Cover photograph:
Marsaxlokk fishing port, Malta; courtesy of Joseph Alan Sciortino.

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ISBN 978-92-5-106696-6

E-ISBN: 978-92-5-107819-8 (MOBI)

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© FAO 2010

Preparation of this document

This manual was prepared by Mr Joseph Alan Sciortino, MICE, M. ASCE, C. Eng., the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Consultant on Harbour Design and Management. The manual reflects the provisions of the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries in relation to fishing harbours and is an extension of Annex VI, No. 1, in the series of FAO Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries. It contains proposals and guidelines to be followed with regard to the design, development, management and maintenance of ports and landing places for fishing vessels. It also provides guidance on the conduct of environmental auditing in relation to new construction and the upgrading of existing facilities. It was based on a manual prepared in electronic format in 1999, and updated and revised to integrate new guidelines, ideas, experiences and lessons from projects in different parts of the world.

The manual was technically edited by Mr John Fitzpatrick, C. Eng., C. Mar. Eng., MIMAREST, former Director of the FAO Fish Products and Industry Division. The draft of the manual was reviewed by Mr B.N. Krishnamurthy, FAO Consultant on Harbour Management and Institution Building and Mr V. Venkatesan, FAO Consultant on Community Participation in Fisheries, both under the Technical Cooperation Project on Capacity Building in Support of Cleaner Fishing Harbours in India; and Mr Simon Diffey, Chief Technical Advisor of the project on the Restoration and Improvement of Fish Landing Centres with Stakeholder Participation in Management funded by the Canadian International Development Agency in Sri Lanka.

The manual was edited by Maria Giannini. Susana V. Siar, Fishery Industry Officer, Fishing Operations and Technology Service (FIRO) of the FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department, provided overall supervision in the preparation and publication of this manual. The publication contributes to the achievement of the following organizational result: the operation of fisheries, including the use of vessels and fishing gear, is made safer, more technically and socio-economically efficient, environmentally-friendly and compliant with rules at all levels.

Abstract

The role of the fishing port may be considered as the interface between the netting of fish and its consumption. In many cases, the fishing harbour is also the focal point of pollution, both of the surrounding environment and the fishery products it produces. Many fishing harbours are also the source of major impacts on the physical and biological coastal environment.

Although the bulk of fish landed in fishing harbours in developing countries is destined for the local markets, it is every country’s wish to improve the health hazard-free quality of its landed catch in order to increase exports of seafood products to more lucrative overseas markets. In the not-too-distant future, the growth in local consumer rights advocacy will also increase demand for health hazard-free fish.

In today’s world of increased environmental awareness, a fishing port must be planned, designed and managed in harmony with both the physical and biological coastal environments. At each stage of the process, whether it is planning, design or management, both technical and non-technical persons become involved in the process. Within government departments, whether they be technical (fisheries or public works) or non-technical (budget or finance), it is not uncommon for non-technical persons to affect the outcome of technical decisions. Fisheries Departments worldwide generally have to manage and maintain harbours and landing places using non-engineering civil servants. The following manual was produced in order to tackle fishing harbours in a holistic approach.

This manual is useful to both technical and non-technical planners, both at national government level and at departmental level. It provides non-engineering staff within such departments with enough technical knowledge to better understand certain basic design requirements, which could otherwise be interpreted as superfluous and not cost effective.

The manual is of particular use to local independent consulting engineers and architects with no ports or fisheries experience involved in the design of locally tendered projects for the various international funding agencies. To technical staff of such firms, it provides a handy reference and the means for integrating Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) and European Union Directive recommendations on hazard-free seafood directly into the fishing port’s design.

The fishing industry as a whole can ill-afford the economic losses from lower prices received for contaminated fish. Recent European Union rulings have even gone one step further by banning outright all fish imports from certain countries.

Sciortino, J.A.

Fishing harbour planning, construction and management.

FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper. No. 539. Rome, FAO. 2010. 337p.

Contents

Preparation of this document

Abstract

Abbreviations and acronyms

Executive summary

1.

Code of conduct, conventions and importing country directives

2.

Infrastructure needs assessment

3.

Port management

4.

Environmental auditing

5.

Hydrographic surveys

6.

Dredging

7.

Breakwaters

8.

Quays and slipways

9.

Construction materials

10.

Fittings and navigational aids

11.

Shore-based infrastructure and renewable energy

12.

Public health, hygiene and waste disposal

Annex 1

–

FAO Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries – Fishing Operations – 1 (Annex VI)

Annex 2

–

Port hygiene checklist

Annex 3

–

Port hygiene deficiencies checklist

Annex 4

–

Training manual on seafood handling

Annex 5

–

Prevention of pollution

Abbreviations and acronyms

AC

alternating current

AISI

American Iron and Steel Institute

BOBP

Bay of Bengal Programme

CFC

community fishery centre

CFCs

chlorofluorocarbons

COFI

Committee on Fisheries

DC

direct current

DGPS

Differential Global Positioning System

EC

European Community

EEZ

exclusive economic zone

EIA

environmental impact assessment

EIS

environmental impact studies

EPS

Electronic Positioning System

EU

European Union

FAO

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

FMO

fisheries management organization

GHG

greenhouse gases

GPS

Global Positioning System

GT

gross tonnage

HACCP

Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points

HDPE

high-density polyethylene

HHWL

Higher High Water level

HHW

highest high waters

IALA

International Assocation of Marine Aids to Navigation and Lighthouse Authorities

IATA

International Air Transport Association

IEE

Initial Environmental Examination

IMO

International Maritime Organization

IPCC

International Panel on Climate Change

ISO

International Organization for Standarization

ISPS

International Ship and Port Facility Security Code

IUU

illegal, unreported and unregulated

LAT

lowest astronomical tide

LDPE

low-density polyethylene

LED

light-emitting diode

LLW

lowest low waters

LLWS

Lower Low Water Spring

LUX

1 lumen per square metre

MARPOL

International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships

MCS

monitoring, control and surveillance

MLLW

Mean Lower Low Water

m/s

metres per second

MSL

mean sea level

MSY

maximum sustainable yield

N/mm^2

Newtons per square millimetre

NGO

non-governmental organization

PAH

polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons

ppb

parts per billion

ppm

parts per million

PVC

polyvinyl chloride

PVN

Private Virtual Network

PV

photovoltaic

RO

reverse osmosis

SAR

search and rescue

SOLAS

International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (IMO Convention)

SWL

safe working load

UHMW

ultra-high molecular weight

UKC

under keel clearance

UNCED

United Nations Conference on Environment and Development

UNCLOS

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982

uPVC

unplasticized PVC

UXO

unexplored ordinance

W/C

water-cement ratio

WGS84

World Geodetic System 1984

WHO

World Health Organization

Executive summary

The unrelenting pressure on the world’s coastal resources and its coastal ecosystems is threatening the viability of fisheries as an industry. By its very nature, an ill-conceived port or fish landing structure has the potential to place a disproportionately large demand on both the local physical and biological resources and, in today’s world of increased environmental awareness, a fishing port or fish landing site must be planned, designed and managed in harmony with these environments.

Fishing ports and fish landing sites are complex dynamic interface zones involving the mixing of environmental, ecological, economic and social activities and problems. This heterogeneous mix of activities demands strong cross-sector interaction at the planning stage to ensure that the resulting infrastructure may be managed in a sustainable manner. This manual is not the first effort by FAO to set forth a set of cross-sector guidelines for the planning and/or management of a fish landing site or fishing port. In various forms, information related to fishing ports design has been available since 1976, the most recent being FAO Training Series 25 on the construction and maintenance of artisanal fishing harbours and village landings (1995).

In recent years, world fisheries have become a market-driven sector of the food industry and many coastal states have striven to take advantage of this new opportunity by investing heavily, and sometimes haphazardly, in fishing port infrastructure. When, in the early to mid-1990s various international conventions and importing country directives on food safety came into force, much of this same infrastructure was found to be non-compliant, requiring further investment. Also, in the intervening period, the requirement for proper Environmental Impact Studies became mandatory in most States, further complicating the added investments required to make such infrastructure compliant.

Why this manual? The manual builds on the earlier work by FAO and introduces for the first time the international conventions and importing country directives that have a direct influence on both the planning and design of fishing port infrastructure. It is intended as a reference not only for engineers and architects involved in the design and rehabilitation of fishing ports but also for non-technical staff at departmental level in government institutions that may influence technical decisions in the field. These institutions may comprise, directly or indirectly, policy and planning, budget and finance, export and public health authorities. It may also be of use to donor agencies and non-governmental organizations when planning fisheries-related investments.

The use of this manual should enable consultants, architects and contractors involved in any stage of design or construction of a fish landing or port to avoid the mistakes of old. This manual covers all the aspects of fishing port infrastructure, from inception to final design as well as the construction and management of the fishing port or landing once constructed. This manual does not replace the textbooks required to design the single elements that constitute the fishing port, such as the breakwaters, the quay walls, etc. Any costs quoted in the manual refer to United States dollars and generally apply to any country with good connections. Operational costs in some developing countries may differ significantly due to logistics. To technical staff in general, it provides a handy reference and the means for integrating HACCP and importing country directive recommendations on hazard-free seafood directly into the fishing port’s design.

The previous version of this manual was the basis of a distant-learning course. This edition is a good handbook based on the author’s extensive experience in the design, construction and operation of fishing ports in many developing countries.

There are twelve chapters and five reference annexes in this manual. Each chapter deals with a particular topic and is a stand-alone document.

The first chapter presents the technical guidelines to the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries. It also lists the relevant international conventions to which a State may be a party, together with third country directives that jointly will have a direct bearing on the overall design of the port and its components. These include compliance with basic engineering principles regarding the morphological degradation of the coastal zone in respect of erosion and siltation (UNCED 92), compliance with the relevant conventions concerning pollution of the aquatic environment (MARPOL 73/78) and the provision of adequate monitoring of the effects of operations on the environment (UNCED 92). The Code also addresses post-harvest practices setting out minimum standards for food safety and quality assurance.

The second chapter describes how to plan shore-based facilities and fishing ports that are commensurate with the targeted resources, within the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of a coastal State and distant water fisheries, as the case may be, that would be environmentally sustainable and financially justifiable. It addresses the major issues that influence the size of a new port and describes in detail the classification of fishing ports, from artisanal beach landings to coastal fishing ports, offshore fishing ports and distant water fishing ports. Guidelines on the preferred siting of a fishing port vis-à-vis land use are also discussed. The chapter also dwells on post-conflict reconstruction procedures and on overcapacity (redundant vessels) and potential income diversification for fishermen faced with an ever-dwindling catch.

The third chapter tackles port management, from the simple fish landing on a beach to a proper deep water fishing port. It stresses the need for a stakeholder approach to port management whereby all the port users are represented on the management body. Typical port management bodies are described in detail covering all scenarios, from the simple village landing to a sophisticated fishing port. It also highlights the importance of a fish quality assurance regime inside the port and lists best management practices for port and boatyard operators and the prevention of pollution.

Chapter four reviews the environmental auditing procedures to be followed for all new designs. Degradation of the marine environment can result from a wide range of activities on land. Coastal erosion and siltation are of particular concern. Hence, rational use and development of coastal areas as well as conservation of the marine environment require the ability to determine the present state of these ecological systems and to predict future conditions. Systematic collection of data on marine environmental parameters is needed for an integrated management approach to sustainable development and to predict the effects of the construction of a port on the marine environment. This chapter should be of use to government institutions involved in fisheries-related development seeking international investment funds. The guidelines are also useful for the development or expansion of commercial ports which may impact fishing operations.

Hydrography is the foundation for all coastal work and chapter five covers the topic in great detail. In the past, many artisanal shelters and fishing ports were built at convenient locations, with no particular attention paid to the underwater environment. Many such ports are now plagued by erosion and siltation problems that could have been identified earlier had proper hydrographic surveys been conducted. This chapter should provide planners and engineers with cost-effective options when faced with tight budgetary restrictions and difficult logistics. It describes the amount of hydrographic detail required for a project from inception stage to construction phase.

Dredging and underwater excavation, chapter six, are an important aspect in the design and construction of key elements in a fishing port. Dredging may be required to develop a port basin or to maintain a navigation channel open, but may also be undertaken for other purposes such as land reclamation, beach nourishment and environmental remediation of contaminated sediments. Dredging may be of a permanent nature, also known as capital dredging, or of a transient nature, also known as maintenance dredging. The nature of the material to be dredged determines the type of dredging equipment required or method to be adopted but, on the whole, dredging practice is site specific. Also, in recent years, the screening for the presence of potentially harmful chemical agents in the material to be dredged has become mandatory in many countries influencing not only the method of dredging but also the method of disposal. This chapter may be used as a guide to assist in the decision-making process for the selection of appropriate dredging and disposal techniques.

Chapter seven is dedicated exclusively to breakwaters. The sea is unforgiving and wave action continually degrades human-made structures erected in the sea and breakwaters form the bulk of this construction. Therefore, engineers are normally entrusted with the design and maintenance of large deep water breakwaters. However, cases also arise when artisanal structures are required at the local level and when engineering assistance is either not available or not with the right experience. This chapter is intended primarily for non-technical staff coming to terms for the first time with marine construction and purposely does not include advanced design aids for structures in deep water, the realm of professional engineers.

Chapter eight covers quays and slipways in detail and should provide the reader with a wide range of options for both quays and maintenance structures, such as slipways and boat gantries.

Chapter nine condenses the subject of materials knowledge and suitability into a single chapter while eliminating superfluous coverage. The chapter is confined to the properties of those materials and treatments or variations thereof that are applicable to port structures. Emphasis is placed on full coverage of the basic materials that have proved most durable in the highly aggressive marine environment inside port structures.

The tenth chapter is a comprehensive overview of all the mechanical fittings and quay furniture required to run a port efficiently, from bollards and fenders all the way to marker beacons, winches and fish boxes. It provides an ideal reference guide to both technical and non-technical readers.

Chapter eleven reviews the shore-based infrastructure typical in a port operation, from water supply, power, refuelling, ice, port buildings and paved areas. Any reader will find this chapter useful, either as a reference or as a guide on how to integrate HACCP and third country directives into a port’s infrastructure design.

Chapter twelve provides a holistic approach to public health issues in fisheries ranging from water and water-borne contaminants to sewage and sewage treatment options. The comprehensive detail of this chapter will enable the reader to better understand the ease with which fish, meant for human consumption, is contaminated. The chapter will also assist port planners in dealing with the prevention of pollution in fishing ports.

The manual also has a list of annexes for use as reference material. Annex 1 reproduces the text from the FAO Technical Guidelines, No. 1, Fishing Operations, on the procedures for the development and management of harbours and landing places for fishing vessels. Annexes 2 and 3 are checklists for port hygiene and port hygiene deficiencies, respectively. The fourth annex is a training manual on seafood handling prepared by Francisco Blaha, formerly FAO Fishery Industry Officer for the Technical Cooperation Project on Capacity Building in Support of Cleaner Fishing Harbours in India. The fifth annex is a useful tool already used with success in public awareness campaigns on the prevention of pollution in fishing harbours.

Part III

Management

The publication deals with the planning, the construction and ultimately with the management of fishing ports. This publication should enable consultants, architects and contractors involved in any stage of design or construction of a fish landing or port to avoid the mistakes of old as it covers all the aspects of fishing port infrastructure, from inception to construction and management of the fishing port or landing once constructed. This manual does not replace the textbooks required to design the single elements that constitute the fishing port This e-version of the publication is divided into three parts.

Part III deals with port management and covers both software (port management bodies) and the hardware (port fittings, shore based infrastructure, renewable energy and public health and hygiene) required to run the port.

Part I and Part II are published as separate e-books. professional engineers.

3.  Port management

SUMMARY

Irrespective of the size of an existing or projected port, whether it is for beach landing or a conventional port, that facility cannot be abandoned in the belief that it would run by itself. Experience has demonstrated that this is not so and that the facility has to be managed to ensure that it is used and maintained correctly over the period of its useful life and for a government to meet its responsibilities under international law.

Therefore, this chapter addresses a wide range of issues, from beach landing sites to integrated port facilities catering for fishing vessels and non-fishing vessels and ships. Thus various types of port management schemes are illustrated and how to select an appropriate option commensurate with the size of the port or landing facility, stressing nevertheless the responsibilities expected of selected regime and individual members.

The principal objective of this chapter is to ensure that the reader would be able to relate to specific management structures and issues under discussion and have a more clear understanding of individual and corporate responsibilities in the management and use of a facility.

CONTENTS

3.1

Port management structures

3.1.1

Size and composition

3.1.2

Artisanal landing

3.1.3

Coastal fisheries port

3.1.4

Offshore fisheries port

3.1.5

Distant fisheries port

3.2

Management body

3.2.1

Harbour master

3.2.2

Administrative officer

3.2.3

Maintenance officer

3.2.4

Fisheries statistics officer

3.2.5

Hygiene officer

3.3

Stakeholder participation

3.4

Fish quality assurance

3.5

Business plan

3.6

Best management practices

3.6.1

Port operations

3.6.2

Boatyard operations

3.6.3

Prevention of pollution

3.7

Bibliography and further reading

3.1 PORT MANAGEMENT STRUCTURES

The most effective way to run a fishing facility, whether it be for beach landing or a fully-fledged port, is through the establishment of a management body for the facility, representing the interests of all stakeholders. The right to do so, however, is not always resident in national law. The chief duties of a port management body are to ensure:

- compliance with the laws, regulations and other environmental directives governing the fisheries sector (overfishing legislation, sizes of nets, closed seasons, etc.);[1]

- compliance with the regulations for the use of the facility (landing fees, bulk handling charges, sale of potable water, bulk fuel, etc.);

- compliance with environmental conservation measures adopted by the planning authorities (waste recycling, spent-oil recovery, wet wastes disposal, etc.);

- compliance with food safety and hygiene requirements;

- integration with other users as in the case of a non-exclusive facility for fishing vessels (landing jetty may double as a passenger landing stage for coastal taxi boats); and

- transparency in the decision-making process (to prevent private interests from taking over a public facility through unfair practices).

In order for the port management body to perform its duties effectively, it must:

- be commensurate with the size of the facility and the responsibilities expected of it (one person could be enough for a small beach landing but a group of persons would be necessary inside a harbour with a large fleet of canoes, plank boats and other types of vessels);

- be adequately funded to function as intended (landing fees and handling charges should reflect current maintenance and running costs);

- represent the whole spectrum of users of the facility (if the facility doubles as a passenger landing, then the interests of the passengers must also be taken into account);

- allow for consultation between the various users (if one of a multitude of user subjects the landing or port to abnormal stresses, then this should be reflected in the maintenance charges).

3.1.1 Size and composition

Because of the diversity of situations and circumstances in which fishermen operate, it is extremely difficult to present ready-made solutions for the size and composition of a port management body. However, there are four major areas where management input is required:

- the day-to-day management of operations (unloading, sorting, icing and onward movement plus any other activity that the landing may be used for) and general maintenance;

- financial administration of the facility (fees for services rendered, licensing, sale of water and fuel, etc.);

- landing statistics; and

- administration of hygiene standards throughout the facility.

It follows that a typical port management body is generally composed of a minimum of four persons: a harbour master, an accounting officer or bookkeeper, a fishery statistics officer and a hygiene/pollution controller. A fifth person may assist the harbour master with maintenance issues when the need arises. Whereas the harbour master’s job is a full-time occupation, the other posts may be either full-time or part-time, depending on the throughput of fish at the harbour facility and the availability of trained staff.

At the extreme lower end of the scale, when the landing is an artisanal beach landing, the harbour master may do all the work himself on a full-time basis and only hires workers or local village hands for specific jobs, such as repair work, cleaners, etc., when the need arises. Fisheries officers would then visit the site occasionally to gather statistics information. As the facility increases in size and importance, even the five persons mentioned above would not suffice and additional personnel would be taken on to monitor port security, fishing practices, auctioning and cleaning operations. School teachers are often employed as part-time officers in their respective field of expertise (biology and mathematics or science).

At the extreme upper end of the scale, when the port is an industrial distant fisheries port, an autonomous, municipal, state or even a private management body may be set up to run and manage the facility.

3.1.2 Artisanal landing

At the village level, the management body could consist of the community fishery centre (CFC) or a similar organization of fisherfolk. Although the facilities and services within a small village landing may be quite modest, there is still need for an organized form of management (Figure 1).

In developing countries, a master fisherman is normally appointed to run the landing with the power to hire casual local labour when the need arises. The master fisherman answers to the chairman of the CFC or directly to the village head. Fisheries officers may visit the village on a regular basis or local staff may be trained in the correct methods of recording fish landings.

