fish for food.
If then the change of relative importance of motives between anglers of different activity levels is studied some interesting results are conspicuous. The therapeutic motives are more important than the social motives within the high activity group. Excitement is more important within the low and high activity groups. (This study is made on anglers living in urban centres, 10 000 inhabitants and more (SNV, 1974:20).)
Another study (Norling et al., 1975, 1973) on anglers fishing in licensed waters in different parts of Sweden gives similar general results. Within the social motives of families a strong education motive was found - to give the children a positive interest in outdoor life. The general tendencies in this study were rather independent of frequency of fishing and type of angling water.
The career model is used in behavioural sciences to describe and analyse the working life (Norling, 1971). It has been used in some Swedish studies to analyse leisure in general and also sport fishing. This model gives a stepwise description from:
resource - exposure;
development of interest and basic knowledge;
development of a career to other and “higher” forms of fishing;
duration through life of the activity, to
turnover from the activity by resource or personal reasons.
As all the steps of the model are complicated processes the studies can only give tendencies, hypothesis and new ideas.
Data indicate that nearness to fishing waters and a basic outdoor interest through family or friends are important for the start of sport fishing (Norling et al., 1975, 1973). Socio-economic factors such as income and education are not important.
If some of the first steps of the model are added and the activity level of fishing is looked at (1–5, 6–20, 20 times/year) a more complicated and partly contradictory picture emerges. Still income, social class, etc., do not influence generally, but the results indicate strongly that people with outdoor work belong to the most active group and office workers are less active. Shift workers are significantly more active anglers than married middle-aged people with handicaps and a higher frequency of sickness.
The development of basic knowledge (step b) seems to function well among many anglers as most anglers use several types of equipment and fish over a long period of the year. Those who fish in the winter also fish in the summer (ABU, AB, 1973, 1974).
The career (step c) can be defined in terms of the recreation circle as, for example, being less fish-dependent and using more time for planning and recollection or in terms of recreation quality, for example, for which fishing do you find the highest demand or willingness to pay among highly experienced anglers.
Data indicate that these definitions can be used. Fish per se and catching of fish is a less and less important motive for the experienced angler.
Anglers fishing in licensed waters do not, as club members, have the opportunity to broaden their fishing to planning, fish culture and stocking, water analysis, etc. Data show a large demand among licensed anglers for these “ecological” activities. Again it is found that river fishing for salmonids is the top quality goal for many planning and fishing anglers. Life duration (step d) is one of many positive values of sport fishing. Analysis of age/activity statistics of anglers show an unusually constant level and duration over age1. The decrease of number of anglers over 50 years is partly compensated by increased activity level.
1 SNV, 1974:20; ABU, AB, 1973, 1974; Norling et al., 1975, 1973; Norling, 1965; Norling, 1968
Very little is known about the turnover (step e) where anglers are forced to stop or change type of angling because of different resource or personal barriers. Data indicate that this is a serious social problem. Urbanization, pollution, river dams restrict the resources and physical and socio-economic changes restrict the angler. Regression and factor analysis of data (Frankenberg, 1975; SNV, 1974:20) indicate that sport fishing contains an activity and motive pattern of its own, not highly correlated with other outdoor activities. That means that sport fishing is less interchangeable with other leisure activities and more difficult to compensate.
In several studies made recently (Frankenberg, 1975; Norling et al., 1975, 1973) a stepwise high correlation is found between: satisfied with/the sport fishing situation/the general leisure situation/the relation work/leisure. Similar connexions are found in other studies dealing with leisure - sport fishing and work in northern Sweden (Jägnert and Lundahl, 1973; Daun, 1959).
Secondary data dealing with this concept are found in other sections of this paper (Frankenberg, 1975; Runnström, 1974).
Studies (SNV, 1974:20; Lundahl, 1968) indicate that barriers, like physical handicaps, have moderate effect on the sport fishing activity. Still, the adapted service for, for example, persons who are wheelchair-bound, is at its beginning. A promising cooperation is going on in Gothenburg with an American expert in therapeutic recreation.
Small studies of gangs and juvenile delinquents indicate that sport fishing is an activity which often ranks high in the list of what they would like to do or do more (Norling, in preparation).
Small-scale experiments are going on treating alcoholics with therapeutic fishing in different clinics - as a part of what is called milieu therapy. The experiences are positive but an overall scientific evaluation is needed.
Very little is known about the fishing situation for urbanized people and immigrants. It seems as if large part of urbanized people from the north and Finnish immigrants with a pronounced interest in fishing and hunting will fall in the turnover group. This could be a serious social problem as we know that sport fishing is hard to compensate (SNV, 1974:20); that sport fishing is an important activity for two thirds of the northern male population and that sport fishing is highly correlated to satisfaction with leisure and total life quality (Frankenberg, 1975; SNV, 1974:20).
Several important studies are now being made dealing with programmes for hydro-electric power stations in the few remaining parts of the northern Swedish rivers. One important experience from these studies (Norling et al., 1975, 1973) and also documentation (Norling, 1974) is that the values (social and economic) of rivers for fishing and other types of recreation have been seriously underestimated.
Data indicate (Jägnert and Lundahl, 1973; Norling et al., 1975, 1973) that river fishing for local people in the north is of fundamental importance and basic for their quality of life experience. It affects setting and staying in the area to a large extent (two thirds) and also the typical Swedish summer-house activity (90 percent).
Many Swedes and also foreigners go tourist fishing especially in northern Sweden, to lakes and especially rivers with natural stocks of salmonids. In our studies (Norling et al., 1975, 1973) of licensed fishing in the north, half of the group from southern Sweden go to the north mainly for fishing, and 95 percent of them want to fish in rivers.
