Table 13. Dietary nutritional deficiency, vitamins
Vitamins	Deficiency signs/syndrome	Measure
Vitamin A	Reduced growth, exophthalmia, blindness, aedema	Supplement feed with vitamin A or fish liver oils
Vitamin D	Impaired bone mineralization	Supplement feed with vitamin D3 or fish liver oils
Vitamin K	Prolonged blood clotting time, haemorrhagic gills and eyes	Supplement feed with stable menadione supplements
Vitamin E	Skin depigmentation, muscular dystrophy, steatitis, cardiac muscle pathology, anaemia�	Supplement feed with vitamin alpha tocopherol acetate �
Thiamine	Nervous disorders, loss of equilibrium, convulsions �	Supplement feed with thiamine
Riboflavin	Lethargy, dark pigmentation, fin haemorrhage and erosions, bilateral cataracts	Supplement feed with riboflavin A
Pyridoxine	Nervous disorders,  loss of equilibrium, convulsions, erratic spiral swimming	Supplement feed with pyridoxine �
Pantothenic acid	Clubbed gills, distended operculum, mortality	Supplement feed with pantothenic acid �
Niacin	Skin and fin lesions, muscle spasms, sensitivity of skin to sunlight, abdominal aedema, convulsions	Supplement feed with niacin�
Biotin	Gill lamellae degeneration, dark colouration, muscle atrophy, anorexia	Supplement feed with biotin �
Folic acid	Lethargy, slow growth, anaemia, dark skin colouration	Supplement feed with folic acid
Vitamin B12	Microcytic hypochromic anaemia�	Supplement feed with vitamin B12
Ascorbic acid	Lethargy, scoliosis, lordosis, anaemia	Supplement feed with stable form of ascorbic acid �
Choline	Fatty liver, distended abdomen, reduced growth�	Supplement feed with choline chloride
Inositol	Reduced growth, dark skin colouration, distended abdomen	Supplement feed with inositol
Source: NRC (1993)