3.1.3 Coastal fisheries port

A coastal fisheries port, with its myriad of fishing vessel types, which may range from simple paddle canoes all the way up to 12 metre trawlers and shrimpers, is the first type of port that requires a proper full-time management body installed in proper office space in the fishing port.

The minimum of five persons is required for the proper functioning of the port but generally a few extra staff members are always required, especially during peak landings (Figure 2). A port of this size is quite frequently run by the department of fisheries but in some countries a fishermen’s cooperative is set up under the auspices of the department of fisheries to run the port on a commercially viable basis.

3.1.4 Offshore fisheries port

The landside facilities of an offshore fisheries port are considerably larger and more complex than those of a coastal fisheries facility. This type of port is normally within an urban environment and may also be used for:

- exporting fish and fishery products directly to foreign destinations;

- basing coast guard assets; and

- ferry operations to neighbouring ports or countries.

In such cases, the fisheries port management body would operate within the context of a port administration where all the stakeholders would be represented, especially the country’s national port authority (sailings to foreign destinations), immigration and police (point of entry/exit), coast guard (SAR), fisheries department (landings, hygiene, and monitoring, control and surveillance [MCS]), and travel operators (ferries). A port director would normally be appointed from the port authority or the coast guard to run such a port.

The ownership of this type of port varies from country to country and depends on the number of activities carried out from the port. Some countries classify ports as municipal, regional or central government depending on the throughput and source of funding. Others lump all sea ports under the national ports authority, while others still place all fishing related ports under the care of a fishing ports authority to distinguish them from commercial ports. In the former type, the port management body is commercially oriented while in the latter it is fisheries oriented. Figure 3 illustrates the hierarchy of a typical mixed-use port.

It is not uncommon for such ports to be run privately or under autonomous trusts or commissions, in which case the port director answers to an autonomous body. However, both fisheries and maritime administrations have an impact on the use of harbours in line with regulations in respective acts as mentioned in Chapter 1.

3.1.5 Distant fisheries port

The landside facilities of a distant fisheries port comprise mainly of fish processing or forwarding operations and all the products landed at the port are either already frozen or already processed and packaged aboard factory vessels. Distant fisheries ports almost invariably sit in an urban environment due to the requirement of factory workers to run the processing operations.

Ownership and management of distant fisheries ports are similar to offshore fishing ports except for the fact that only large vessels are handled in the fisheries area, such as large trawlers, factory trawlers and mother ships and vessels engaged in the transshipment of fish and fisheries products.

3.2 MANAGEMENT BODY

3.2.1 Harbour master

The harbour master is the single most important person inside a harbour and decides how a harbour facility is used. Ideally, harbour masters should generally be recruited from former captains of vessels, who are usually fully conversant with maritime regulations and the navigational and operational needs of fishing vessels. In addition, a good harbour master should also be knowledgeable in:

- maritime law, seamanship, cartography;

- maintenance of infrastructure components (hydrography, dredging, beacons, fendering and, to a lesser extent, public lighting, cold storage, etc.);

- fishery statistics, national licencing arrangements, fishing gear regulations, etc.; and

- public hygiene and pollution prevention.

Generally speaking, the smaller the harbour or fishery landing, the more knowledgeable the harbour master has to be (to compensate for a smaller management body with fewer staff). In cases where a number of fish landing places exist a few kilometres apart, such as along big river estuaries or long rectilinear coastlines, one good knowledgeable harbour master may be employed full time to look after more than one facility. The principle tasks of the harbour master include:

- day-to-day management of the facility (ensuring that all users are following regulations);

- berth allocation and vessel traffic management; and

- implementing vessel arrival timetables in line with auction schedules.

3.2.2 Administrative officer

Whether full-time or part-time, the administrative officer has the task of keeping the harbour’s books in order. The tasks would include:

- keeping a record of all the licenced craft operating from the facility, liaison with those responsible for the issue of a licence to fish and, where applicable, the register of the vessels and keep records as may be required.

- accounting for the cash receipts for harbour dues and fish handling charges;

- sale of potable water and fuel to vessels inside the port facility; and

- administer the fines imposed by the harbour master.

In busy ports, the administrative officer usually asks staff to assist in duties. The administrative officer, whose work generally decides the size of the harbour’s operating budget, reports directly to the harbour master.

3.2.3 Maintenance officer

The maintenance officer, whether full-time or part-time, is generally charged with keeping the harbour infrastructure in good working order. If the harbour is too small to support even a part-time maintenance officer, the duties fall on the harbour master himself. Typical duties of a maintenance officer include:

- regular maintenance of the harbour beacons (batteries, cables, lamps, etc.), light fittings, fences, painting of steel structures, maintenance of port boundary; and

- occasional maintenance of the harbour’s water supply system (replacing corroded pipe work, leaking taps, unblocking water drains, replenishing the chlorinators, ensuring the waste collection receptacles are in good working order and that the port’s wastes are being handled according to the approved waste disposal plan, ensuring that the generator or pumping equipment is serviced regularly or that the right spares are available, etc.).

The maintenance officer reports directly to the harbour master. In cases where a number of fish landings exist close to one another, a full time maintenance officer may be employed to look after a number of facilities.

3.2.4 Fisheries statistics officer

The fisheries statistics officer, whether part-time or full-time, is usually a government employee (fisheries department) seconded to the port management body. The officer’s duty is to compile statistics on the resources being harvested. The importance of accurate fishery statistics cannot be adequately stressed in today’s climate of overfishing, stressed stocks, quotas and habitat degradation. His observations must include:

- name of vessel and its licence to fish as well as details of its registration;

- quantity of species harvested;

- individual fish sizes and/or weights, especially undersized fish; and

- wholesale prices fetched at the local auction (unless already computerized).

The fisheries statistics officer usually fills in data forms supplied by his department and these are sent to his headquarters for analysis. This work is of the utmost importance if fisheries are to be developed on a sustainable basis, because if the landed fish sizes suddenly drop it is this officer who will sound the first alarm bells that the resources are being overfished. Nowadays, computer programmes are widely available for this data to be filled in and sent to head office in real time, especially if linked to a computerized system. With the advent of area-wide WiFi networks running off the mobile telephony system, Private Virtual Networks or PVNs are easily set up and enable data to be transmitted in real time. Although vast quantities of data are normally generated, the use of dedicated statistical software makes the mundane task of reducing the numbers to valuable reference statistics an easy task.

3.2.5 Hygiene officer

The hygiene officer, whether part-time or full-time, may also be someone from government (ministry of health) seconded to the port management body. With the rising importance of fish as a primary source of healthy food, concern on the possibility of tainted fish entering the food market chain has been rising. The hygiene officer has to ensure that:

- the handling of fish or fish products is carried out according to international standards of hygiene in order to prevent contamination during handling;

- only sanitary standard water is used to wash fish for onward sale and that samples from the port’s water system are regularly tested in an approved laboratory;

- the port area and its immediate surroundings are not fouled-up or invaded by sewage, rats and other vermin;

- that the port’s hygiene facilities are kept clean and functional; and

- that contaminants (diesel, oil, petrol, etc.) do not come into contact with the fish.

The hygiene officer usually reports to both the harbour master (who acts on the hygiene officer’s observations) and to the ministry of health. In many instances, the hygiene officer is based inside the ministry of health and covers and regularly visits more than one facility, such as, for example, abattoirs, factories and cold stores in the vicinity of the port.

3.3 STAKEHOLDER PARTICIPATION

Practically all the management strategies used to date to manage fishing ports may be described as top down, and these have not always resulted in the sustainable management of the port or landing facility. Nowadays, various participatory styles of management, commonly referred to as bottom-up or community-based management, are being introduced to foster a greater involvement of all the stakeholders in the management process and, as a result, greater transparency. The underlying premise is that the stakeholders are empowered both by this participation and by the sharing of responsibilities for the general upkeep and housekeeping inside the port.

In terms of participation, there is a need to describe the participant groups – not only fishermen or owners of vessels, but also other groups that may have a stake in the operational matters of the port and the extent to which these various stakeholders should and may participate. Concern is raised regarding the participation of a range of stakeholders with diverging interests as this might become counterproductive and may make daily management of the port impractical.

Participation will also expose disagreements among some of the stakeholders that may require additional discussion, thereby slowing down the decision-making. There are also concerns about the possibility of conflicts of interest if certain stakeholder groups are allowed an upper hand in the day-to-day management of the facility.

The stakeholders in a typical artisanal landing may comprise:

- owners of individual paddle or small two- to three-person canoes (self-employed fishermen);

- owners of large canoes or trawlers, employing 10- to 20-person crews (normally investors);

- crew associations (local village hands)

- unloaders (local formal and informal beach hands);

- fish mammies;

- fish smokers;

- other processors;

- ice suppliers;

- fuel and fuelwood suppliers; and

- transporters.

Further up the scale, in coastal or offshore fishing ports, the fisheries sector may be sharing the port with other users or the port may be located in an urban area. These additional stakeholders may comprise:

- other institutions (coast guard and police, municipality);

- other sectors of the economy (restaurants and hotels); and

- transport (ferry operators).

Participatory types of management, where responsibilities for port management functions are shared between fisheries and various user groups, are generally referred to as involving some level of co-management. In artisanal landings and coastal fishing ports, a legally-constituted fisheries cooperative or fisheries management organization (FMO) could be set up to co-manage the port and specific roles and tasks delegated to the various participants. The composition, the participatory skills and the capabilities of the various interest groups involved will affect how the cooperative functions. If responsibilities are fully devolved to a particular organization such as a cooperative or an FMO, then the approach may be described as community-based management.

Near the upper end of the spectrum (offshore or distant fishing ports), there may be arrangements for a forum for dialogue between stakeholders and the management authorities, but final decisions may still be made by those representing the owners/operators of the port.

In between the foregoing there may be arrangements where the fisheries authority has delegated much of the management responsibility to stakeholder groups, but where the authority retains certain key or basic overall decision-making powers.

Regardless, the objective of these approaches is to increase the participation of stakeholders and the transparency of the management process.

3.4 FISH QUALITY ASSURANCE

Assuring fish quality and food safety in a fishing harbour is aimed at reducing post-harvest losses and to ensure the proper handling of fish at sea as well as on shore so that the fish leaving the fishing port is of an assured quality and safe for human consumption. There are no specific regulations for the proper handling of fish on board vessels and at the fishing ports. However, both national and third country notifications and guidelines exist on food safety regulations covering cleanliness and sanitation of food contact surfaces, transportation boxes and water used in the processing chain. To achieve the desired quality assurance, food safety regulations should be integrated into a best management practice plan.

3.5 BUSINESS PLAN

Each facility, whether it is an artisanal landing or a fully-fledged port, should operate independently and generate enough revenue that can be used for the day-to-day maintenance and management operations.

The main part of a business plan is the financial plan, aimed at producing an economically viable port operation. The financial plan should identify and balance all maintenance outlays and operational costs with the revenue generated. Traditionally, investment costs, replacement costs and capital dredging costs are absorbed by the central government as and when they become due.

Revenue may be generated by:

- berthing fees charged for vessel mooring;

- fish landing charges, related to volumes handled;

- sale of ice, water and fuel;

- third party licence fees for commercial activity within the facility such as boat repair, engine workshops, food and beverage sales, fish stalls, etc.; and

- rent or lease of areas for private development, such as fish processing and packaging.

3.6 BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

A fisheries port or landing should be provided with a set of best management practice guidelines for the proper management of the environment in and around the fishing port to achieve the desired level of quality assurance of the handled product. Best management practice guidelines should be drawn up for the following:

- port operations;

- boatyard operations (when a slipway is present); and

- prevention of pollution.

3.6.1 Port operations

In order to avoid, minimize and address potential environmental and management problems arising from port operations, the port management body should:

- comply with national environment and safety legislation to avoid or minimize potential impacts from vessel movements and operational emissions and wastes;

- inform all the port users about the sensitivity of the coastal environment and the potential impacts certain actions may have on the well-being of this environment. This may be achieved by strategically placed notice boards, leaflets and running of regular workshops;

- educate, train and encourage staff to avoid and minimize pollution;

- ensure that all employees (including crews from visiting vessels) follow simple good housekeeping practices to minimize the amount and type of wastes generated;

- draw up and display port users’ code of conduct and fines to be levied in violation thereof;

- consider best incentives to vessel operators to avoid or minimize potential effects from vessel operations;

- consider the zoning of certain activities in space or time to address adverse impacts through the creation and enforcement of local by-laws;

- make data routinely collected by the fishing port available to national agencies that have the statutory duty to monitor conditions within fisheries; and

- liaise closely with national conservation agencies to facilitate early identification of potential impacts.

3.6.2 Boatyard operations

Vessel repair facilities pose special environmental concerns in a fishing port because of the processes and chemical materials that they use and their proximity to areas where fish meant for human consumption is handled. The area of major concern in a boatyard is hull stripping and painting. The port body should ensure that:

- abrasive or sanding is performed under covered tarpaulin enclosures or boat skirts;

- abrasive or sanding is performed over a horizontal hard impermeable surface, such as concrete, to enable proper cleaning of surface and collection of wastes;

- whenever possible, vacuum sanders are used to limit the amount of dust generated;

- sanding dust and paint chippings be removed on a daily basis and appropriate covered waste containers be provided within the facility;

- a list of the above work practices be posted at the work area for the benefit of the “do-it-yourself” vessel owners who may not be aware of the port’s environmental regulations;

- techniques such as brushing and rolling take precedence over spraying to reduce overspray and solvent emissions;

- all painting be performed under covered tarpaulin enclosures or boat skirts;

- all painting be performed over a horizontal hard impermeable surface;

- whenever possible, solvents and coatings with low volatility be used;

- waste paints, solvents and rags be stored in covered waste containers to prevent evaporation to the atmosphere; and

- workers under the boat skirt be provided with appropriate full-face masks and solvent-resistant gloves.

3.6.3 Prevention of pollution

In order to avoid, minimize and address potential contamination problems arising from the day-to-day running of the port, the port management body, through the services of the hygiene officer, should ensure that:

- all food contact surfaces are cleaned and sanitized as per cleaning and sanitation schedule prepared in accordance with the required international standards;

- all the water (both fresh and seawater) and ice utilized inside the port is free of contamination and checked along pre-established national guidelines by approved laboratories;

- all hygiene infrastructure inside the port is in perfect working order and that defects are reported in an orderly fashion and repairs carried out;

- enough stockpiles of detergents and cleansing chemicals are kept on site and stored according to the manufacturer’s instructions;

- the entire port area, including slipway, boatyard and servicing area, is swept and kept clean at all times;

- minor mechanical repairs involving oil or grease are not carried out on the quay or on the vessel deck;

- sewage treatment infrastructure is kept in perfect working order;

- the appropriate waste reception facilities are used as specified (bilge water separator, spent oil tanks, solid wastes bins and wet wastes bins);

- no spillage of fuel takes place within the port confines and fuel/oil absorbent materials are kept ready for use;

- a pest control schedule is implemented and monitored on a routine basis; and

- fines levied for infringements reflect the true cost of the impact on the environment.

3.7 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING

Ben-Yami, M. & Anderson, A.M. 1985. Community fisheries centres: Guidelines for establishment and operation. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 264. Rome, FAO.

FAO. 2009. Agreement on Port State Measures to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing. Rome.

Pollnac, R.B. 1994. Research directed at developing local organizations for people’s participation in fisheries management. In Pomeroy, R. S. Community management and common property of coastal fisheries in Asia and the Pacific: concepts, methods and experiences, pp. 94-106. Manila, ICLARM.

Pomeroy, R.S. (ed). 1994. Community management and common property of coastal fisheries in Asia and the Pacific: concepts, methods and experiences. Manila, ICLARM.

Singh, N. & Ham, L. (eds). 1995. Community-based resources management and sustainable livelihoods: the grass-roots of sustainable development. Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada: International Institute of Sustainable Development.

[1]Attention is drawn to the Agreement on Port State Measures to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing adopted by the Conference of FAO in November 2009.

10.  Fittings and navigational aids

SUMMARY

Once the basic infrastructure (breakwater, quays, slipway, etc.) has been constructed, various minor mechanical components are required to render the harbour efficient and safe. These components include safety equipment, fenders and fendering systems, mooring systems, chains, anchor systems, winches, hydrants, access ladders, marine lanterns, floating marker buoys, fixed marker beacons or lighthouses and power supply.

This chapter reviews the various types of fittings required to complete a port. The objective is to enable the reader to understand the multitude of essential components that together with the main infrastructure are required to run a port safely and efficiently.

CONTENTS

10.1

Fendering

10.1.1

Artisanal fenders

10.1.2

Other fender types

10.1.3

Anchor bolts

10.2

Bollards

10.3

Chains

10.4

Access ladders

10.5

Hydrants

10.6

Capstans and winches

10.6.1

Artisanal winching systems

10.6.2

Mechanized winching systems

10.7

Trolleys

10.7.1

Rollers

10.7.2

Trailers

10.7.3

Steel cradles

10.8

Ropes

10.8.1

Wire rope

10.8.2

Fibre rope

10.8.3

Fibre slings

10.9

Rope and chain fittings

10.9.1

Sheaves and snatch blocks

10.9.2

Shackles

10.10

Lanterns and marker buoys

10.10.1

Lanterns

10.10.2

Buoys

10.11

Fisheries equipment

10.11.1

Fish boxes

10.11.2

Scales

10.11.3

Trolleys and forklifts

10.11.4

Sorting tables

10.12

Bibliography and further reading

10.1 FENDERING

Basically, fenders are installed to protect both vessel and quay during berthing operations; they also function as a rubbing surface during mooring to protect the vessel’s sides against undue damage to its paint system.

10.1.1 Artisanal fenders

For solid quays, the basic fender system is the used car tyre, which can be effectively recycled into quayside fenders as shown in Figure 1. Used car tyres function properly as rubbing surfaces if the method of suspension, which may be fibre rope, chain or wire rope, does not come into contact with the vessel’s hull. Figure 1 illustrates the correct way to suspend tyres for use as fenders and rubbing surfaces. If one tyre is not enough for large vessels, two tyres may be bolted together to form a thicker fender. Tyre fenders may also be placed one below the other under certain tide and weather conditions.

If the tidal variation is negligible, the cope line of a quay may also be protected by strips of timber placed along the outer edge as shown in Figure 2. The timber may be bolted directly to the concrete or inserted in between galvanized angles, themselves bolted to the concrete, Figure 3.

In some tropical countries where large timber plantations may be available, forest brushwood or whole log fenders may also be used, Figure 4. Log fenders (left) are particularly useful on floating structures. The brushwood fenders (right) may be rolled into a fascine (with natural or man-made fibres) with a minimum diameter of 500 mm (no metals) and suspended in front of the quay.

10.1.2 Other fender types

Open piled jetties also need protection against accidental impact. In a piled structure, not all the structural components may be designed to absorb side impacts, especially in the presence of a large tidal variation. The vertical piles holding up a jetty deck, for example, must not be impacted sideways as this will result in permanent damage to the structure. Piled jetties are generally designed in such a way that the heavy concrete deck absorbs the impact from the fender system and then transmits this energy to the raked piles situated along the rear of the deck (see Figure 15 in Chapter 8). However, with lighter structures, especially finger jetties, a separate timber pile must be installed to transmit the side impact to the deck and protect the supporting piles, Figure 5.

Nowadays, moulded rubber sections have become the industry standard in most ports. These fenders may be solid plain square sections, hollow cylindrical sections, flat slabs or VEE-type sections, Figures 6.

The most common section in use is the VEE-type moulded section. This section incorporates a sheet of steel sealed inside the rubber base as an aid to anchoring. The section is bolted straight onto the concrete surface via stainless steel bolts.

The VEE-type fenders may be placed horizontally as illustrated, or vertically when the tidal variation exceeds about 500 mm. This fender comes in a range of cross sectional sizes and may be ordered to any length up to 6 metres. Although this type of fender is more expensive than other types of fenders, it is maintenance-free and has a long useful life. When installing fixed rubber fenders, careful consideration must be given to areas where:

- the moored vessels carry exposed riggings, as these may damage the fender; and

- the vessels have their own steel belt fenders just above the waterline as these may also damage the fender.

The suspended hollow cylindrical rubber sections, illustrated in Figure 7, are no longer used due to their high maintenance costs. The chains and chain anchor points tend to corrode and snap.

Sliding fenders, as opposed to soft rubber fenders, consist of relatively thin slabs of UHMW polyethylene (ultra-high molecular weight) plastic. This hard plastic is very tough and has a very low coefficient of friction, enabling vessels to slide along without sustaining damage. It affords the best protection to the concrete cope. The slabs are bolted directly to the concrete and cover most of the exposed vertical surface of the deck, Figure 8.

