Pollination is a key ecosystem service for
cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) production, yet natural
pollination rates are critically low, partly due to
agricultural intensification and the widespread use
of agrochemicals. We investigated how conventional
crop management practices—specifically the application
of an insecticide (cypermethrin), a fungicide
(copper oxychloride), and a pollinator breeding substrate
(oil palm fibre) affect pollination dynamics in
cacao agroforests in Arauca, Colombia. We assessed
their individual and combined effects on natural and
hand pollination success, alongside environmental
factors such as shade, ground cover, and precipitation.
We also quantified the pollination gap, defined 

as the difference between natural and hand pollination,
to evaluate pollination efficiency. Using a factorial
design and generalized linear mixed models,
we found that natural pollination was significantly
reduced by pesticide applications, particularly when
insecticides and fungicides were combined. In contrast,
hand pollination remained largely unaffected
by environmental variables. Surprisingly, insecticide
application (alone or combined with fungicide)
increased hand pollination success, possibly due to
reduced flower damage (florivory). As a result, pesticide
treatments substantially widened the pollination
gap, ranging from nearly eightfold to more than
tenfold compared to the control. Notably, increasing
shade cover consistently improved natural pollination
and narrowed the pollination gap; under highshade
conditions, natural pollination occasionally
even outperformed hand pollination. These findings
underscore the need for a shift from input-intensive
approaches toward integrated management strategies
that reconcile productivity with ecological sustainability.
Based on our results, we recommend restricting
pesticide use to periods of low pollinator activity and
maintaining moderate shade levels (~ 50%).