The economic value of river fishing is considerable, S.Kr. 360 per angler and half of that sum stays in the local region. Studies of stocked rotenone-treated lakes indicate that they have a limited value for tourism and do not function well as compensation for polluted rivers.
Many Swedes go to Norway fishing for salmonids, Smaller groups go to Scotland and Ireland. Pioneer groups develop deep-sea tourist fishing in the Atlantic (Canary Islands, etc.).
The continuous pollution of Swedish lakes and rivers suitable for sport fishing is alarming. One estimate is that about 5 000 Swedish lakes have a critically low pH-value. The problem is that most of this pollution comes from industries in other parts of Europe.
Equally alarming is the fact that the anglers themselves react on these slow changes in a very passive way. Even if a study of anglers fishing in licensed waters will give a biased positive view of the pollution effect on fishing, the anglers there would say that pollution does effect their fishing, but not very much (Norling et al., 1975, 1973).
The angler for the moment reacts on pollution as if only one minor part of the recreation process is disturbed. However, in the long run this “minor part” is the basic target of fishing and the angler will, after a while, find himself a turnover case (Frankenberg, 1975; Norling, 1968, 1965). The restricted actions taken by the society concerning pollution and sport fishing is partly a function of the usual underestimation of its socio-economic importance (Norling, 1968, 1974) and also because only a small fraction of the anglers are organized (ABU, AB, 1973, 1974).
As is evident from this short description we have no reliable data about the effect of pollution on, for example, number of recreation days, turnover and recruitment of new anglers.
Most rivers in Sweden holding salmonids are totally or partly destroyed as sport fishing waters by dambuildings and power stations. Two state committees are working with plans for the rivers in northern Sweden. For the first time the fishery authorities have been able to present socio-economic data about river sport fishing and values that represent some of the basic “true” values (Norling et al., 1975, 1973 and in preparation). Still, the frustrating experience is that new studies often and new and higher values in favour of dams and power stations while data now used to estimate recreational values give a serious underestimation of sport fishing values and negative socio-economic effects. Documentation of international research has been used to fill the gaps, such as Krutillas study of Hells Canyon (Norling, 1974).
Swedish law differentiates between private and public waters. According to current rules all waters are private which are within 300 m from the mainland shore, or within the same distance from an island measuring at least 100 m in length.
The only public fresh waters are to be found in the lakes Vänern, Vättern, Hjälmaren and Storsjön in the province of Jämtland.
The Fishing Rights Act applies to Swedish territorial waters and to Swedish fishing zones.
In public waters every Swedish citizen is allowed to fish with hooks, rods and gillnets, with different exceptions in the various areas. A special permission from the County Administration is required for fishing with pound nets and traps in public waters on the coast and in the five major lakes.
In private waters only the land-owner is allowed to fish (with certain exceptions). This rule applies to the lakes. As regards the sea coast there are many exemption clauses, varying from one place to another. The extreme case is the west coast where only the oyster fishery is reserved for the land-owner.
Scandinavian nationals are to some extent permitted to fish in Swedish public waters without licence. Other foreigners can obtain such permission from the authorities.
In many private waters outsiders are granted fishing rights by means of fishing licences. As a rule the fishing licenses are not valid for all kinds of fishing, but restricted to rod and fly fishing.
To protect different kinds of species from overexploitation, mesh sizes, minimum sizes, closed seasons are the general tools. These are used in country-wide regulations as well as by local authorities.
ABU, AB, Fritidsfisket i Sverige 1973, ABU, 1974 (not published)
Deun, Å., Upp till kamp i Båtskärsnäs. Verdandi Debatt, Prisma 1959.
Frankenberg, K., Utveckling av begrepp och mätmetoder inom fritidsplanering. Del 1, mätning av aktiviteter. Psykologiska institutionen, Göteborgs universitet, 1975.
Frankenberg, K., Fritidsfiske vid kortfiskevatten - 3. Fiskeristyrelsen Informerar 1974-08–23.
Jägnert, Ch. and B. Lundahl, Jakt och fiske och andra fritidsaktiviteter bland skogsarbetare vid SCA. Socialhögskolan i Göteborg, 1973.
Lundahl, A., Låginkomstutredningen kap. fritid, 1968.
Norling, I., 1968 Economic evaluation of inland sport fishing. FAO, EIFAC Technical Paper T7,
Norling, I., 1965. Fritidsfiskets planering. Särtryck ur Svenskt Fiske/Sportfiskaren nr 9 och 11,
Norling, I., Fritid och friluftsrekreation. Del 1: Planering och forskning inom fritidsområdet, speciellt friluftssektorn. Socialhögskolan i Göteborg, 1971.
Norling, I., Utbyggnad av älvsystem. Lönsamhetsberäkningar som innefattar naturresursers rekreationsvärde. SNV PM 456, 1974.
Norling, I., Jägnert, Ch. and B. Lundahl, Fritidsfiske vid kortfiskevatten - 4. Fiskeristyrelsen Informerar 1975-09–15. Resultat frå en enkätundersökning 1973 bland fritidsfiskare vid 13 kortfiskeområden angående deras fritidsfiske under ett år.
Runnström, H., Kortfiskets lönsamhet. Fiskeristyrelsen Informerar 1974-08–23.
SNV 1974:20, Fritid-Friluftsliv. Vidare bearbetningar på friluftsvaneutredningens material med avseende på bl. a gruppen fritidsfiskare. Pågår f. n. vid Socialhögskolan i Göteborg i samarbete med Statens Naturvårdsverk.