10.1.3 Anchor bolts

Most fittings are anchored into the concrete with bolts. Anchor bolts may consist of permanent bolts embedded in concrete (which cannot be removed) or fixed bolts (which may be undone at a later stage). Figure 9 illustrates the standard type of fixings generally used, both during construction and post-construction.

Figure 9 illustrates the cast-in plug, the expanding rawl socket and the chemical resin anchor plug, respectively. The cast-in plug (steel or high-density polyethylene [HDPE]) is generally included in the cast during concreting by a bolt passing through the formwork. The rawl socket is placed inside a hole predrilled in the concrete. The chemical resin plug is a glass vial with a polyester compound. It is inserted into a predrilled hole and a bolt pushed through it, rupturing the vial and setting off the chemical reaction to cement the plug.

Typical characteristics of drilled expanding rawl sockets are shown in Figure 10. The pull-out values of the sockets in this figure refer to a base concrete strength of 30 N/mm^2 and tightening torques as specified by the manufacturer. No factor of safety included.

Typical characteristics of chemical resin sockets are shown in Figure 11.

The pull-out values of the chemical plugs in the above table are breakout values without a factor of safety and refer to a base concrete strength of 30 N/mm^2. The setting time at an ambient temperature of 20 °C is 30 minutes; at 15 oC the setting time is 60 minutes.

10.2 BOLLARDS

Vessels require bollards to moor alongside a quay; bollards may also be replaced with mooring rings for small- to medium-sized vessels. Mooring rings offer the following advantages over the more conventional bollards:

- they are cheaper than bollards;

- they keep the quay free of mooring lines; and

- mooring lines do not chafe on the cope edge.

Ideally, mooring rings should be set in the concrete cope during construction as illustrated in Figure 12. Mooring rings may be cast proud of the cope line (not suitable for harbours with appreciable tidal variations) or recessed into the cope (suitable for areas with tidal variations).

For medium to large vessels, the mooring rings should be manufactured to specific standards regarding pull-out strength, as illustrated in Figure 13.

Mooring rings should be installed every 2.50 metres or less. In areas where sea swell is predominant, vessel surge often leads to failure of the eye bolts by fatigue and proper vertical bollards should be considered.

Berths which are heavily used by large vessels and where swell is predominant should be equipped with proper bollards or a combination of bollards and mooring rings. Bollards may be constructed from welded pipe sections or purchased in cast iron, Figure 14. Figure 15 presents an illustration of 5- and 10-tonne pipe bollards and Figure 16 of mushroom bollards.

10.3 CHAINS

Mooring chain is manufactured from four different internationally accepted qualities of steel, designated grade 2, grade 3, oil rig quality (ORQ) and grade 4. Chain of grades 2, 3 and 4 is manufactured to Classification Societies Specification, like Lloyd’s Register, and ORQ chain is based on the American Petroleum Institute’s specification. Grade 1 chain is no longer manufactured. Grade 2 chain is the lowest quality chain manufactured. Grade 3 chain is the most common grade used in marine construction and is only marginally more expensive than grade 2. Grade 2 chain is significantly heavier than a grade 3 chain for a comparable breaking load.

Chain is manufactured in lengths of 27.5 metres, also known as shots. Chain can be ordered with or without inserted studs (studless). In order to maintain the same strength, the diameter of studless chains (i.e. open links) needs to be 20 percent greater than that of stud link chains.

Chain fittings to connect lengths of each or other items, such as anchors or buoys, are illustrated in Figure 18.

10.4 ACCESS LADDERS

Where required, access ladders should be provided for pedestrian access to the quay from a rowing boat, small fishing vessel or vessel tender, especially inside harbours with a large tidal variation. Figure 19 shows a typical ladder made from welded steel, which should be recessed inside the cope line to prevent it from being damaged by moored vessels. Each ladder point should also be equipped with two mooring rings, one on either side of the ladder, to enable rowing boats or canoes to be moored from inside the vessel.

Maintenance (scrubbing) and underwater inspections (sacrificial anodes) of vessels are very often carried out by divers offering such services. It is hence useful to also install a diver’s exit ladder to enable fully-kitted divers to exit the water safely. Such ladders should also be recessed inside the cope. If this is not possible, then they should be tucked away in a quite corner away from vessel movements.

The stringers (the vertical members) should be 180 mm wide x 20 mm thick in mild steel. The length should be equal to the height of the cope from lowest tide level. The rungs should be made from 30 mm diameter steel bars welded to the stringers at 300 mm intervals. The width of the ladder from stringer to stringer should be at least 500 mm. Mild steel cleats should be provided at both ends. If the ladder is longer than 3 metres, intermediate cleats are also required. The whole ladder assembly should be heavily galvanized just prior to placing, i.e. when all surface work on the ladder (welding and drilling) has been terminated.

Access ladders are also produced in 40 mm diameter stainless steel pipe, polyester resin (PE) and HDPE.

10.5 HYDRANTS

Water hydrants should be provided at the quay side for the hosing down of boxed fish, vessel decks, equipment, etc. The hydrants may be freshwater or seawater, depending on the local water supply conditions. Freshwater hydrants should supply drinking-quality water whereas the seawater hydrants should supply clean seawater drawn from a borehole outside the port basin area. Harbour basin water should never be used on-board moored vessels.

All seawater systems should be separate from freshwater systems and the pipework clearly marked and colour coded. All pipework for both systems should be in HDPE plastic and all fittings (swivel joints, quick-release couplings, ball valves, hydrants) suitable for seawater operating conditions and made from HDPE with stainless steel or bronze components. All exposed HDPE plastic should be resistant to ultraviolet.

Figure 20 top, shows an above-ground hydrant. Above-ground hydrants should not be placed too close to the cope line as this would interfere with mooring and unloading operations. This type of hydrant consists of a strong square cage in 60 mm diameter galvanized pipe (not welded) embedded in a concrete foundation block. The standpipe is fixed but can rotate through 360° by means of a swivel joint attached to the ball valve. The end terminates in a quick-release coupling to which various hoses may be attached (shipboard hose, market hose, auction hall hose, etc.) for hose-down operations. The supply may be metered. Figure 20, bottom, shows a simple quay-side hydrant suitable for small harbours serving small artisanal vessels. In this case, the hydrant is placed at the edge of the quay inside a small recess. A quick-release coupling engages directly to the ball valve. The flexible hoses leading from the hydrants to the various work areas should be sturdy enough to withstand abrasion and direct sunlight. Plastic garden-hose types are not suitable on both counts. Although more expensive, reinforced rubber hoses should be used as these last much longer and are unlikely to split open as plastic ones do.

10.6 CAPSTANS AND WINCHES

Mechanical winches are required in ports and landing areas to haul vessels out of the water, whether on to a simple beach or up on a slipway.

10.6.1 Artisanal winching systems

In areas where vehicles have easy access to the beach area, a four-wheel drive vehicle or agricultural tractor plus a length of rope passed through a snatch block tied to a tree is the easiest and most economical way to haul a vessel on to the beach, Figure 21.

If the beach is in a remote area or not accessible to vehicles, artisanal capstans should be installed. These range from the very simple type, Figure 22 left, to the more advanced type constructed from steel sections welded together, Figure 22 right. The simple type depends on its own self weight (normally a concrete block) for stability, whereas the advanced frame capstan is very light (can be moved from one area to another) but digs itself into the sand and may be anchored by pegs.

The simple capstan may be constructed from locally available materials, such as oil drums, large diameter tree trunks, oars and concrete. Frame capstans, on the other hand, should be constructed in a proper workshop equipped with welding and cutting equipment. Figure 23 illustrates the technical details of the frame capstan.

10.6.2 Mechanized winching systems

Mechanical winches generally consist of a horizontal drum coupled to a set of reduction gears via a powered drive (Figure 24). The type of power drive is entirely dependent on the availability of electricity at the site of the slipway. Electric and hydraulic motors are the preferred systems as they are generally low in maintenance (Figure 25); diesel or petrol require considerably more maintenance and stocks of spare parts. The winch comes with a sturdy mounting which should be bolted to a concrete foundation block according to the manufacturer’s instructions.

10.7 TROLLEYS

Beached vessels can be pulled straight up a beach by a strong winch with the keel sliding directly on the sand. The pulling power required can however be drastically reduced by using rollers under the vessel’s keel to reduce the friction of the keel on the sand and the abrasion on the paint finish. Large vessels on slipways require a cradle or trolley and cannot be hauled up on their keel.

10.7.1 Rollers

The simplest type of artisanal roller is a section of tree trunk. However, the larger the diameter of the roller, the less effort is required to move a vessel on sand. To overcome this problem, balloon wheels in rigid plastic are now available, Figure 26.

The wheels can be attached by a rope or by a rigid pipe to form a cradle as shown in the figure.

10.7.2 Trailers

Boat trailers able to travel on a paved road are normally used for vessels of intermediate size up to a length of around 20 metres. Trailers may be purpose built or converted from old truck chassis. Figure 27 illustrates a fisheries patrol vessel on a custom-built trailer. A major problem with trailers is the corrosion of the wheel axle bearings and it is not uncommon for trailers to lose wheels during long road journeys.

10.7.3 Steel cradles

The boat cradle or trolley, illustrated in Figure 28, consists of a frame made up from steel channels, typically 300 mm high, welded back-to-back with cast-steel wheels fixed in between. On top of this frame sits another frame, rendered horizontal by means of spliced channels. On top of this horizontal frame sit the sliding racks which slide inwards and outwards to adjust to the vessel’s dimensions.

Timber keel blocks are bolted to the horizontal frame to permit the vessel’s keel to come to rest in contact with timber. The typical length of the lower frame may be up to 25 metres and the width varies with the local vessel sizes. The wheel axles should not be placed more than 2 metres apart. The rear end of the lower frame should be provided with a pawl and rack arrangement in order to stop the cradle running back into the water should the hauling wire rope break during a slipping operation. The wire rope should be attached to the cradle via an appropriate shackle connected to a bolted anchor point on the lower frame. Depending on the size and weight of vessels to be serviced, the cradle wheels may be in steel or UHMW polyethylene. With vessels not heavier than 5 tonnes, solid plastic wheels running on a smooth concrete surface may be used. For heavier vessels, steel bogies running on steel rails anchored to concrete beams should be used.

10.8 ROPES

Both wire and fibre ropes are utilized around a fishing port. Wire ropes are normally used on slipways and on hauling drums aboard trawlers whereas fibre rope is used to moor vessels.

10.8.1 Wire rope

Wire ropes generally consist of a number of bundles made up of individual steel strands of differing diameters and bundled together to form a thick rope. The central core may consist either of an oil-impregnated fibre or more steel strands or a mixture of both.

Winches generally require what is known as a 216 + 1 wire rope (rope diameters up to 26 mm) or a 216 + 49 wire rope (rope diameters from 28 mm to 40 mm and used on most powered winches). A 216 + 1 wire rope consists of 6 bundles of strands + 1 fabric core; each bundle, in turn, consists of 37 strands of steel of varying diameters, which together form a very compact cross-section. A 216 + 49 wire rope consists of 6 bundles of strands + 1 central bundle; each bundle consisting of 36 strands of steel of varying diameters; the central bundle is made up of 49 strands. Wire ropes meant for use in a slipway should be made of galvanized steel strands.

Wire rope is very expensive and requires good care in handling and maintenance. The correct size of the rope must be used when ordering attachments such as pulleys and Figure 29 illustrates the correct way to measure rope diameter.

A new wire rope should be unreeled from an idle spool holder as shown in Figure 30. It should never be unwound from a static spool.

To ensure that the wire rope spools on to the drum without chafing, the distance of the winch drum from the first static pulley should be such that the subtended angle at the pulley does not exceed 2° as shown in Figure 31.

To ensure maximum durability, the minimum diameter of a winch drum or pulley should not be less than 25 times the diameter of the wire rope as measured in Figure 29 (that is, a 28 mm rope should not be wound round a drum or pulley with a diameter less than 25 x 28 = 700 mm). To use a drum that is, for example, half the recommended size (say, only 12.5 times the diameter of the rope), the rope should be subjected to only 80 percent of its recommended maximum load. Wire rope should never be allowed to scrape the ground or chafe over metallic objects, such as rails or metallic sleepers; timber sleepers or rollers should always be placed under wire ropes.

Wire rope should never be threaded through shackles without thimbles and the thimble size should be adequate for the rope diameter, Figure 32.

Figures 33A and 33B show unseated strands resulting from wire ropes being twisted or warped by pulleys that are too small.

Figure 33C shows kinks in a wire rope developed by abrupt loads or jerks. Figure 33D shows the result of a rope that was overloaded and Figures 33E and 33F wire ropes that were bent around very small diameters such as shackles.

Corroded ropes should be replaced immediately as should wire ropes showing definite signs of fatigue, such as broken strands, pulled strands, uneven wear, strongly visible kinks.

Wire ropes are supplied with specific strength characteristics, the most important of which is the safe working load, or SWL. The safe working load is the maximum load that the wire rope can carry without damage to the steel fibres divided by a factor of safety. The factor of safety for wire ropes ranges between 5 and 8 and depends on a number of factors, such as the equipment using it (winch, crane, elevator) and the country’s national health and safety code requirements (Table 1).

The typical equivalent SWL for a 216 + 1 wire rope is much smaller than that for 216 + 49 shown in the above table; this means that for the same load requirements, using a 216 + 1 wire rope implies using a thicker rope, which in turn means using a larger diameter pulley, drums and fittings in general.

TABLE 1

Typical safe working load for a 216 + 49 wire rope

Diameter (mm)

Safe working load (tonnes)

Weight (kg/metre)

20

6.80

1.68

22

8.20

2.05

24

9.40

2.40

26

11.20

2.83

28

13.0

3.28

30

15.0

3.75

32

16.40

4.25

10.8.2 Fibre rope

Fibre ropes come in a vast range of materials each with differing mechanical characteristics (Table 2). The materials available are nylon, polyester, polypropylene and polyethylene.

Nylon rope is very elastic and when under load it stores considerable energy. This characteristic makes it ideal for use as springs in mooring lines in the presence of ocean swell, avoiding jerking, and sudden loads on the bollards or mooring rings.

Polypropylene rope is not elastic and is not affected by seawater. Polyethylene rope has very good abrasion and does not absorb water. It is not as strong as polypropylene.

Polyester rope displays excellent fatigue life and has a low water absorption rate. Polyester rope is moderately elastic.

TABLE 2

Characteristics of commonly used fibres

Table 3 presents the breaking strengths generally quoted as the minimum strength of the rope, excluding any factors of safety that may be applicable locally.

TABLE 3

Typical breaking strengths of some sizes of rope

Material

Diameter (mm)

Weight (kg/100 metre)

Breaking strength (kg)

Polyethylene monofilament

24

27.40

6 100

Polypropylene split fibre

24

26.0

7 600

Nylon

24

37.50

12 000

Polyethylene monofilament

28

37.30

8 030

Polypropylene split fibre

28

35.50

10 100

Nylon

28

51.0

15 800

Polyethylene monofilament

32

48.70

10 400

Polypropylene split fibre

32

46.0

12 800

Nylon

32

66.50

20 000

10.8.3 Fibre slings

With the advent of the mobile gantry, fibre slings are widely used in most boatyards (Figure 34 and Table 4).

TABLE 4

Typical characteristics of fibre slings

Material

Width (mm)

Safe working load (factor of safety of 6) (kg)

Polyamide

50

1 080

Polyamide

100

2 000

Polyamide

150

2 600

Polyamide

225

3 600

Polyester

50

720

Polyester

100

1 440

Polyester

150

1 800

Polyester

200

2 160

10.9 ROPE AND CHAIN FITTINGS

10.9.1 Sheaves and snatch blocks

Sheaves (or pulley blocks with two to four pulleys inside the same block) and snatch blocks are required to increase the pull from a winch to cover a whole range of vessel sizes (Figure 35). A small 5-tonne vessel may be hauled directly on a 10-tonne pull winch, but a 100-tonne vessel (which may need a 20-tonne pull) has to be hauled through a system of sheaves if the winch cannot produce more than 10 tonnes of pull.

Utilizing the appropriate wire rope diameter, ropes should seat properly in a pulley as shown in Figure 36 below. The throat diameter D of the pulley should correspond to the rope diameter as measured in Figure 29.

Figure 37 illustrates how a maintenance yard may be organized around a single winch. The yard may have a covered work area and an open work area. The wire rope from the winch may be rerouted to either area by a snatch block anchored to a mass concrete block. Sheaves and snatch blocks are usually anchored to blocks of concrete using lengths of heavy chain coupled to embedded shackles. When light vessels are handled, a single direct rope may suffice as shown on slipway No. 1. A 3-pulley sheave will multiply the pull from the winch by a factor of 6, allowing heavier vessels to be hauled out of the water. In some cases (especially when timber cradles are equipped with skids instead of wheels), slipways may also be equipped with a single pulley at the far end of the slipway, under water, to pull the cradles back into the water.

10.9.2 Shackles

Shackles are multipurpose connections used to connect all kinds of rope and chain to other fixtures, Figures 38 and 39.

10.10 LANTERNS AND MARKER BUOYS

10.10.1 Lanterns

On almost all coasts, landmarks and off-lying hazards are illuminated at night. These lights may be divided into three broad groups:

- landfall lights, including lighthouses, which are invariably very powerful and are usually clearly visible from a great distance;

- position lights, generally less powerful, their primary function being to indicate the position of a harbour mouth; and

- lighted aids to navigation, including light buoys that mark offshore shoals, rocks or navigable channels. Channel marker buoys come in two different shapes and colours for use during daylight.

All lights, buoys and signs should conform to the specifications contained in the laws of harbours and pilotage of the country concerned. Lights or beacons are distinguishable from each other by their character, colour and period.

Character: A light can be fixed, flashing or occulting (occulting lights are steady lights which are eclipsed or blanked-out at regular intervals). Light buoys nearly always carry flashing or occulting lights to distinguish them from the lights of moored vessels.

Colour: Lights should normally be white unless they are for a specific purpose. Position lights are usually red (port or left side) and green (starboard or right side).

Period: The period of a light is the interval between the beginning of one phase and the beginning of the next one. In a simple flashing light, the period is the length of time between one flash and the next; in a group flashing system, it is the interval between the beginning of one complete phase of flashes and the beginning of the next.

Before any lights are installed, the appropriate agency (maritime authority or coast guard) should be consulted so that current sea charts of the area may be updated. Figure 40 illustrates the basic type of lantern currently in use. It consists of a sturdy plastic housing in HDPE, an automatic lamp changer which automatically replaces burnt lamps from the lens’ focal plane, a solar switch, and holes for bolting the lantern to a structure. When a lamp burns out, a motor relay is closed and a small electric motor is set in motion actuating the lamp changer. As soon as the new lamp is in position, the current again flows into this lamp and the motor relay deactivates.

Solar switches are generally incorporated into the body to activate the lanterns at sunset. At dusk, the solar switch switches the lantern off to conserve power. The power required for position lights is measured in candles and Table 5 illustrates typical ranges for various candle powers. Figure 41 illustrates the typical installation for a position beacon.

TABLE 5

Typical ranges of marine lanterns

Power of lantern (Candles)

Range limpid condition (Nautical miles)

Range light mist (Nautical miles)

0.40

1.0

0.50

1.05

1.5

1.0

1.95

2.0

1.5

3.45

2.5

1.5

5.34

3.0

1.5

8.20

3.50

2.0

11.50

4.0

2.5

13.70

4.25

2.5

16.20

4.50

2.5

19.0

4.75

2.5

21.85

5.0

2.5

Current lanterns use state-of-the-art, high flux, light-emitting diode (LED) units. The LEDs are mounted in a cluster to approximate a marine signal lamp located at the focal point of the lens. The life expectancy of a single LED cluster is in excess of 100 000 hours depending on the current, rendering the old lamp changer units obsolete. Many of the existing lanterns can be retrofitted with LED units.

10.10.2 Buoys

Buoys can be lighted or unlighted and used for daylight purposes only as in the case of channel markers. Nun buoys, Figure 42a, are unlighted with a conical top projecting above the water and are generally positioned on the starboard side (right) of an access channel when entering a harbour. They are normally painted red and numbered with even numbers. Can buoys, Figure 42b, are unlighted with a flat top projecting above the water and are generally positioned on the port side (left) of an access channel when entering a harbour. They are normally painted green or black and numbered with odd numbers.

Spar buoys, Figure 42c, are unlighted long thin masts generally placed inside channels where high velocity currents or tidal streams are present. Spherical buoys, Figure 42d, have a domed top projecting above the water line and are generally used to mark special positions in the channel, such as shoals or wrecks. They may be lighted and the colour usually depends on their use.

