The four Central Asian countries mentioned are heavily agrarian societies and have a low income per capita, except for Turkmenistan due to its large oil and gas revenues. The region is characterised by mountainous terrain and dry areas. The climate is continental, with cold winters and dry, hot summers. There has been a noticeable degree of erosion and soil degradation resulting from the natural conditions of the countries and the intensive production methods adopted during the Soviet era that are still used today. Coupled with an inefficient use of water (as well as a general water shortage in Turkmenistan), this situation has led to agricultural activities characterised by low productivity levels. Agricultural land is regularly used for extensive livestock husbandry. Only a small part of the region's agricultural land can be used for crop and/or horticulture, and irrigation is almost always required if any considerable yields are to be achieved.