Currently, buoys are made almost exclusively from plastic materials (HDPE or polyester skin-filled with polyurethane foam) to better resist the effects of corrosion, Figure 43, left.

Buoys are generally anchored to the sea bed via a suitable chain connected to a proper anchor or heavy concrete block. Figure 43 shows a typical anchoring arrangement for a small buoy in 6 meters of water. A 32 mm diameter bottom chain anchored to a concrete block is joined to a 22 mm rising chain connected to the buoys anchor pin via two swivel joints. The bottom chain should be at least three times the depth of the water plus any variation in tide level. All fittings should be in the appropriate grade of steel.

10.11 FISHERIES EQUIPMENT

10.11.1 Fish boxes

Proper fish boxes are required for the packaging of fish in a fish hall for onward transport. The basic requirements for a fish box are sturdiness, stackability and ease of cleanliness; the box must be sturdy to avoid damage to the fish, it must also be stackable without damaging the fish in the underlying box, and it must be made of a material which does not harbour bacteria and is easy to clean.

There are many types of boxes available, both improvised versions from other uses and custom-made for the fisheries industry. Fish boxes must be perforated to drain melt water away.

Figure 44 shows a very lightweight box made of polystyrene and meant only for the transport of fish by air. This box is very fragile and is meant for single use only (polystyrene is not impermeable and may harbour bacteria if the same box is used repeatedly). Polystyrene boxes need large storage areas because unlike other types they are not nestable. They are also not recyclable and are cause for concern when discarded into the environment, Figure 44 right.

Timber crates, Figure 45, make good fish boxes if no other means are available. They are cheap to make and may be recycled as fuelwood; they stack five or six high and, like the polystyrene boxes, they are not nestable and take up a lot of storage space. They are ideal for single species, such as sardines or anchovies, but repeated use of the same box may prove unhygienic as timber absorbs blood very easily.

Figure 46 illustrates fish boxes and tubs in HDPE. They are produced specifically for fish and come in a number of sizes ranging from 100 to 1 000 litres. HDPE also comes in a number of colours making it easier to keep track of ownership. These boxes are all nestable when empty and by turning them backward front when full they stack without damaging the fish. They are easy to clean and disinfect. HDPE boxes are expensive in capital outlay but their initial cost is outweighed by their long lifetime.

10.11.2 Scales

Weighing scales should be heavy duty, platform-type scales with a tare adjustment to compensate for the weight of the fish boxes (Figure 47). Scales should be made of stainless steel and kept in clean operating conditions at all times. They should be graduated in 100-gram increments and capable of weighing loads up to 200 to 300 kilograms. Electronic load-cell digital scales are also available but purely mechanical units are recommended for most outdoor situations.

10.11.3 Trolleys and forklifts

Depending on the size of the landed catch and the number of daily sortings, the speed with which fish boxes have to be transported between the quay and the sorting area is governed by the means of transportation. Boxes may be moved on manual trolleys, on pallets or by forklift (Figure 48).

The normal platform trolley is still the mainstay of many fishing ports and halls. The trolley should be steerable and built from stainless steel and have large diameter rubber wheels. Small diameter metal wheels should be avoided as these may cause damage to the paving and gutter drains. Only electric powered forklifts are suitable for use inside a fish hall. Diesel, petrol, kerosene or gas-powered forklifts should not be permitted to enter the building.

10.11.4 Sorting tables

Rinsing and sorting tables should be made of stainless steel. However, concrete or masonry tables built from locally available materials may also suffice in remote areas provided that the workmanship is of a good standard.

10.12 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING

Committee for Waterfront Structures. 1982. Recommendations of the Committee for Waterfront Structures. Berlin, Wilhelm Ernst & Sohn.

International Association of Marine Aids to Navigation and Lighthouse Authorities (IALA). IALA – AISM, St Germain-en-laye, France (iala-aism@wanadoo.fr).

Londahl, G. 1981. Refrigerated storage in fisheries. Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 214. Rome, FAO.

Naval Facilities Engineering Command. 1989. Marine Railways. Alexandria, Virginia, NavFacEngCom.

Quinn, A.D. 1972. Design and construction of ports and marine structures. New York, McGraw-Hill Inc.

11.  Shore-based infrastructure and renewable energy

SUMMARY

Fishing ports, large and small, need a whole range of supporting infrastructure to function and this includes the water supply system, refuelling facilities, cold rooms, landing and sorting halls, office space, electricity supply and a host of other small-scale civil works.

This chapter reviews the various infrastructure requirements in civil and mechanical works to render the port functional. It also reviews many of the specifications against which the components should be designed in line with international guidelines.

Whereas guidance is primarily given to those engaged in port planning, those responsible for making policy decisions in relation to fisheries management would also benefit through a better understanding of the intricacies and implications of port planning and operation.

CONTENTS

11.1

Water supply and storage

11.1.1

Peak daily demand

11.1.2

Sourcing water supply

11.1.3

Sterilization

11.1.4

Storage

11.2

Ice supply and storage

11.2.1

Refrigerants

11.2.2

Block ice

11.2.3

Flake ice

11.2.4

Tube ice

11.2.5

Plate ice

11.2.6

Ice and space requirements

11.2.7

Ice storage

11.2.8

Ordering an ice plant

11.3

Refuelling

11.3.1

Design

11.4

Power and lighting

11.4.1

Introduction

11.4.2

Photovoltaic systems

11.4.3

Wind-powered systems

11.4.4

Generators

11.5

Buildings

11.5.1

Designing for durability

11.5.2

Designing for a low carbon footprint

11.5.3

Administration buildings

11.5.4

Market or sorting hall

11.5.5

Cold rooms

11.5.6

Cold stores

11.5.7

Hygiene facilities

11.5.8

Workshop facilities

11.5.9

Net Repair and social meeting platforms

11.6

Parking areas

11.6.1

Parking densities

11.6.2

Parking radii

11.6.3

Paved areas

11.7

Port security

11.7.1

Perimeter wall

11.7.2

Main gate

11.7.3

Cattle grid

11.7.4

Billboard

11.7.5

Closed-circuit television

11.8

Bibliography and further reading

11.1 WATER SUPPLY AND STORAGE

11.1.1 Peak daily demand

Fishing harbours, small and large, need clean water to function. The adage or rule of thumb stating that “No water – No port” is often taken too lightly by planners and fishing ports have been known to be missing a water supply system in their shore-based infrastructure. To plan the water supply system for a harbour, it is first necessary to estimate the peak daily demand for water for which good landing statistics are required. These statistics should include:

- peak (seasonal) fish landings, in kilograms or tonnes;

- number, size and type of vessels likely to use the harbour during peak landings;

- size of the crews on board the vessels and the maximum number of port workers; and

- demand for water from secondary sources (processors, intermediaries, food outlets, etc.).

Table 1 shows how the water requirement may be calculated. In the table:

- The gross daily volume for fish rinsing should be 1.25 times the peak daily landing.

- The volumes of water required for hosing down the auction hall and washing of fish boxes may be reduced by over 50 percent if high-pressure cleaning machines are used instead of a plain water hose.

- The volume for personal hygiene also includes allowance for showers.

TABLE 1

Daily water requirement

Activity

Quantity of water required

Fish rinsing

1 litre per kg of fish landed every day

Auction hall hose down

10 litres per square metre of covered area

Fish box washing

10 litres per fish box

Personal hygiene

100 litres per person (including crews, unloaders, port staff)

Canteen

15 litres per person

Vessel bunkering

Dependent on type of vessels

Ice

Peak daily requirement – sales records

11.1.2 Sourcing water supply

Internationally accepted guidelines on water supply in fishing ports stipulate non-contaminated water; this water may be either freshwater or raw seawater. Table 2 illustrates the applications that may safely use clean seawater if adequate supplies of freshwater are not available. Chapter 12 describes the quality of the water required.

TABLE 2

Replacement of freshwater with seawater for certain operations

Activity

Freshwater

Raw seawater

Fish rinsing

Yes

Yes

Auction hall hose down

Yes

Yes

Fish box washing

Yes

Yes

Personal hygiene

Yes

No

Canteen

Yes

No

Vessel bunkering

Yes

No

Ice

Yes

Not recommended

Freshwater may be sourced from a town’s supply or a borewell and may be augmented by a rainwater harvesting system if environmental conditions permit. In extreme cases, it may also be desalinated on site from brackish or seawater.

Raw seawater may be sourced from a nearby clean beach or a distant clean beach, but in both cases it must be drawn from inside the sand and not directly from the water column.

11.1.2.1 Town water mains

Many fishing ports in developing countries lie within or close to a town’s water supply network and, in theory, hooking up the port’s network to a water main should not present any problems. In practice, however, many such supplies often prove to be very erratic, with water trickling in at a very low rate or none at all for days on end. In such cases, the supply may need to be augmented or adequate buffer storage provided, Figure 1.

11.1.2.2 Borewells

Borewells may be drilled in and around the port or some distance away. The geological investigation of the substrata is generally carried out by a specialist subcontractor. This investigation consists in the drilling of a small diameter borehole (80 mm to 100 mm diameter) and the recovery of water samples (Figure 2). Samples are then taken for analysis. More than one borehole may be required for a complete assessment. The depth to which the borehole is driven does not depend on the local water table. Instances frequently occur when a shallow waterbody (easily contaminated) overlies a “submerged” freshwater reservoir several metres below it. The “porosity” or permeability of the water-bearing deposits will determine the maximum rate of extraction of water. Figure 3 shows diagrams of an artisanal borewell and a typical borewell with vertical pump.

11.1.2.3 Rainwater harvesting

In areas with high precipitation, rainwater harvesting is the best way for augmenting the freshwater supply, especially if large roof surfaces are available.

The rainwater thus collected should be pumped to the port’s reservoirs (see further on) where it can be chlorinated before use. To prevent the potential for the roof runoff to pick up contaminants from bird droppings, the initial runoff during a precipitation should be channelled off into the floor drainage collector, Figure 4.

11.1.2.4 Desalination

Desalination is a process that removes dissolved minerals (including but not limited to salt) from seawater, brackish water or treated wastewater. A number of technologies have been developed for desalination but the most commonly used system nowadays is reverse osmosis (RO). In reverse osmosis, feed water is pumped at high pressure through permeable membranes, separating salts from the water, Figure 5. The feedwater is pretreated to remove particles that would clog the membranes. The quality of the water produced depends on the pressure, the concentration of salts in the feedwater, and the salt permeation constant of the membranes. Product water quality can be improved by adding a second pass of membranes, whereby product water from the first pass is fed to the second pass.

Desalination plants may use seawater (directly from the sea through offshore intakes or from wells located on a beach), brackish groundwater, or reclaimed water as feedwater. Since brackish water has a lower salt concentration, the cost of desalinating brackish water is generally less than the cost of desalinating seawater. Intake pipes for desalination plants should be located away from sewage treatment plant outfalls to prevent intake of discharged effluent. If sewage treatment discharges or other types of pollutants are ingested in the intake, however, the pre- and post-treatment processes should remove the pollutants.

RO desalinators produce a water product that ranges from 10 to 500 ppm in total dissolved solids (tds). The recommended World Health Organization (WHO) drinking water standard for maximum tds is 500 mg/l, which is equivalent to 500 ppm. In desalination plants that produce water for domestic use, post-treatment processes are often employed to ensure that the product water meets the health standards for drinking water as well as recommended aesthetic (organoleptic) and anti-corrosive standards (pH value). The desalinated product water is usually more pure than drinking water standards, so when water product is intended for domestic use, it is mixed with water that contains higher levels of total dissolved solids. Pure desalination water is highly acidic and is thus corrosive to pipes, so it has to be adjusted for pH value, hardness and alkalinity before being piped to a domestic reservoir.

Pretreatment processes are needed to remove substances that would interfere with the desalinating process. Suspended solids and other particles in the feedwater must be removed to reduce fouling of the membranes.

Sand is removed by sand or fine bag filtration methods and suspended solids are removed by special wound cartridge filters. Algae and bacteria can grow in RO plants, so a biocide (usually less than 1 mg/l chlorine) is required to clean the system. Some RO membranes cannot tolerate chlorine, so dechlorination techniques are sometimes required. Ozone or ultraviolet light may also be used to remove marine organisms. If ozone is used, it must be removed with chemicals before reaching the membranes. The filters for the pretreatment of feedwater must be cleaned every few days (backwashed) to clear accumulated sand and solids. The main membranes must be cleaned approximately four times a year and must be replaced every three to five years.

The product water recovery relative to input water flow is 15 to 50 percent for most seawater desalination plants. For every 100 litres of seawater, 15 to 50 litres of pure water would be produced along with brine water containing dissolved solids. The recovery of freshwater varies from plant to plant, partly because plant operations depend on site-specific conditions. In several locations, a small pilot project is proposed first to test plant operations before a full-scale plant is installed. Table 3 illustrates typical power requirements for commercially available RO systems. The figures refer to brackish water with 2 000 ppm and seawater with 35 000 ppm of sodium chloride and an operating temperature of 25 °C. For every 1 °C below 25 °C, efficiency drops by 3 percent. Figure 6 shows a 1 000 m^3/day RO assembly.

TABLE 3

Typical characteristics of RO systems

Feedwater

Operating pressure (bar)

Power requirement (kW)

Water production (cubic metres per day)

Brackish

45

5.0

12.50

Brackish

45

5.5

25.10

Brackish

45

5.8

37.60

Brackish

45

6.8

50.10

Brackish

45

11.0

100.20

Seawater

56

9.8

17.10

Seawater

56

18.2

45.60

Seawater

56

37.1

91.20

Seawater

56

59.5

136.80

11.1.2.5 Raw seawater

Raw seawater may be drawn off a beach using a sandbox drain or via a proper bore well (Figures 7 and 8).

11.1.3 Sterilization

A town’s water mains would normally supply chlorinated water and hence no extra sterilization precautions would be needed. However, all water derived from augmentation schemes (rainwater harvesting, groundwater bore wells, desalinated water and raw seawater) needs to be sterilized prior to being pumped into storage as a safeguard against pathogenic bacteria. Chlorine has been found to be the most satisfactory chemical for this purpose. The efficiency of chlorine for disinfection purposes depends upon the following six factors:

- The nature of the organisms to be destroyed, their concentration and condition in the water to be disinfected.

- The nature and concentration of the disinfectant employed in terms of the products that it releases when it comes into contact with water.

- The nature of the water to be disinfected. Suspended matter shelters embedded organisms against chemical disinfection.

- The ambient temperature of the waterbody. The higher the temperature, the more rapid the disinfection.

- The time of contact. The longer the time, the greater will be the extent of disinfection.

- The pH value of the water. Lower pH values require smaller contact period to kill the same percentage of organisms.

Commercially available automatic chlorinators (Figure 9) utilize a wide range of disinfectants, such as elemental chlorine (chlorine gas in a cylinder), calcium hypochlorite and hypochlorous acid.

The percentage of available chlorine in the most common compounds is:

Compound

Chemical composition

% chlorine by weight

Chlorine gas

Cl_2

100.0

Hypochlorous acid

HOCI

135.4

Calcium hypochlorite

Ca(OCI)2

99.2

From the above it is evident that elemental chlorine or pure chlorine gas is the most efficient disinfectant in terms of weight considerations. The disadvantage, however, is that a gas chlorinator requires a steady supply of chlorine gas cylinders which may pose supply and logistics problems. Calcium hypochlorite is also efficient but comes in powder or tablet form. Hypochlorous acid is in liquid form and is traditionally utilized in small, inexpensive chlorinators.

Dissolved chlorine remains as a residual in treated water and is a safe check against bacteria. Residual chlorine levels should be between 0.05 to 0.20 ppm (parts per million).

11.1.4 Storage

Water storage on site may consist of one of a number of solutions, depending on the quantity of water to be stored. Table 4 shows the recommended water storage structures and Figures 10, 11 and 12 show examples of those structures.

11.2 ICE SUPPLY AND STORAGE

The first step in planning ice production is to confirm whether an ice plant is actually required inside the port area. Other ice plants in town may be a reliable source of suitable ice and, even with the additional transport cost, they may still be more competitive. Ice may be produced in blocks of 50 kilograms or less, in flakes, in tube form and plate form. Other than by description of the ice produced, there is no simple way to classify the different types of ice.

TABLE 4

Recommended water storage structures

Stored capacity

Recommended structure

Up to 5 cubic metres

Interconnected 1 cubic metre plastic drums, sometimes used as header tanks, gravity feed, suitable for artisanal landings

Up to 10 cubic metres

Low-density polyethylene tanks, gravity feed or pumped feed

Up to 100 cubic metres

Reinforced concrete water tower or steel modular tanks, gravity feed

Over 100 cubic metres

Above or below ground reinforced concrete reservoirs

11.2.1 Refrigerants

The Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer is an international treaty designed to protect the world’s ozone layer by phasing out the production of a number of substances believed to be responsible for ozone depletion. Table 5 shows the environmental characteristics of industrial refrigerants. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are used as refrigerants in some refrigeration systems. CFCs are considered to be 100 percent ozone depleting, meaning that they are the standard for efficiency in the catalytic breakdown of ozone. Trichlorofluoromethane, commonly known as Freon 11, was for a time utilized extensively as a refrigerant. Its production has been halted in line with the Montreal Protocol because of its role in the destruction of atmospheric ozone.

TABLE 5

Environmental characteristics of industrial refrigerants

Refrigerant

Type

Ozone depletion potential

Global warming potential

R-11

CFC^1

1.0

1.0

R-12 Freon

CFC

1.0

2.1

R-22 Freon

HCFC^2

0.05

0.43

R-142b

CFC

0.06

0.46

R-32

HFC^3

0

0.14

R-125

HFC

0

0.71

R-134a

HFC

0

0.34

R-500

CFC

-

-

R-503

CFC

-

-

Ammonia

-

0

0

R-404a

HFC

0

0

[1] CFC = Chlorofluorocarbon.

[2] HCFC = Hydrochlorofluorcarbon.

[3] HFC = Hydrofluoorocarbon.

In many refrigeration systems R-22 or Freon, a hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC), is utilized. HCFCs are considered to be only 5 percent ozone depleting and are less of a danger to the ozone layer. However, non-ozone layer depleting refrigerants are the most desirable. The refrigerants with the required characteristics under the Montreal Protocol are ammonia and R-404a, both with a zero ozone depleting and global warming potential. R-404a is an HCFC and consists of a blend of 52 percent R-143a, 44 percent R-125 and 4 percent R-134a and is designed as a replacement for R-22 Freon. Ammonia is not as popular due to the danger of inhalation of toxic fumes in case of leakage. However, the port planner should take into consideration agreements made by his or her government under the schedule for phasing out HCFC since the requirements differ for developed and developing countries.

11.2.2 Block ice

The traditional block ice factory makes ice blocks in steel cans which are submerged in a tank containing circulating refrigerated sodium or calcium chloride brine. The dimensions of the can and the temperature of the brine are usually selected to give a freezing period of between 8 and 24 hours. Too rapid freezing results in brittle ice. The block weight can vary from 12 to 150 kilograms, depending on requirements; 150 kilograms is considered the largest size of block one man can conveniently handle. Blocks less than 150 mm thick are easily broken and a thickness of 150 mm to 170 mm is preferable to prevent the block from toppling. The size of the tank required is related to the daily production. A travelling crane lifts a row of cans and transports them to a thawing tank at the end of the freezing tank, where they are submerged in water to release the ice from the moulds.

The cans are then tipped to remove the blocks, refilled with freshwater and replaced in the brine tank for a further cycle. This type of plant often requires continuous attention and a shift system is operated by the labour force which may be 10 to 15 workers for a 100 tonne/day plant. Block ice plants require a good deal of space and labour for handling the ice. The latter factor has been the main reason for the development of modern automatic ice-making equipment. Block ice still has a use, and sometimes an advantage, over other forms of ice in tropical countries. Storage, handling and transport can all be simplified if the ice is in the form of large blocks; simplification is often obligatory in small-scale fisheries and in relatively remote situations. With an appropriate ice-crushing machine, block ice can be reduced to any particle size, Figure 13, but the uniformity of size will not be as good as that achieved with some other forms of ice, particularly flake ice. In some situations, block ice may also be reduced in size by a manual crushing method. The rapid block ice plant can produce blocks in only a few hours and this means that the space requirements are considerably reduced compared with a conventional block ice plant. Block sizes vary with 25, 50 and 150 kilograms each being typical. In one type of machine, the relatively quick freeze is obtained by forming the block in a tank of water, around tubes through which the refrigerant is circulated. The effective thickness of ice to be frozen is a good deal less than in a conventional block ice plant. The tubes are arranged so that as the ice builds up it fuses with the ice on adjacent tubes to form a block with a number of hollow cores. These blocks are released from the tubes by a defrost procedure and they can then be harvested automatically from the surface of the tank.

Some manual effort is required for storage or feeding to a breaker if the ice is required in the crushed form. In another type of rapid ice machine, the refrigerant is circulated through a jacket around each can of water and also through pipes running through the centres of the cans. Ice then forms simultaneously both at the outside and at the centre of the can. After a hot gas defrost, blocks are then removed by gravity. An advantage of a rapid block ice plant is that it can be stopped and started in a relatively short time, since there is no large tank of brine to be cooled initially as in the conventional block ice machine in which the refrigeration system is often kept in continuous operation even when ice production has ceased.

11.2.3 Flake ice

This type of machine forms ice 2 mm to 3 mm thick on the surface of a cooled cylinder and the ice is harvested as dry subcooled flakes usually 100 mm to 1 000 mm^2 in area (Figure 14). In some models, the cylinder or drum rotates and the scraper on the outer surface remains stationary. In others, the scraper rotates and removes the ice from the surface of a stationary drum, in this case, built in the form of a double-walled cylinder. It is usual for the drum to rotate in a vertical plane but in some models the drum rotates in a horizontal plane. One distinct advantage of the rotating drum method is that the ice-forming surfaces and the ice-release mechanism are exposed and the operator can observe whether the plant is operating satisfactorily. The machine with the stationary drum has the advantage that it does not require a rotating seal on the refrigerant supply and take-away pipes.

However, this seal has been developed to a high degree of reliability in modern machines. The ice is subcooled when harvested, the degree of subcooling depending on a number of factors but mainly the temperature of the refrigerant and the time allowed for the ice to reach this subcooled temperature. The subcooling region of the drum is immediately before the scraper where no water is added for a part of the drum’s rotation and the ice is reduced in temperature. This ensures that only dry subcooled ice falls into the storage space immediately below the scraper. The refrigerant temperature, degree of subcooling and speed of rotation of the drum are all variable with this type of machine and they affect both the capacity of the machine and the thickness of the ice flakes produced. Other factors such as ice make-up water temperature also affect the capacity of the machine. Thus, the optimum operating conditions will depend on both the local conditions and the thickness of ice preferred. The normal refrigerant temperature in a flake-ice machine is -20 to -25 °C, a good deal lower than in other types of ice makers. The low temperature is necessary to produce higher ice-making rates, thus keeping the machine small and compact. The extra power requirement resulting from operating with a lower temperature in the ice maker is somewhat compensated for by the fact that the method does not require defrosting. There is, therefore, no additional refrigeration load incurred by the method of releasing the ice from the drum.

The range of unit sizes for this type of machine now extends from units with a capacity of 0.5 to 60 tonnes/24 hours. However, rather than use a single unit, it is often expedient to use two or more. This gives a better arrangement for operating at reduced capacity and also provides some degree of insurance against complete breakdown. This advice is also applicable to other types of automatic ice makers. Flake-ice plants have the added advantage that they may be placed at the water’s edge and the ice loaded directly into fishing vessels (Figure 15).

11.2.4 Tube ice

Tube ice is formed on the inner surface of vertical tubes and is produced in the form of small hollow cylinders of about 50 mm x 50 mm with a wall thickness of 10 mm to 12 mm (Figure 16). The tube-ice plant arrangement is similar to a shell and tube condenser with the water on the inside of the tubes and the refrigerant filling the space between the tubes. The machine is operated automatically on a time cycle and the tubes of ice are released by a hot gas defrost process. As the ice drops from the tubes a cutter chops the ice into suitable lengths, nominally 50 mm, but this is adjustable. Transport of the ice to the storage area is usually automatic, thus, as in the flake-ice plant, the harvesting and storage operations require no manual effort or operator attendance. Tube ice is usually stored in the form it is harvested, but the particle size is rather large and unsuitable for use with fish. The discharge system from the plant therefore incorporates an ice crusher which can be adjusted to give an ice particle size to suit the customer’s requirement. The usual operating temperature of this type of plant is -8 °C to -10 °C.

The ice will not always be subcooled on entering the store but it is usually possible to maintain the store at -5 °C since the particle size and shape allow the ice to be readily broken up for discharge, especially with a rake system.

11.2.5 Plate ice

Plate ice is formed on one face of a refrigerated vertical plate and released by running water on the other face to defrost it. Other types form ice on both surfaces and use an internal defrost procedure (Figure 17).

Multiple plate units are arranged to form the ice-making machine and often these are self-contained units incorporating the refrigeration machinery in the space below the ice maker.

The optimum ice thickness is usually 10 mm to 12 mm and the particle size is variable. An ice breaker is required to break the ice into a suitable size for storage and use. Water or defrost requires heating if its temperature is less than about 25 °C; below this value the defrost period is too long, resulting in a loss in capacity and an increase in cost. This machine, like the tube-ice machine, operates on an automatic timed cycle and the ice is conveyed to the storage area, or if the machine can be located directly above the storage space harvesting can be achieved using gravity flow.

11.2.6 Ice and space requirements

Table 6 presents the approximate ice requirements for various activities.

The on-board figures may be reduced by 30 to 50 percent if the hold is refrigerated. The space requirement for machinery depends largely on the type of plant. Modern ice makers are compact compared with conventional block ice plants, but a direct comparison of the space requirements of the various types cannot be readily made. The capacity varies with the operating conditions and it is usual to quote a capacity range when referring to ice-manufacturing capabilities. Some types of plants are more suited to high rates of production than others and are made in large units whereas others are made in small unit sizes only. Table 7 gives some idea of the space requirements for a number of the more widely-used types of ice makers, producing 50 tonnes of ice per day.

TABLE 6

Ice requirements

Activity

Quantity required

On-board, trip greater than 1 week

1.0 tonne of ice per 2 tonnes of fish (temperate waters)

On-board, trip less than 1 week

0.7 tonne of ice per 2 tonnes of fish (temperate waters)

On-board, short duration

1.0 tonne of ice per 1 tonne of fish (tropical waters)

Auction hall, repacking

1.0 tonne of ice per 1 tonne of fish (hot waters)

TABLE 7

Typical space requirements

Type of ice plant

Output (tonne/24 hours)

Floor space (m^2)

Height (m)

Block ice

50

190.0

5.0

Rapid ice block

50

30.0

3.5

Plate

50

15.0

1.8

Tube ice

50

3.3

6.6

Flake ice

50

2.7

3.7

The space requirements given in Table 7 are for the ice maker only. Since the ice maker is comparatively compact in modern types of plants (plate, tube and flake ice), the requirements for refrigeration machinery and handling and storage space are far in excess of the above figures. Like most machinery of this type there is an effect of scale, with larger sizes generally requiring less space per unit of ice-making capacity. In some plants it is also possible to stack the units over-and-under and both floor space and height can be varied to suit individual requirements, especially if the plant is installed at the water’s edge to discharge directly into vessel holds, Figure 15. Self-contained units with a rating of up to 10 to 20 tonnes/24 hours can be located within the floor space required for storage, with the ice maker and refrigeration equipment on top, Figure 18.

11.2.7 Ice storage

Ice manufacture and demand rates are seldom in phase. Storage is therefore necessary to ensure that the plant caters for peak demand. Storage allows the ice maker to be operated 24 hours per day. It also acts as a buffer against any interruption to the ice supply due to minor breakdowns and routine maintenance procedures.

Therefore, a potential buyer should calculate the storage capacity necessary to satisfy the above requirements (Table 8). Account should be taken of both short-term and seasonal variations and also variations in the capacity of the ice maker. Peak demand for ice in the warmer seasons also coincides with adverse plant operating conditions when make-up water and condenser cooling water temperatures are higher. There is no general rule for estimating ice-storage capacity requirements. This is normally done by plotting the likely pattern of ice production and ice usage over a period of time, and selecting a storage capacity which will ensure that ice will be available at all times. In most cases, ice-storage capacity is never less than twice the daily rate of production and more usually it is four or five times this value. Storage space requirements for different types of ice vary in relation to their bulk density. Although flake ice requires more storage space for a given weight, this subcooled ice can be stored to a greater depth in a silo, thus floor space requirements will be much the same as for more compact types of ice.

Table 8

Typical storage parameters for ice

Type of ice

Floor space m^2/tonne

Flake ice

2.2–2.3

Tube ice

1.6–2.0

Crushed blocks

1.4–1.5

Plate ice

1.7–1.8

Silo storage is generally used with a free-flowing subcooled ice such as flake ice and, in order to be effective, it must have an independent cooling system to maintain the ice in this subcooled condition. The cooling is usually by means of an air cooler in the jacket space between the silo and the outer insulated structure. The air cooler is normally placed at the top of the jacket space adjacent to the ice maker and the air space is cooled by gravity or fan circulation. Ice is collected by gravity flow with the aid of a chain agitator which scrapes the ice from the walls of the silo. The silo allows for a first-in-first-out (FIFO) system of storage but, if the storage space is not cleared periodically, only the central core of ice is used, leaving a permanent outer wall of compacted ice. An access hatch should therefore be provided at the top of the silo so that a pole can be inserted to collapse the outer wall of ice into the central core at least once daily. Silo storage is expensive for small quantities of ice and although units are made for as little as 10 tonnes, this method of storage is more suited for storing 40 to 100 tonnes of ice.

Bin storage may mean anything from a box holding no more than 500 kilograms to a large installation of 1 000 tonnes or more. Bin storage can be used for any type of ice and may incorporate a separate cooling system. Whatever the size of system used, ice storage should always be within an insulated structure since the saving made by reducing ice melt, particularly in warmer climates, is always worth the extra cost of the insulation. An insulation thickness of 50 mm to 75 mm of polystyrene is suggested. Small bins may be arranged with the ice maker above the storage space; the bin is filled by gravity and a FIFO system is operated by removing the ice at a low level. This simple bin system is suitable for processors making and using their own ice, such as that in Figure 18. Large bins require considerable floor space because the recommended maximum depth of storage is limited to about 5 metres, due to the fact that excessive storage depth increases pressure and results in fusion of the ice. A large-capacity storage bin will require a mechanical unloading system.

11.2.8 Ordering an ice plant

The general rule when ordering an ice plant is that the buyer should supply as much information as possible. The more facts the buyer supplies, the easier it will be for ice-plant manufacturers to submit competitive tenders which can be compared on a common basis. At this stage of planning, some decisions should have been made and specific instructions given on such things as type of ice required, site location, building layout and services available. The following is a checklist of the information the buyer should provide when ordering an ice plant, and Tables 9, 10, 11 and 12 provide useful information for decision-making.

Main purpose for which ice is intended:

- type of ice required (block, flake, tube, plate, freshwater, seawater ice, etc.);

- ice production capacity (tonnes of ice/24 hours); and

- local maximum ambient temperature and humidity or exact location of plant.

Information on ice make-up water:

- purity (details of hygienic quality, hardness, etc.);

- temperature range (°C); and

- pressure (kg/cm^2).

Information on condenser cooling water:

- type available (tap, well, river, sea, etc., with details of quality);

- quantity available;

- cost;

- temperature range; and

- pressure.

Information on electricity supply:

- reliability;

- voltage;

- frequency (Hz);

- phase;

- maximum installed power (kW);

- maximum starting current allowable; and

- details of separate power source if required, generator, direct drive, engine, etc.

General characteristics:

- refrigerant preferred (ammonia);

- ice-storage capacity (tonnes of ice or m^3);

- type of storage preferred (silo, bin, bin with mechanical unloading of ice);

- whether a prefabricated or site-built store is required;

- preferred method of discharging ice (gravity, rake, bucket or screw);

- rate of discharge required (tonnes of ice/hours); and

- details, with sketch, of any existing plant and store buildings.

TABLE 9

Weight of ice needed to chill 10 kilograms of fish to 0 °Celsius

TABLE 10

Effect of temperature on ice production

TABLE 11

Energy consumption in ice production

Type of ice

Energy consumption (kWh/tonne)

Energy consumption (kWh/tonne)

Temperate climate

Tropical climate

Flake ice

50–60

75–85

Tube ice

40–50

55–70

Block ice

40–50

55–70

TABLE 12

Useful constants

Density of freshwater at 15 °C

1 kg per litre

Density of seawater 0 °C – salinity of 3.5%

1.027 kg per litre

Latent heat of fusion

80 kcal/k freshwater

77-80 kcal seawater

Freezing point of seawater – salinity of 3.5%

-1.9 °C

1 horsepower

0.736 kW

1 kcal/h

1.163 kW

11.3 REFUELLING

11.3.1 Design

Fuel and oil are the commonest constituents of water pollution and this is due to either incorrect storage methods or improper handling of fuel at the quay side. Safety, security, access and maintenance needs should all be considered when designing fuel and oil storage facilities, irrespective of size. Table 13 shows the characteristics of common fuels.

TABLE 13

Characteristics of common fuels

Product

Specific gravity

Diesel

0.83–0.86

Kerosene

0.77–0.84

Petrol

Volatile at ambient temperature

Ideally, fuel should not be stored in significant risk locations (that is, within 10 metres of a quay or watercourse or 50 metres of a well or borehole).

Fuel should be stored in a tank of sufficient strength, shape and structural integrity to ensure that it is unlikely to burst or leak in ordinary use. The tank or tanks should be in steel and above ground. Figure 19 shows an artisanal refuelling facility. For facilities up to 10 000 litres, Figure 20, consideration should be given to prefabricated proprietary tanks tested to a recognized standard and produced to that standard under a quality assurance system. Larger facilities should be in custom-welded tanks, Figure 21, installed by technicians registered within a professional scheme, Figure 22.

Secondary containment should be provided to prevent fuel escaping to the environment in the event of leakage from the tank or ancillary equipment, Figure 19. All tanks and their ancillary equipment should be situated within an oil-tight secondary containment system such as a bund. The potential escape of fuel beyond the bund area by jetting can be minimized by keeping the primary container as low as possible and increasing the height of the bund wall.

The secondary containment structure should be impermeable to fuel and water and there should be no direct outlet to any drain, sewer or watercourse. The oily water collected from inside the secondary containment must be treated via an oily water separator before being discharged into a sewer or watercourse. The secondary containment system must provide storage of at least 110 percent of the tank’s maximum capacity. If more than one container is stored, the system must be capable of storing 110 percent of the biggest container’s capacity or 25 percent of their total capacity, whichever is the greater. The 10 percent margin is intended to take into account a range of factors. These include:

- loss of the total contents, for example, due to vandalism;

- sudden tank failure;

- overfilling;

- containment of fire-fighting agents;

- overtopping caused by surge following tank failure; and

- an allowance for rainwater in the bund.

Any valve, filter, sight gauge, vent pipe or other ancillary equipment should be situated within the secondary containment system and arranged so that any discharges of oil are contained. A filter or isolating valve fitted in a gravity feed to protect the draw-off pipe or downstream equipment is not considered to be ancillary to the container. These should be located within the secondary containment. To prevent the risk of the tank contents draining from a leak in a gravity-feed system, the outlet should be a top draw-off pipe.

A security fence with controlled access should be constructed around the fuel tank if the secondary containment bund is too low.

All pipework should be properly supported and should be sited above ground to make inspection and repair easier. Fill pipes, draw-off pipes and vent pipes should be positioned away from any vehicle traffic to avoid collision damage. Pipework should be adequately protected against corrosion. Underground pipework should be clearly marked and adequately protected from physical damage such as that caused by excessive surface loading or ground disturbance. If mechanical joints have to be used, they should be readily accessible for inspection under a manhole cover. Underground pipework should have adequate facilities for detecting leaks. Continuous leak detection devices should be maintained in working order and tested at appropriate intervals.

Work areas should be illuminated to the minimum intensity required by national legislation.

Tanks, pipes, fences, canopies, motor cabinets, transformers, generators, metallic switchgear panel boards and all other exposed conductive items should be grounded to protect them against fault current and lightning.

Marine refuelers or fuel dispensers, Figure 23, should have a flow rate of between 100 to 300 litres per minute depending on the type of vessels calling at the port. They should be positioned to minimize the risk of collision damage, be fitted with a nonreturn valve in the feed line and protected from unauthorized use. Roadside fuel pumps or gravity-fed mobile tanks, Figure 24, are not suitable for vessels requiring in excess of 100 litres fuel. Figure 25 shows examples of improper storage of fuel.

11.4 POWER AND LIGHTING

11.4.1 Introduction

When designing a new port or upgrading an existing facility, the first step in the electrical engineering design process should be the energy audit. An energy audit is required to calculate the power requirements of the port. Briefly, the power requirements may range from a few kilowatts for an artisanal landing to several hundred kilowatts for a medium-sized fishing harbour complete with ice-producing facilities and cold storage. Power may be required for:

- water extraction (borehole pumps) and storage (header tank pumps);

- ice production facilities;

- cold storage (chill rooms and cold stores);

- slipway winch;

- workshop equipment;

- hygiene facilities if hot water showers are provided;

- lighting and security;

- commercial outlets, if present on site; and

- cathodic protection of immersed steel structures when present.

The energy audit should be followed by a breakdown of the power sources to be tapped in relation to their carbon footprint. The carbon footprint of a port is the total set of greenhouse gas emissions, caused directly and indirectly, expressed as CO_2 equivalent. In the case of port operations, both direct and indirect greenhouse gas emissions are of concern. This encompasses direct emissions from any standby generators inside the port as well as emissions from vessel engines. The indirect emissions cover the electricity usage to run lighting, heating, cooling and powering of equipment inside the port.

Solar photovoltaic (PV) panels are suitable for water extraction and storage, office equipment and all lighting needs inside the port, and solar water heaters are suitable for providing hot water in showers. The rest of the equipment requires a disproportionately large amount of energy and should be sourced from the mains supply.

Micro-wind turbines may also be used in conjunction with solar PV panels to augment the charging of batteries if the local annual average wind speed is 6 m/s or more.

Generators should only be installed as a backup to the mains supply or a solar PV system (to charge batteries during long overcast spells) and never as the primary source of power, especially for ice production. In many remote areas, generator spares, maintenance and fuel logistics render the whole operation unsustainable.

11.4.2 Photovoltaic systems

Photovoltaic (PV) systems use cells to convert solar radiation into electricity. The PV cell consists of one or two layers of a semiconducting material, usually silicon. When light shines on the cell it creates an electric field across the layers, causing electricity to flow; the greater the intensity of the light, the greater the flow of electricity.

PV systems generate no greenhouse gases and now come in a variety of shapes and colours, ranging from grey “solar tiles” that look like roof tiles, to panels and transparent cells that can be used to provide shading as well as generating electricity. If the roof surface is in shadow for parts of the day, the output of the system decreases. Solar panels are heavy and the roof must be strong enough to support their weight, especially if the panel is placed on top of existing trussed roofs with light galvanized sheeting. Solar PV installations should always be carried out by a trained and experienced installer. The average cost of a PV system at 2009 prices is approximately US$8 000 per kW of power installed. This figure can vary according to the geographical latitude (insulation coefficient) and number of days of sunshine per year for a particular site. Expert advice is required when dimensioning PV systems.

The four primary components for producing electricity using solar power are the solar PV panels, the charge controller, storage batteries and the inverter, Figure 26. The PV panels charge the battery, the charge controller ensures proper charging of the batteries and the converter converts the output to 220 or 120 V in alternating current.

11.4.2.1 Water supply systems

Solar-powered water pumps typically consist of a PV array connected directly to an electric motor via a charge controller. The water is pumped into an overhead storage tank that provides a gravity feed for the entire port area, Figure 27. There are two basic types of solar pumping systems:

- lower-flow deep-well direct current submersible pumps; and

- higher yield alternating current surface pumps.

Solar pumps are equally suited to any off-grid application, whether as a stand-alone system or part of an off-grid energy solution.

11.4.2.2 Lighting systems

Solar-powered lights, both wired indoor systems and autonomous outdoor systems, are also commercially available worldwide.

Typical indoor lighting systems consist of roof-mounted PV panels feeding a four-component circuit like the one illustrated in Figure 26. An independent indoor circuit then distributes the power to all the light fittings inside the building. The light fittings may be of the energy-saving type or LED units.

Typical outdoor systems are fully independent, stand-alone systems. They consist of flat PV panels mounted above the luminaire and the maintenance-free gel battery as illustrated in Figure 28. All fittings are in aluminium and stainless steel and, when mounted on timber piles, they are ideal for port applications (no corrosion potential). No cables are required.

11.4.3 Wind-powered systems

Small-scale wind-powered systems are particularly suitable for remote off-grid locations where conventional methods of supply are impractical. Most small wind turbines generate direct current electricity, which may be used to top-up the charge in the batteries during long overcast spells but only if the local annual average wind speed is 6 m/s (metres per second) or more. Wind power is proportional to the cube of the wind speed, so relatively minor increases in speed result in large changes in potential output. Individual turbines vary in size and power output.

The electricity generated at any one time by a wind turbine is highly dependent on the speed and direction of the wind and the wind speed itself is dependent on a number of factors, such as location, height of the turbine above ground level and nearby obstructions. Ideally, a professional assessment of the local wind speed for a full year at the exact location of the port should be undertaken. Wind speed increases with height, so it is best to have the turbine high on a mast or tower. Generally speaking, the ideal siting is a smooth flat coastline with clear exposure, free from excessive turbulence and obstructions such as large trees or other buildings.

Systems up to 1 kW will cost around US$2 000 at 2009 prices whereas larger systems in the region of 2.5 kW to 6 kW would cost between US$12 000 to US$22 000 installed, inclusive of the turbine, mast, inverters, battery storage (if required) and installation. Final costs, however, depend on location and the size and type of system. Turbines can have a useful life of up to 22.5 years but require service checks every few years to ensure they work efficiently.

11.4.4 Generators

Diesel-powered electric generators are very dependable, have good efficiency ratings, simple maintenance and relatively low capital cost for small ratings. Generators can supply two kinds of power: standby power (for continuous electrical service during interruption of normal power) and prime power (for continuous electrical service).

As a general rule, generators should not be installed as prime power but only as standby power to a grid or solar PV supply. Experience has demonstrated that the spares and fuel logistics for remote sites renders generators unreliable as prime sources of power. The fuel consumption ranges from 0.20 to 0.30 kg/kWh.

11.5 BUILDINGS

Buildings are required within the port boundary to house the different operations required to make the fishing port functional. Typically, the following buildings are required:

- administration building;

- market or sorting hall;

- cold storage (chill rooms and cold stores);

- hygiene facilities;

- ancillary buildings (workshop, crate washing facility, guardhouse, generator room, pump room, winch room, gear stores, food stalls, restaurants, etc.); and

- fishermen’s rest and net repair platforms.

11.5.1 Designing for durability

As a general rule, all buildings should conform to the national architectural and sanitary standards, irrespective of the size of the port. However, due to the aggressive nature of the salty environment in and around a port or fisheries landing, buildings should be designed for durability by:

- specifying higher grades of concrete than normal in columns, beams and foundations (Grade 35 minimum recommended);

- using special admixtures in the external rendering to make it resistant or impervious to sea spray or salt;

- avoiding the use of untreated mild steel in external applications, see Chapter 9 for more details;

- preventing galvanic corrosion by avoiding dissimilar metals from coming into contact (screws holding fittings should be of the same metal), see Chapter 9 for more details;

- specifying heavy-duty PVC to replace the use of timber and metal for door and window frames; and

- ensuring that all plumbing is in HDPE plastic.

Coupled to these specifications, a strict quality assurance programme should be adopted during the construction phase.

11.5.2 Designing for a low carbon footprint

Port buildings should be designed for a low carbon footprint at the inception stage, both through design features as well as installed equipment.

In hot climates, the design features should include:

- correct orientation of buildings to make the best use of shade to cut down on cooling requirements;

- if not possible, application of appropriate eaves or shades to prevent the build up of heat from direct sunlight;

- large windows with white internal paint schemes to cut down on lighting requirements, Figure 29; and

- abundant landscaping to absorb reflected light, provide shaded areas and absorb treated wastewater.

The equipment features should include:

- installation of roof-mounted solar PV panels to power lights and most office equipment;

- installation of two separate power circuits, one for heavy loads and one for solar-powered loads;

- energy saving light bulbs or LED units applied directly to fittings (no ballast);

- use of laptops as workstations (easier to recharge and do not emit the same amount of heat as a tower personal computer [PC];

- installation of ceiling fans to reduce the use of air-conditioning systems (except for monitoring, control and surveillance rooms [MCS] with radar screens);

- installation of smart energy systems to conserve power, like trip switches on windows and doors to shut down air-conditioning automatically if windows or doors are opened;

- installation of rainwater harvesting coupled to large water reservoirs to augment water supply for hygiene services; and

- installation of sewage treatment for use in the landscaping.

11.5.3 Administration buildings

Irrespective of the size of a fish landing or fisheries port, an administration building should always be included in the layout. An administration building may consist of a single room with one desk for the harbour master to a proper building with offices for the harbour master, statistics officers and other key personnel. Generally speaking, the larger the port, the more management staff are required and, hence, the larger the building required.

Figure 30 illustrates a typical ground-floor plan for a two-storey building suitable for port administration. The top floor should be reserved for the management staff, whereas the ground floor should include all types of interface services, such as police, customs and immigration, if required, and bank or post office. Office space destined for the installation of MCS radar screens should have adequate air-conditioning facilities.

11.5.4 Market or sorting hall

In designing new fish marketing or sorting premises, a smooth sequence of operations from the receipt of the fish to its loading and transportation should be achieved. All operations should be conducted off the floor, at a height convenient for workers to perform their tasks in a standing position. In some Asian countries where workers prefer to crouch, low integral sorting platforms, about 150 mm high, and draining melt water to a dish channel should be included in the design, Figure 31.

The structure should be a single-storey building – a short distance from the landing area – to enable fast handling of fish along the quay and marketing operations inside the market hall. This type of design will also allow easy access to vehicles for loading purposes. Figure 32 illustrates a small artisanal auction hall.

Ample, natural air circulation should be provided for covered halls. In hot climates hollow-brick walls or chain-link fences are often used. Properly designed long eaves for protection against direct sunlight and rain are essential. An adequate pitch of the roof serving a rainwater collection system is also an important factor in areas with high rainfall. Vehicles waiting to load fish should be under cover to prevent spoilage of fish from heat. Orientation in relation to the prevalent direction of the elements (sunlight and wind) should also be taken into consideration.

Floors

Floors should ideally be hard-wearing, non-porous, washable, seamless, easy to drain, non-slip and resistant to possible attack from brine, weak ammonia, fish oils and offal.

The choice of the flooring materials will depend on the characteristics of the materials available in the area and their cost. In artisanal situations, granolithic concrete, terrazzo and clay tiles can be used, but clay tiles are preferable. Generally speaking, the harder the tiles, the less absorbent but the more slippery they are. Tiles with slightly abrasive surfaces are less slippery. All paving should be light coloured to reflect light and show up dirt. Tile laying on a cement mortar requires professional supervision to ensure that all the joints between the tiles are complete and permanently sealed. The junctions with the walls should be curved for ease of cleaning. A slope of 2 percent from the highest point of the floor to the drainage channel around the hall should be adequate. Steeper slopes may be required in small halls to drain water away faster. If finances permit, an epoxy floor should be considered as this is the only kind of floor finish that satisfies all the requisites of functionality, hygiene and low maintenance. Epoxy floor finishes are described in detail in Chapter 9.

Drainage

The floor should drain sideways into appropriate dish channels and the runoff channelled to a plastic or stainless steel basket drain where solids (wet wastes) may be collected prior to the effluent entering any pipework (Figure 33). Drainage pipes should not be smaller than 100 mm in diameter. Sharp bends in the drainage system (pipework or deep channels) should be avoided as these are difficult to clear in case of blockages (from waste paper, vegetation and plastic bags, etc., that occasionally find their way into the system). The roof drainage system should incorporate a rainwater collection network.

Walls

Walls should be constructed of materials that have smooth, washable and impervious surfaces. Walls should be painted in light colours to increase the brightness inside the building and make dirt more visible. For easy cleaning, they should be rounded at the junctions with other walls, and ceilings should be kept as free as possible from ledges, projections or ornamentation to avoid dust collection. If walls are not tiled, then they should be finished in plaster and good-quality, washable paint. Walls which are intended primarily as partitions should be strong enough for fish boxes or other light equipment to be piled up against them. The lower part of all walls should preferably consist of a solid in situ concrete wall, as this area receives the most impacts (from equipment). Hollow block walls, once punctured and not immediately patched up, are prone to infestation by vermin. Modern fish halls are built entirely in steel without side walls, especially in hot climates. Internal partitions for box storage areas, for instance, may be in chain-link fence.

Doors

Doors should be of simple and functional design. The main doors should be sufficiently high and wide to permit circulation by internal transport vehicles such as box trolleys, forklifts, etc.

When forklifts are in use a 2.8-metre-high door will be required with a width of between 1.5 to 2.5 metres. Internal doors should be self-closing and fitted with metal kick plates at the bottom. Due to the wet nature of the working conditions inside a fish hall, it is preferable to use light metal doors in aluminium or polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Timber doors are not recommended as they absorb water, need a lot of maintenance and may be subject to attack by wet rot.

Lighting

The building should provide adequate natural light for most operations to be carried out. Adequate windows and skylights should be provided to reduce the need for electric lighting. Artificial overhead lighting should be provided in order to allow personnel to work early in the morning before sunrise. Fluorescent lighting is particularly suitable (daylight type) for fish-market areas where a shadowless light with very little glare is required continuously for a long time; even though the initial costs are relatively higher than other lighting systems, operational costs are lower. A light level of 220 lux as minimum is considered adequate. All lighting fixtures should be watertight. Metal fittings, conduits, etc., should be avoided. Cabling should be adequate for peak demands and suitable for the environment. Given the size of most roofs, due consideration should be given to installing solar PV panels on the roof in order to run the building lights on solar power. Additional strengthening of the roof to support the PV panels is normally required.

Sanitary facilities

Adequate sanitary facilities should be provided for the staff, fishers, handlers and merchants working in or around the fish hall. Chapter 11 describes this topic in detail. In particular, toilets should be constructed to the highest possible standards to guarantee the maximum working life of the facilities with the lowest maintenance costs. Bad design (cheap materials) and lack of supervision during construction generally lead to facilities with a working life measured in weeks or months. This situation gives rise to “toilets of opportunity” elsewhere, exacerbating hygiene conditions inside the port. Hygiene blocks should be equipped with an adequate number of wash-hand basins.

Signs and billboards spelling out sanitary regulations should form part of the infrastructure. Sanitary facilities should not open onto a working area lest a blocked drain causes flooding.

11.5.5 Cold rooms

Refrigerated chill rooms are required for the temporary storage of freshly iced fish (Figure 34). The operating temperature inside a chill room is around 1 °C. Chill rooms are expensive and need to be designed properly by an expert.

The design should take into account:

- total maximum weight of products to be stored;

- handling methods to be employed;

- ambient temperature of the products entering the chill store; and

- availability and cost of electricity, labour and servicing facilities.

Standby equipment should also be provided for emergencies.

11.5.6 Cold stores

Cold stores generally consist of a single-storey building having a single or a multiple number of cold rooms operated at temperatures in the range -24 °C to -30 °C (Figure 35). Cold stores are very expensive items in a port’s inventory and due to their complexity it is recommended that cold storage specialists handle such projects, all the way from feasibility to commissioning, including supervision and training of the local management responsible for the future operation of the cold store. For further information on cold stores, the reader is referred to other more specialized texts; see bibliography.

11.5.7 Hygiene facilities

Hygiene facilities are required inside the administration building, the market/sorting hall and as stand-alone facilities spread around the port area, Figures 36 and 37.

In areas around the sorting or market hall, the ratio of male to female facilities needs to be adjusted to reflect local employment customs.

The building should be simple in layout, airy, brightly coloured with plenty of ventilation and light. All the floor drains inside the building should be bar drains placed centrally across the room with water draining away from the walls to prevent flooding. The drains should be in plastic and easily removed to clear blockages.

The provision of showers in small- to medium-sized ports is important for crews returning from long fishing trips. Hot water is very desirable and should be provided by solar water heaters.

11.5.8 Workshop facilities

Workshops are an integral part of a fishing port (Figure 38). Both engine and hull workshops are normally required, the one dealing with the inboard or outboard engines and the other with timber or metal hulls.

The workshop building may be built in an all-metal construction as illustrated in Figure 39 or in concrete and masonry as illustrated in Figure 40. Both single-phase and three-phase power is normally required to run equipment. Compressed air lines fed from a central compressor are also an added advantage.

11.5.9 Net repair and social meeting platforms

Artisanal fish landings located on beaches require a clean level platform for the repair of nets. This platform often incorporates small gear stores for the storage of bulky equipment, Figure 41.

Platforms should be designed to drain runoff away from the work areas and should be located away from all sources of pollution, like oils and fuel (Figures 42 and 43). Fishers also use the platforms as social meeting points during their time between fishing trips.

11.6 PARKING AREAS

A detailed picture of vehicle traffic movements would have emerged from the environmental impact assessment study if one was performed for the fishing harbour; otherwise, a traffic study assessment should be performed before planning any parking areas, and the port’s as well as the town’s master plan, should be consulted.

11.6.1 Parking densities

The parking density is a measure of how many vehicles may be squeezed into a parking lot without loss of access to any one vehicle. Typical car dimensions may vary from one country to another depending on local preferences. The dimensions illustrated in Figure 44 to Figure 47 may have to be increased by 15 percent to allow for large vehicles, insulated vans or pick-ups.

11.6.2 Turning radii

In addition to the actual areas occupied by the vehicles and the clear zones for manoeuvring, vehicle turning radii are also important, Table 14.

TABLE 14

Turning radii

Type of vehicle

Turning radius (outer wheel) in metres

Swept radius (truck body) in metres

Cars and pick-ups

3.0

3.0

Small 1 tonne van

6.1

6.4

Long 2 tonne van

6,55

7.0

2-axle lorry or truck-mixer

9.15

9.45

2-axle 16 tonne flatbed lorry

10.5

11.0

3-axle tractor with ISO cargo container

12.0

15.0

5-axle articulated with refrigerated body

12.0

15.0

11.6.3 Paved areas

Depending on the size of the fishing port and the landings, various types of vehicles will call at the port to either deliver supplies, such as fuel, ice, etc., or to pick up fish. The vehicle sizes may range from a simple half-tonne pick-up to a full-sized, containerized refrigerated articulated truck. Even in small artisanal harbours, it is not uncommon to find large containerized refrigerated trucks, Figure 48, parked by the quay for a number of days to collect a full payload of around 40 tonnes of fish. Paving is an expensive but necessary cost in a fishing port and the type and quality of the pavement will depend on the type (and hence the weight or axle load) of vehicles intending to use the facility, the typical use for the pavement (main access, parking area, lay-by, quayside, refuelling area, etc.) and the type of existing ground (sandy cohesionless reclaimed land, cohesive clayey land, etc.).

Figure 49 shows four different kinds of pavement, precast concrete rafts or slabs, interlocking precast concrete blocks, rigid concrete and asphalt. The respective thickness and characteristics of the materials employed depend on design considerations; however, interlocking precast concrete block pavements are now an accepted industry standard due to their flexible nature and ease of placing. Interlocking concrete block paving may be designed to take the full range of axle loads (by increasing the thickness of the block), can easily be re-laid if settlement has occurred, does not rut and if laid properly it is practically maintenance-free.

The typical standard rectangular block, Figure 50 left, is 200 mm long and 100 mm wide with a thickness range of 60 mm to 100 mm, depending on the end use of the pavement. Blocks are available in various colours, including grey, red, yellow and green. The blocks are bedded on a graded layer of sand (5 mm maximum size) 50 mm thick, laid over a layer of lean concrete laid to the levels and cross-falls required for drainage. Various laying patterns are possible, both with the standard rectangular block and the non-traditional designs shown in Figure 50. Block paving should not be used in wet market areas.

All paved areas should be laid to cross-falls draining into appropriate channels. Typical falls are 1 to 2 percent (a 1 percent falls 1 metre in 100 metres) and it is common to break cross-falls at least every 10 metres, depending on the local intensity of rainfall (the longer the distance between the breaks, the longer the rainwater has to travel to drain away). Drainage channels should be appropriate and suitable for a particular location. Drainage channels may be of the open type, also known as dish channels, Figure 51, or of the covered type, as illustrated in Figure 52.

Covered channels should not be used in areas where mobile sand is a problem, especially where wind occurrences are very frequent. In these cases, dish channels should be used as these are easy to maintain. Covers over drains may consist of perforated concrete slabs, cast iron bar drains, galvanized steel grilles or glass reinforced polyester. Inside market and processing halls, lightweight glass reinforced polyester grilles should be used as these may be lifted easily by one person to clear clogged drains.

11.7 PORT SECURITY

With the exception of open beach landings, fishing ports should be designed as secure areas. Perimeter or boundary walls provide security against theft and vandalism but they also keep out unwanted pests which may otherwise pose a health hazard. When fish and fishery products are exported directly from a fishing port to overseas markets, the standard of the port’s security must follow the International Ship and Port Facility Security (ISPS Code).

11.7.1 Perimeter wall

Whenever possible, perimeter walls should be built in concrete or brick and provided with adequate manned access gates (Figure 53). Simple wire netting is not satisfactory for this purpose as it is easily breached at road level to gain access. Chain-link fences, on the other hand, are useful for segregating specific areas inside the port boundary, thus limiting access, such as the auction hall area, fish box storage area, open-air net stores, net repair areas, etc.

The perimeter wall in mass concrete or masonry should sit on a mass concrete foundation and rise up to 1 metre above finished road level. From 1 metre to 2.5 metres above road level, the wall should consist of galvanized wrought iron railings or sturdy angles bent to shape to hold galvanized chain-link in place. Whenever possible, the perimeter wall should be illuminated at night, especially in the vicinity of the main gate and around the cattle grid.

11.7.2 Main gate

The main gate is required to control the influx of people during the landing and marketing hours. During these hours, only people connected with the fisheries should be allowed into the port area, such as the buyers, their loaders and sorters and other fisheries-related staff. Some countries operate a tagging system whereby each operator is handed a number of colour-coded tokens for his staff to come and go as they please.

Outside working hours, the gate should be closed to prevent unauthorized entry into the port, or, if the port is a public facility, prevent entry into the market hall. The main gate should be manned at all hours, Figure 54.

Should the port fall under the ISPS Code, the main gate should be the only point of controlled access to the port and all other breaches (such as back entrances) in the perimeter must be sealed off. An area should also be set aside for vehicle inspection purposes as required by the ISPS Code.

When the fishing port is located inside an urban area, the port authorities may allow the general public to wander through the port, especially when restaurants are located nearby. As long as adequate parking is located outside the port, this activity helps to maintain a cleaner environment, as restaurants would then lose customers if the port environment is not kept clean.

11.7.3 Cattle grid

In some developing countries, domestic and stray animals are allowed to wander about untethered posing a health risk to fishing port operations. In such cases, the main gate must be equipped with a cattle grid to prevent animals from wandering into the port area. This area should be illuminated at night.

11.7.4 Billboard

At the entry to the port, a billboard is required to display information pertinent to the running of the port operations (Figures 55 and 56). This should be placed either at the entrance, outside the main gate, facing outwards over the perimeter fence or inside the port area in a prominent position. The billboard or billboards should list, among other things:

- the port authority that has jurisdiction over the facility;

- the port regulations;

- fishing and/or hygiene by-laws;

- the fines levied for each contravention; and

- prices for services rendered.

Telephone numbers (normally coast guard, police and hospital) are also useful.

11.7.5 Closed-circuit television

When a port exports fish and fishery products directly to overseas markets, then the port’s security system is governed by the ISPS Code; see Chapter 1 for more details. In this case, strategically located closed-circuit television monitoring is required as part of the port’s security arrangements. Professional assistance should be sought at the design stage to ensure that the appropriate power supplies and connections are installed together with the required illumination standards. Modern video surveillance systems may also be run on solar power.

11.8 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING

Graham, J., Johnston, W.A. & Nicholson, F.J. 1993. Ice in fisheries. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 331. Rome, FAO.

Huss, H.H. 1995. Quality and quality changes in fresh fish. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 348. Rome, FAO.

International Maritime Organization. International Ship and Port Facility Security Code 2003 Edition. London, England.

Johnson, W.A., Nicholson, F.J., Roger, A. & Stroud, G.D. 1994. Freezing and refrigerated storage in fisheries. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 340. Rome, FAO.

Londahl, G. 1981. Refrigerated storage in fisheries. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 214. Rome, FAO.

World Health Organization. 1991. Guidelines for Drinking Water – Water Quality, Volumes 1, 2 and 3. Delhi, India, CBS Publishers.

12.  Public health, hygiene and waste disposal

SUMMARY

The numbers are staggering. An estimated six million people worldwide contract a food-borne illness each year. It is not just the person infected with the illness that suffers. Damage of food-borne illness to an operation can include loss of customers, reputation and sales. A fishery is a food producing operation and fish is a highly perishable product. The fishing harbour is the focal point of the fishing effort (and sometimes the village life revolves around the activities of the fishing harbour) and it is here that fish is likely to be contaminated.

What is contamination and what constitutes pollution are commonly asked questions and the view taken by some scientists is that a distinction must be made between contamination and pollution. Contamination is the presence of elevated concentrations of substances in the environment that are above the natural background level for the area and for the organism. Pollution on the other hand is the introduction by humans, directly or indirectly, of substances or energy into the water, resulting in such deleterious effects as harmful to living resources and hazard to human health.

Therefore, this chapter deals exclusively with the environment within a fishing port, such as water quality standards, personal hygiene, sewage treatment and disposal, and waste reception facilities and disposal. The objective is to have health, hygiene and waste disposal issues addressed by port planners when designing new ports and upgrading existing facilities as well as by port managers at all times. Thus, the standards for sanitary water that should be used in all aspects of fisheries, including the routes of contamination, are reviewed and solutions proposed. In particular, methods for the disposal of all types of waste likely to arise from fishing operations are discussed.

Consequently, the readership, port engineers, port managers and those responsible for safety and health would be better equipped to design systems that can withstand the rigours of a new modern fishing port and, with regard to existing fishing ports, to identify potentially weak points in their public health applications as well as waste disposal systems. The ultimate beneficiaries will be the consumers of fish and fish products.

CONTENTS

12.1

Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point Programme

12.2

Water quality standards

12.2.1

Suspended solids

12.2.2

Biodegradable organics

12.2.3

Pathogens

12.2.4

Nutrients

12.2.5

Priority pollutants

12.2.6

Refractory organics

12.2.7

Dissolved inorganics

12.2.8

Heavy metals

12.3

Monitoring

12.3.1

Boreholes

12.3.2

Municipal mains

12.3.3

Water towers and reservoirs

12.3.4

Harbour basin water

12.3.5

International water standards

12.4

Personal hygiene and port sanitation

12.4.1

Sanitary fittings

12.4.2

Buildings

12.4.3

Signs and billboards

12.5

Sewage treatment

12.5.1

Type 1 effluent – artisanal harbours

12.5.2

Type 1 effluent – other ports

12.5.3

Type 2 effluent – wash-hand basins

12.5.4

Type 3 effluent – market floor runoff

12.6

Port wastes

12.6.1

Batteries

12.6.2

Spent oil

12.6.3

Bilge water separation

12.6.4

Solid waste bins

12.6.5

Wet waste bins

12.6.6

Flotsam collection and disposal

12.6.7

Fuel and oil spill response

12.7

Pest control

12.7.1

Rodents

12.7.2

Flies

12.7.3

Birds

12.7.4

Domestic animals

12.8

Bibliography and further reading

Appendix 1:

World Health Oganization maximum allowable limits for drinking water standards

Appendix 2:

European Union directives suggested allowable limits for estuary and harbour basin waters

12.1 HAZARD ANALYSIS AND CRITICAL CONTROL POINT PROGRAMME

By charting the flow of fish through the fishing harbour (from the time it is discharged on the quay to the time it leaves the port boundary), points can be identified where contamination or growth of micro-organisms occur. Control features can then be implemented based on the identified health hazard. This technique is known as a Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point programme or HACCP in short. To the fishing port planner, the three major areas of concern are:

- water quality standards of all the water used in the port (potable and seawater);

- personal hygiene of the shore-based workers; and

- standard of cleanliness of the port in general.

Under HACCP, these three areas of concern translate into drastic changes in the long term. In particular, these involve:

- minimizing and eventually eliminating harbour and coastal pollution from point and non-point sources;

- improving sanitation and hygiene throughout the fishing harbour; and

- maintaining port and harbour infrastructure in good working order.

In order to comply with these directives, a fishing port planner needs to have a good understanding of both the natural environment existing around the fishing harbour as well as the environment generated within the harbour’s infrastructure and with it the wastes generated by the various components of the fishing effort.

This chapter deals exclusively with the environment within the fishing harbour, such as water quality standards, personal hygiene, sewage treatment and disposal, and waste reception facilities and disposal.

12.2 WATER QUALITY STANDARDS

Water is the underlying link which connects the various fishing activities together, such as harvesting, storing and icing on board, handling inside a harbour and eventual sale to consumers. Assuming that fish is generally caught offshore in relatively pollution-free waters, potable water, and hence ice, come into contact with it all the way down the process in port, right up to the fish vendor’s market stall.

Generally speaking, most fishing harbours are connected to an approved mains supply: in some developing countries, however, the water is supplied from local resources such as lakes, rivers or underground aquifers which may or may not be contaminated. This fact alone makes it vitally important for a fishing harbour planner to understand water quality standards, the types of pollutants which may be present in the water supply and the most likely sources for these pollutants. Also, due to the acute shortage of potable water in and around some fishing harbours in many developing countries, raw seawater (i.e. drawn from within the harbour basin) often replaces freshwater in the shore-based activities, implying that, in addition to freshwater, harbour basin or estuary waters has also to be tested for contaminants.

Contamination of water by physical and bacteriological agents may be evaluated by laboratory tests. Test results are usually expressed in parts per million (milligrams per litre or simply ppm) or parts per billion (micrograms per litre or ppb) for physical parameters and bacterial counts per 100 millilitres for organisms. For both types of contaminants, maximum levels are usually stipulated and these levels may differ from country to country. The major contaminants of concern in potable water supplies are:

- suspended solids;

- biodegradable organics (proteins, carbohydrates and fats);

- pathogens;

- nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus and carbon);

- priority pollutants (highly toxic chemicals);

- refractory organics (pesticides, phenols, surfactants);

- heavy metals; and

- dissolved inorganics (nuisance chemicals).

12.2.1 Suspended solids

The presence of suspended solids in water gives rise to turbidity. Suspended solids may consist of clay, silt, airborne particulates, colloidal organic particles, plankton and other microscopic organisms. The presence of particulate matter in water, whether organic, inorganic or due to higher micro-organisms, can protect bacteria and viruses from the action of disinfectants. The adsorptive capacity of some suspended particulates can lead to entrapment of undesirable inorganic and organic compounds present in the water and in this way turbidity can bear an indirect relationship to the health aspects of water quality. Airborne particulate matter is of particular concern to facilities located near mineral stockpiles (coal, iron ore, bauxite, etc.) or downwind from large power stations (fly ash), timber saw mills (saw dust) or cement factories (cement dust). Rainwater collection systems are particularly sensitive to such airborne particulates because they usually augment local potable water systems and act as conduits for the pollutants to enter the potable water system. Large quantities of aromatic hydrocarbons are also generated by the combustion of fossil fuel in oil-fired power stations and industrial kilns.

12.2.2 Biodegradable organics

Composed principally of proteins, carbohydrates and fats, biodegradable organics are measured most commonly in terms of biological oxygen demand (BOD). BOD is the quantity of oxygen required for the oxidation of organic matter by bacterial action in the presence of oxygen. The higher the demand for oxygen (the more organic the pollution), the less oxygen is left to support life. Urban sewage commonly has a BOD of 500 mg/litre. Harbour basin water should have a BOD in the range of 50 to 150 mg/litre.

12.2.3 Pathogens

The most common and widespread danger associated with drinking water is contamination, either directly or indirectly, by sewage, by other wastes, or by human or animal excrement (Table 1). If such contamination is recent, and if among the contributors there are carriers of communicable enteric diseases, some of the living causal agents may be present. The drinking of water so contaminated or its use in the preparation of certain foods may result in further cases of infection. Natural and treated waters vary in microbiological quality. Ideally, drinking water should not contain any micro-organisms known to be pathogenic to humans. In practice, this means that it should not be possible to demonstrate the presence of any coliform organism in any sample of 100 ml.

12.2.3.1 Bacteria

Faecal pollution of drinking water may introduce a variety of intestinal pathogens – bacterial, viral and parasitic – their presence being related to microbial diseases and carriers present at that moment in the community. Intestinal bacterial pathogens are widely distributed throughout the world. Those known to have occurred in contaminated drinking water include strains of Salmonella, Shigella, enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli, Vibrio cholerae, Yersinia enterocolitica and Campylobacter fetus. These organisms may cause diseases that vary in severity from mild gastroenteritis to severe and sometimes fatal dysentery, cholera or typhoid.

TABLE 1

Infectious agents potentially present in drinking water contaminated by sewage

Organism

Disease

Remarks

Bacteria

Escherichia coli

Gastroenteritis

Diarrhoea

Legionella pneumophila

Legionellosis

Acute respiratory illness

Leptospira (150 spp.)

Leptospirosis

Jaundice, fever

Salmonella typhi

Typhoid fever

High fever, diarrhoea

Salmonella (~1700 spp.)

Salmonellosis

Food poisoning

Shigella (4 spp.)

Shigellosis

Bacillary dysentery

Vibrio cholerae

Cholera

Extremely heavy diarrhoea

Yersinia enterolitica

Yersinosis

Diarrhoea

Viruses

Adenovinus (31 types)

Respiratory disease

Enteroviruses (67 types)

Gastroenteritis, meningitis

Hepatitis A

Infectious hepatitis

Jaundice, fever

Norwalk agent

Gastroenteritis

Vomiting

Reovirus

Gastroenteritis

Rotavirus

Gastroenteritis

Protozoa

Balantidium coli

Balantidiasis

Diarrhoea, dysentery

Cryptosporidium

Cryptosporidiosis

Diarrhoea

Entamoeba histolytica

Amoebic dysentery

Prolonged diarrhoea with bleeding

Giardia lamblia

Giardiasis

Mild to severe diarrhoea, nausea

Helminths

Fasciola hepatica

Fascioliasis

Sheep liver fluke

Dracunculus medinensis

Dracunculosis

Guinea worm

Ascaris lumbricoides

Ascariasis

Roundworm

Enterobius vericularis

Enterobiasis

Pinworm

Hymenolepis nana

Hymenolepiasis

Dwarf tapeworm

Taenia saginata

Taeniasis

Beef tapeworm

Taenia solium

Taeniasis

Pork tapeworm

Trichuris trichiura

Trichuriasis

Whipworm

The modes of transmission of bacterial pathogens include ingestion of contaminated water and food. The significance of the water route in the spread of intestinal bacterial infections varies considerably, both with the disease and with local circumstances. Among the various water-borne pathogens, there exists a wide range of minimum infectious dose levels necessary to cause a human infection. With Salmonella typhi, ingestion of relatively few organisms can cause disease; with Shigella flexneri, several hundred cells may be needed, whereas many millions of cells of Salmonella serotypes are usually required to cause gastroenteritis. Similarly, with toxigenic organisms such as enteropathogenic E. coli and V. cholerae, as many as 108 organisms may be necessary to cause illness. The size of the infective dose also varies in different persons with age, nutritional status and general health at the time of exposure.

The significance of routes of transmission other than drinking water should not be underestimated as the provision of a safe potable supply by itself will not necessarily prevent infection without accompanying improvements in sanitation and personal habits. Education in simple applied and personal hygiene is essential.

Surveillance of the bacterial quality of water is also important, not only in the assessment of the degree of pollution, but also in the choice of the best source and the treatment needed. Bacteriological examination offers the most sensitive test for the detection of recent and therefore potentially dangerous faecal pollution, thereby providing a hygienic assessment of water quality with a sensitivity and specificity that is absent from routine chemical analysis. It is essential that water is examined regularly and frequently as contamination may be intermittent and may not be detected by the examination of a single sample. For this reason, it is important that drinking water is examined frequently by a simple test rather than infrequently by a more complicated test or series of tests. Priority must always be given to ensuring that routine bacterial examination is maintained whenever human resources and facilities are limited. It must be appreciated that all a bacteriological analysis can prove is that, at the time of examination, contamination, or bacteria indicative of faecal pollution, could or could not be demonstrated in a given sample of water using specified culture methods. In addition, the results of routine bacteriological examination must always be interpreted in the light of a thorough knowledge of the water supplies, including their source, treatment and distribution.

Whenever changes in conditions lead to deterioration in the quality of the water supplied, or even if they should suggest an increased possibility of contamination, the frequency of bacteriological examination should be increased so that a series of samples from well-chosen locations may identify the hazard and allow remedial action to be taken. Whenever a sanitary survey, including visual inspection, indicates that a water supply is obviously subject to pollution, remedial action must be taken, irrespective of the results of bacteriological examination. For unpiped rural supplies, sanitary surveys may often be the only form of examination that can be undertaken regularly.

The recognition that microbial infections can be water-borne has led to the development of methods for routine examination to ensure that water intended for human consumption is free from excremental pollution.

Although it is now possible to detect the presence of many pathogens in water, the methods of isolation and enumeration are often complex and time-consuming. It is therefore impractical to monitor drinking water for every possible microbial pathogen that might occur with contamination. A more logical approach is the detection of organisms normally present in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals as indicators of excremental pollution, as well as of the efficacy of water treatment and disinfection. The presence of such organisms indicates the presence of faecal material and thus that intestinal pathogens could be present.[1] Conversely, the absence of faecal commensal organisms indicates that pathogens are probably also absent. Search for such indicators of faecal pollution thus provides a means of quality control. The use of normal intestinal organisms as indicators of faecal pollution rather than the pathogens themselves is a universally accepted principle for monitoring and assessing the microbial safety of water supplies. Ideally, the finding of such indicator bacteria should denote the possible presence of all relevant pathogens.

Indicator organisms should be abundant in excrement but absent, or present only in small numbers, in other sources; they should be easily isolated, identified and enumerated and should be unable to grow in water. They should also survive longer than pathogens in water and be more resistant to disinfectants such as chlorine. In practice, these criteria cannot all be met by any one organism, although many of them are fulfilled by coliform organisms, especially Escherichia coli as the essential indicator of pollution by faecal material of human or animal origin.

Other micro-organisms described as “faecal coliforms” such as faecal streptococci and sulphite-reducing clostridia, especially Clostridium perfringens, that satisfy some of these criteria (though not to the same extent as coliform organisms) can also be used as secondary indicators of faecal contamination.

The significance that can be attached to the presence or absence of particular faecal indicators varies with each organism and especially with the degree to which that organism can be specifically associated with faeces. Coliform bacteria should not be detectable in treated water supplies, and if found, indicate inadequate treatment or post-treatment contamination.

Furthermore, coliform bacteria are derived not only from the faeces of warmblooded animals but also from vegetation and soil. For these reasons, the presence of small numbers of coliform organisms (1 to 10 organisms per 100 ml), particularly in untreated groundwater, may be of limited sanitary significance provided faecal coliform organisms are absent.

When coliform organisms are found in the absence of faecal coliform organisms and E. coli, secondary indicators may be used to confirm the excremental nature of the contamination.

12.2.3.2 Viruses

Viruses of major concern in relation to water-borne transmission of infectious disease are essentially those that multiply in the intestine and are excreted in large numbers in the faeces of infected individuals. Concentrations as high as 108 viral units per gram of faeces have been reported. Even though replication does not occur outside living hosts, enteric viruses have considerable ability to survive in the aquatic environment and may remain viable for days or months. Viruses enter the water environment primarily by way of sewage discharges. With the methods available at present, wide fluctuations in the number of viruses in sewage have been found. On any given day, many of the 100 or so known enteric viruses can be isolated from sewage, the specific types being those prevalent in the community at that time.

Procedures for the isolation of every virus type that may be present in sewage are not yet available. As sewage comes into contact with drinking water, viruses are carried on and remain viable for varying periods of time depending upon temperature and a number of other less well-defined factors. It is generally believed that the primary route of exposure to enteric viruses is by direct contact with infected persons or by contact with faecally contaminated objects.

However, because of the ability of viruses to survive and because of the low infective dose, exposure and consequent infections may occur by less obvious means, including ingestion of contaminated water. Explosive outbreaks of viral hepatitis and gastroenteritis resulting from sewage contamination of water supplies have been well documented epidemiologically. In contrast, the transmission of low levels of virus through drinking water of potable quality, although suspected of contributing to the maintenance of endemic enteric viral disease within communities, has not yet been demonstrated. In some developing areas, water sources may be heavily polluted and the water-treatment processes may be less sophisticated and reliable. Because of these factors, as well as the large number of persons at risk, drinking water must be regarded as having a very significant potential as a vehicle for the environmental transmission of enteric viruses. As with other microbial infections, enteric viruses may also be transmitted by contaminated food. Enteric viruses are capable of producing a wide variety of syndromes, including rashes, fever, gastroenteritis, myocarditis, meningitis, respiratory disease and hepatitis. In general, asymptomatic infections are common and the more serious manifestations rare. However, when drinking water is contaminated with sewage, two diseases may occur in epidemic proportions – gastroenteritis and infectious hepatitis. Apart from these infections, there is little, if any, epidemiological evidence to show that adequately treated drinking water is concerned in the transmission of virus infections. Gastroenteritis of viral origin may be associated with a variety of agents. Many of these have been identified only recently occurring as small particles with a diameter of 270–350 microns in stools of infected individuals with diarrhoea. Viral gastroenteritis, usually of 24–72 hours’ duration with nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea, occurs in susceptible individuals of all ages. It is most serious in the very young or very old where dehydration and electrolyte imbalance can occur rapidly and threaten life if not corrected without delay. Hepatitis, if mild, may require only rest and restricted activities for a week or two, but when severe it may cause death from liver failure, or may result in chronic disease of the liver. Severe hepatitis is tolerated less well with increasing age and the fatality rate increases sharply beyond middle age. The mortality rate is higher among those with pre-existing malignancy and cirrhosis.

12.2.3.3 Protozoa

Protozoa are single-celled eucaryotic micro-organisms without cell walls. The majority of protozoa are aerobic. Protozoa feed on bacteria and other microscopic microorganisms. Of the intestinal protozoa pathogenic for humans, three may be transmitted by drinking water: Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia spp. and Balantidium coli. These organisms are the etiological agents of amoebic dysentery, giardiasis and balantidiasis, respectively, and have all been associated with drinking water outbreaks. All three have worldwide distribution. As a group, the intestinal pathogenic protozoa occur in large numbers in the faeces of infected individuals in humans and a wide variety of domestic and wild animals. Coliform organisms do not appear to be a good indicator for Giardia or E. histolytica in treated water because of the increased resistance of these protozoans to inactivation by disinfection.

12.2.3.4 Helminths

A great variety of helminth eggs and larvae have been detected in drinking water and it is clear that all those infective to humans should be absent if the water supply is to be safe. However, the majority of helminths are not water-borne and it is neither feasible nor necessary to monitor water for them on a routine basis. Two groups of helminths are more directly related to water supplies:

- those transmitted wholly by the ingestion of infected copepod intermediate hosts; and

- those whose cercariae are directly infective to humans. A third category groups the remainder of the species.

The first group (Dracunculus, Spirometra) comprises helminths that develop in aquatic copepods and are acquired by humans ingesting water containing the intermediate host crustacea. The most important member in this group is the guinea-worm (Dracunculus medinensis), a filarial parasite of humans. Tapeworms of the genus Spirometra, though much rarer in humans, also have a stage in aquatic copepods. Adult worms are found in the small intestine of cats. Eggs pass out in the faeces and hatch in water where they may be ingested by copepods.

The second group (Schistosoma, Ancylostoma, Necator) comprises a miscellaneous group of flukes and roundworms whose infective larvae are able to penetrate the human skin and mucous membranes. The human hookworms Ancylostoma duodenale and Necator americanus, both with a wide tropical and subtropical distribution, have eggs that hatch and develop in the soil to the third stage larvae, which then reinfect humans by penetrating the skin. Hookworms of domestic animals may also invade humans.

The third group of helminths has resistant eggs or cysts infective to humans. If these gain access to drinking water and are ingested, humans become infected. The most widespread intestinal helminths are Ascaris lumbricoides (roundworm) and Trichuris trichuria (whipworm). The human tapeworms of the genera Hymenolepis, with a direct life cycle, and Echinococcus, where humans are infected by ingesting eggs usually acquired from dogs, have the potential for spread in drinking water.

12.2.3.5 Malaria and dengue

Both malaria and dengue are not transmitted directly by drinking water but by vectors or carriers that breed in water, in this case mosquitoes. In order to prevent the spread of these diseases, it is of the utmost importance that in all endemic areas, drinking water reservoirs within the port area be adequately covered to prevent mosquitoes from gaining access to the free water surface. These reservoirs comprise:

- elevated water distribution tanks (access manholes);

- reinforced concrete reservoirs (access manholes);

- header tanks, whatever size; and

- water cisterns in all toilets.

All manholes should be covered with purpose-made manhole covers and all vents should be equipped with mosquito-net filters. Furthermore, all horizontal areas should be laid to falls to prevent the rainwater forming ponds and adequate drains installed to handle runoff. These areas include roofs, parking areas, access ways and derelict land within the port’s boundaries.

12.2.4 Nutrients

Nitrates and nitrites are considered together because conversion from one form to another occurs in the environment. The health effects of nitrates are generally a consequence of its ready conversion to nitrite in the body. Nitrates are widely present in substantial quantities in soil, in most waters and in plants, including vegetables. Nitrites also occur fairly widely, but generally at very much lower levels than nitrates. Nitrates are products of oxidation of organic nitrogen by the bacteria present in soils and in water where sufficient oxygen is present. Nitrites are formed by incomplete bacterial oxidation of organic nitrogen. One of the principal uses of nitrate is as fertilizer. Nitrates are also used in explosives, as oxidizing agents in the chemical industry and as food preservatives. Its occurrence in water is brought about by fertilizer use, decaying vegetable and animal matter, sewage effluents, industrial discharges, leachates from refuse dumps.

Nitrates in the water are limited to 10 ppm.

12.2.5 PRIORITY POLLUTANTS

12.2.5.1 Introduction

These are organic or inorganic compounds selected on the basis of their known or suspected carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, teratogenicity or high acute toxicity.

12.2.5.2 Arsenic

Arsenic is notorious as a toxic element. Its toxicity, however, depends on the chemical (valency) and physical form of the compound, the route by which it enters the body, the dose and duration of exposure and several other biological parameters. It is recommended that, when water is found to contain arsenic at levels of 0.05 ppm, an attempt should be made to ascertain the valency and chemical forms of the element. Arsenic is commonly associated as an alloying additive with lead solder, lead shot, battery grids, cable sheaths and boiler piping. Nowadays, most arsenic originates from paints or pharmaceuticals and is commonly found in sewage. The concentration of arsenic in seawater is around 0.002 ppm. The primary concerns are carcinogenicity and mutagenicity.

12.2.5.3 Asbestos

Asbestos is a general term for fibrous silicate minerals of the amphibole and serpentine mineral groups. Six minerals have been characterized as asbestos: chrysotile, crocidolite, anthophyllite, tremolite, actinolite and amosite. Asbestos is commonly found in domestic water supplies. The use of asbestos-cement (170 grams of asbestos per kilograms – 80 percent chrysotile and 20 percent crocidolite) for pipes in distribution systems could contribute to the asbestos content of drinking water. Background levels are reported to be in the range of less than 1 million to 10 million fibres per litre. The primary concern is carcinogenicity. Use of asbestos is now banned.

12.2.5.4 Barium

Barium is present in the earth’s crust in a concentration of 0.50 g/kg and the mineral barytes, barium sulphate, is the commonest source. Traces of barium are present in most soils.

Barium is also present in traces in many foodstuffs, such as brazil nuts. Barium is also used in various industrial processes, such as in vacuum tubes, spark-plug alloys, Getter alloys, Fray’s metal and as a lubricant for anode rotors in X-ray machines. Drinking water should not contain more 0.050 ppm.

12.2.5.5 Beryllium

Beryllium is commonly found as part of feldspar mineral deposits and may exist as the mineral beryl in small localized deposits. The primary source of beryllium in the environment is the burning of fossil fuels, although contamination is normally light. Beryllium can enter the water system through weathering of rocks in ground aquifers, atmospheric fallout on rain water collection systems and industrial and municipal discharges. Beryllium is used in metal alloys and certain electrical components. Not all countries have set standards for limits of beryllium in drinking water. Those that have limit its presence to 0.20 ppb.

12.2.5.6 Selenium

As a result of geochemical differences, levels of selenium in soil and vegetation vary within broad limits. The chemical form of selenium, and thus its solubility, is another decisive factor as regards its presence in drinking water. Selenium has been identified as an essential nutrient in several animal species, including humans. Dietary selenium levels of 5 mg/kg of food or more may cause chronic intoxication, and in seleniferous areas this value has been considered as the dividing line between toxic and non-toxic feeds. Drinking water in general does not represent the only or main source of selenium exposure for the resident population in seleniferous areas. There is a range of selenium intake by humans that is consistent with health, and outside this range deficiency or toxicity can occur. Selenium in drinking water is limited to 0.01 ppm.

Selenium is widely used in the electronics industry, television cameras, solar batteries, computer cores, rectifiers, xerographic plates and ceramics as a colorant for glass. It is also used as a trace element for animal feeds.

12.2.5.7 Silver

Silver occurs naturally in elemental form and as various ores. It is also associated with lead, copper and zinc ores. Because some metals such as lead and zinc are used in distribution systems and also because in some countries silver oxide is used to disinfect water supplies, silver levels in tap water may sometimes be elevated. The levels of silver in drinking water should not exceed 1 ppb.

In industry, silver is used in the manufacture of silver nitrate, silver bromide and other photographic chemicals, water distillation equipment, mirrors, silver plating equipment, special batteries, table cutlery, jewellery, and dental, medical and scientific equipment including amalgams.

12.2.6 REFRACTORY ORGANICS

12.2.6.1 Introduction

This group of contaminants is wide ranging and consists of chlorinated alkanes (carbon tetrachloride), chlorinated ethenes (polyvinyl chloride, or PVC), polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (naphtalene, coal tar), pesticides, herbicides and fumigants (DDT, endrin, aldrin, lindane, methoxychlor, toxaphene and silvex), mono-dichlorobenzenes (solvents), benzenes (benzene, toluene), phenols and chlorophenols and trihalomethanes (chloroform, bromoform).

12.2.6.2 Chlorinated alkanes

One of the major uses of chlorinated alkanes in the chemical industry is as an intermediate in the production of other organochlorine compounds. They are therefore produced in large quantities and consequently many are found in raw and finished drinking water. Carbon tetrachloride is a haloalkane with a wide range of industrial and chemical applications. It has been found to be an occasional contaminant of chlorine used in the disinfection of drinking water but is not produced in drinking water as a result of the chlorination process itself. Carbon tetrachloride was extensively used as a propellant for aerosols. This chemical has been found to be a carcinogen to laboratory animals. The guideline limit of this chemical is 3 ppb.

12.2.6.3 Chlorinated ethenes

This group of compounds is used widely in a variety of industrial processes as solvents, softeners, paint thinners, dry-cleaning fluids, intermediates, etc. Because of their wide use, they are often found in raw and treated drinking water. Because of their high volatility, they are usually lost to the atmosphere from surface water and therefore generally occur at lower concentrations. Vinyl chloride is mainly used for the production of PVC resins which, in turn, form the most widely used plastics in the world. Low concentrations of PVC have been detected in effluents discharged by chemical and latex manufacturing plants and in drinking water as a result of leaching from substandard (improperly cured) PVC pipes used in water distribution systems. Vinyl chloride is associated with cancer and is mutagenic in a number of biological systems, including Salmonella and E. coli. Other chlorinated ethenes include 1,1-dichloroethene (used in the packaging industry), trichloroethene (used as a dry-cleaning solvent) and tetrachloroethene (used in dry-cleaning and as a degreasing agent in metal industries). The guideline limit for PVC is 20 ppb.

12.2.6.4 Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons

Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a large group of organic compounds present in the environment from both natural and industrial sources. PAHs are rarely encountered singly in the environment and many interactions can occur with mixtures of PAHs whereby the potency of the known carcinogenic PAH may be enhanced. These systems are not well understood, however, and their significance as regards environmental exposure to PAH is not yet clear. Contact with coal-tar based linings during distribution is known in some instances to lead to an increase in PAH concentration in water. Because of the close association of PAH with suspended solids, the application of treatment to achieve an acceptable level of turbidity will ensure that minimum PAH levels are achieved. Aromatic hydrocarbons may enter the aquatic environment of the harbour basin from discharges from vessels as ballast water, bilge pumping, engine exhaust, effluents from coastal refineries, crude oil power stations, terrestrial runoff (particularly from urban storm water containing road asphalt particles) and leaching (creosoted components from jetties and wharves). A guideline of 0.01 ppb is recommended.

12.2.6.5 Pesticides

Pesticides that may be of importance to water quality include chlorinated hydrocarbons and their derivatives, persistent herbicides, soil insecticides, pesticides that are easily leached out from the soil, and pesticides systematically added to water supplies to control disease vectors, such as mosquito larvae (malaria and dengue fever).

Of these compounds, only the chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides occur frequently and these are very persistent in the environment where they have become ubiquitous. Typical pesticides include:

- Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT): a persistent insecticide, stable under most environmental conditions and resistant to complete breakdown by enzymes present in the soil micro-organisms.

- Aldrin and dieldrin: two related and very persistent pesticides which accumulate in the food chain. Currently may be used for termite control around the roots of fruit trees.

- Chlordane: a broad-spectrum insecticide also used for termite control and for homes and gardens.

- HCB or hexachlorobenzene: produced commercially for use as a fungicide.

- Heptachlor: another broad-spectrum insecticide used to control agricultural soil insects. Heptachlor is very persistent.

- Lindane: a wide-spectrum insecticide of the group called organochlorine insecticides and used in a wide range of applications, including treatment of animals, buildings, water (for mosquitoes), plants, seeds and soil.

- Methoxychlor: an insecticide used for the treatment of agricultural crops and livestock. Guidelines for refractory organics limit total “drins” to 0.03 ppb and total “ddt” to 1.0 ppb.

- Mono-dichlorobenzenes: monochlorobenzene is widely used as a solvent and in the manufacture of several chemicals, such as insecticides and phenols. Dichlorobenzenes are important intermediates for dyes, moth repellants, deodorants, dielectric fluids, heat transfer fluids and insecticides.

- Benzenes: benzene and toluene are produced mainly from petroleum or as a byproduct in the manufacture of gas. Both chemicals are widely used in the chemical industry both as intermediates and for the production of styrene, phenol, acetone and cyclohexane (used in manufacturing nylon). Significant quantities of toluene are used in the manufacture of plastics, paints, detergents and as petrol additives. The guideline for benzene in water is 10 ppb.

- Phenols and chlorphenols: chlorphenols are used as biocides and are found in water as a result of chlorinating water supplies containing phenol. Chlorphenols are well known for their low taste and odour thresholds. For aesthetic reasons therefore individual phenols should not, as a general rule, be present in drinking water above 0.1 ppb. The best approach to controlling pollution by chlorphenols is to prevent the contamination of the source water by phenol (from petrochemical industries) and chlorinated phenolic pesticides (agriculture).

- Trihalomethanes: trihalomethanes (chloroform and bromoform) in drinking water occur principally as products of reaction of chemicals used in oxidative treatment reacting with naturally occurring materials present in the water. Their formation is particularly associated with the use of chlorine for disinfecting water supplies. Notwithstanding this, it is important to recognize the fact that chlorine is an effective water disinfectant and the hazards of disease arising from microbiological contaminants resulting from incomplete disinfection are substantial. Trihalomethanes have several adverse effects on health and the guideline value limits chloroform in drinking water to 30 ppb.

12.2.7 DISSOLVED INORGANICS

12.2.7.1 Introduction

Dissolved inorganic compounds are generally associated with the aesthetic and organoleptic (taste and odour) characteristics of drinking water. For health-related contaminants, what is unsafe for one is unsafe for all, while aesthetic and organoleptic characteristics are subject to social, economic and cultural considerations.

Since the majority of consumer complaints regarding water quality relate to its colour, taste or odour, the quality of drinking water, as perceived by the senses, largely determines the acceptability of a particular water.

12.2.7.2 Aluminium

Aluminium does not appear to be an essential nutrient to humans. Compared to the aluminium intake from food, that from water is small. The incidence of discoloration in drinking water in distribution systems increases if the aluminium level exceeds 0.1 ppm.

12.2.7.3 Chlorides

Chlorides are widely distributed in nature and are present in mineral deposits, in seawater and some industrial processes. The taste threshold for chloride in drinking water is dependent upon the associated cation, but is usually within the range of 200 to 300 ppm of chloride. Based on organoleptic considerations, the guideline value for chloride is 250 ppm.

12.2.7.4 Colour

Colour in drinking water may be due to the presence of coloured organic substances, such as humics (decay of vegetation in the water); metals such as iron and manganese; or highly coloured industrial wastes, of which pulp, paper and textile wastes are the most common. Chlorine from the chlorination process is likely to give rise to high levels of trihalomethanes due to the reaction of chlorine with dissolved humic substances.

12.2.8 Heavy metals

12.2.8.1 Introduction

Trace quantities of many metals are important constituents of most waters. Many of these metals are also classified as pollutants. The presence of any of these metals in excessive quantities will interfere with many beneficial uses of the water because of their toxicity.

12.2.8.2 Cadmium

Cadmium is widely distributed in the Earth’s crust but is particularly associated with zinc and copper and is produced commercially only as a by-product of zinc smelting. Cadmium shows no signs of being an essential trace element in biological processes; on the contrary, it is highly toxic to the human organism. Like mercury, cadmium and its compounds only enter the environment from geological or human activities (metal mining, smelting and fossil fuel combustion).

Cadmium and its compounds are blacklisted materials, which by international agreement may not be discharged or dumped into the environment. Cadmium is a cumulative poison and a maximum level of 0.005 ppm is permitted for drinking water.

12.2.8.3 Chromium

Most rocks and soils contain small amounts of chromium. Chromium in its naturally occurring state is in a highly insoluble form; however, most of the more common soluble forms found in soils are mainly the result of contamination by industrial emissions. The major uses of chromium are for chrome alloys, chrome plating, oxidizing agents, corrosion inhibitors, pigments for the textile glass and ceramic industries as well as in photography. Hexavalent chromium compounds (soluble) are carcinogenic and the guideline value is 0.05 ppm.

12.2.8.4 Lead

Lead is not only the most abundant of heavy metals occurring in nature, it was also one of the first metals used on a large scale by humans. Although it is not a nutritionally essential element, its monitoring is important because of its toxicity to human health. Lead is a cumulative poison. Most of the lead produced in metallic form, in batteries, cable sheathing, sheets and pipes, etc., is recovered and recycled, but most lead used in compound form, such as paints and petrol additives, is lost to the environment, eventually ending up in the aquatic environment. Lead compounds, similar to the ones used in petrol additives are reportedly being used in the production of mercurial fungicides. The presence of lead in drinking water is limited to 0.01 ppm.

12.2.8.5 Mercury

Although a comparatively rare element, mercury is ubiquitous in the environment, the result of natural geological activity and human-induced pollution. Mercury from natural sources can enter the aquatic environment via weathering, dissolution and biological processes. Although extremely useful to humans, mercury is also highly toxic to the human organism, especially in the form of methyl mercury, because it cannot be excreted and therefore acts as a cumulative poison. The potential for long-term human health hazards from ingesting mercury-contaminated fish has led several nations to establish regulations and guidelines for allowable seafood mercury levels. Nearly all levels above 1 ppb in water are due to industrial effluents connected with chlorine and caustic soda production, pharmaceuticals, mirror coatings, mercury lamps and certain fungicides.

12.2.8.6 Nickel

Nickel is ubiquitous in the environment. Nickel is almost certainly essential for animal nutrition and, consequently, it is probably essential to humans. Nickel is a relatively non-toxic element; however, certain nickel compounds have been shown to be carcinogenic in animal experiments.

12.2.8.7 Tin

Tin and its compounds are significant and controversial chemicals in the environment. As is the case with other elements, not all chemical forms of tin are equally biologically active. In contrast to the low toxicity of inorganic tin (derived from eating canned foods), some organic tin compounds, also known as organotins, are toxic. Tributyltin and triphenyltin, constituents of anti-fouling paints, are highly toxic and their presence in harbour waters is limited to generally 0.002 and 0.008 ppb respectively.

A new International Maritime Organization Convention prohibits the use of harmful organotins in anti-fouling paints used on ships and will establish a mechanism to prevent the potential future use of other harmful substances in anti-fouling systems. The International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on Ships was adopted on 5 October 2001. However, in many countries, organotin anti-fouling paints are still available from old stocks and the start of the fishing season generally sees an increase of this compound in the water as freshly painted vessels are launched back into the water.

12.2.8.8 Copper

The presence of copper in the water supply, although not constituting a hazard to health, may interfere with the intended domestic uses of water. Copper enhances corrosion of aluminium and zinc fittings, stains clothes and plumbing fixtures. Copper is used in alloys, as a catalyst, in anti-fouling paints and as a wood preservative. Urban sewage contains substantial amounts of copper. The human taste threshold for copper is low, 5.0–7.0 ppm, and the taste is repulsive. The limit for drinking water is 1.0 ppm.

12.2.8.9 Iron

The presence of iron in drinking water is objectionable for a number of reasons unrelated to health. Under the pH conditions existing in drinking water supplies, ferrous salts are unstable and precipitate as insoluble ferric hydroxide, which settles out as rusty silt. Such water tastes unpalatable, promotes the growth of “iron bacteria”, and the silt gradually reduces the flow of water in the piping. The recommended guideline level of iron in water is 0.3 ppm.

12.2.8.10 Manganese

Anaerobic groundwater often contains elevated levels of dissolved manganese. The presence of manganese in drinking water is objectionable for a number of reasons unrelated to health. At concentrations exceeding 0.15 ppm manganese imparts an undesirable taste to beverages and stains plumbing fixtures. The recommended value is 0.1 ppm.

12.2.8.11 Sodium

The sodium ion is ubiquitous in water owing to the high solubility of its salts and the abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, wind-borne sea spray can make an important contribution, either by fallout on to land surfaces where it drains to the water source or from washout by rain. Domestic, commercial and industrial discharges are another source of sodium in water. In general, sodium salts are not acutely toxic substances because of the efficiency with which mature kidneys excrete sodium. The effects on infants, in contrast to adults, are different because of the immaturity of infant kidneys. A maximum of 200 ppm is allowed in drinking water.

12.2.8.12 Zinc

The concentration of zinc in tap water can be considerably higher than that in surface water owing to the leaching action of zinc from galvanized pipes, brass and other zinc alloys. Zinc imparts to water an undesirable astringent taste and in concentrations in excess of 5 ppm water may appear opalescent and develop a greasy film on boiling. Levels of zinc should be kept well below this value.

12.2.8.13 Petroleum hydrocarbons

Humans have a very low taste threshold for petroleum hydrocarbons and the taste is particularly repulsive. All components of crude oil are degradable by bacteria, though at varying rates, and a variety of yeasts and fungi can also metabolize petroleum hydrocarbons. Water-soluble components of crude oils and refined products include a variety of compounds that are toxic. High-molecular-weight tars are less damaging in the water than medium-molecular-weight compounds such as diesel. Low-molecular-weight compounds are generally unimportant because they are very volatile and rapidly evaporate. Therefore, a diesel spillage at sea is more damaging than crude oil (very tarry) or petrol spillage. For harbour basin water, the limit for dissolved hydrocarbons should not exceed 0.30 ppm. Polluted harbour water can impart an unpleasant flavour to fish if used for washing. Commercial fishermen may also risk tainting a whole catch if their nets have been fouled by diesel or oil.

12.2.8.14 Sulphates

Sulphates are widely distributed in nature and excessive amounts of dissolved sulphates in drinking water lead to problems with hardness. Taste threshold concentration for the most prevalent sulphate salts are: 200 to 500 ppm for sodium sulphate; 250 to 900 ppm for calcium sulphate; and 400 to 600 ppm for magnesium sulphate. In drinking water, dissolved sulphates are limited to 400 ppm.

12.2.8.15 Hardness

Water hardness is the traditional measure of the capacity of water to react with soap, hard water requiring a considerable amount of soap to produce lather. The degree of hardness of drinking water has been classified in terms of its equivalent CaCO_3 concentration as follows:

Soft

0–60 ppm

Medium hard

60–120 ppm

Hard

120–180 ppm

Very hard

180 and above

Soft water has a greater tendency to cause corrosion of pipes and, consequently, certain heavy metals such as copper, zinc, lead and cadmium may be present in the water.

Very hard water, on the other hand, can cause considerable incrustations in pipes and fittings, especially in fish processing plants.

12.2.8.16 pH

The value of the pH, expressed as a value ranging between 1 and 10, is a good indicator of the state of the water. Values of 9.5 and above are alkaline in taste. Values of 3 and below are acidic in taste. Values lower than 6 cause problems with corrosion. Values below 4 support little life in a marine environment. Drinking water should have a pH in the range 6.5 to 8.5. Harbour water should have a pH of between 6 and 9.

12.2.8.17 Hydrogen sulphide

Hydrogen sulphide occurs as a by-product in septic tanks when proteins in sewage are attacked by certain bacteria. Traces in excess of 0.05 ppm cause taste and odour problems.

12.3 MONITORING

Depending on the actual state of the fishing harbour infrastructure and the environmental conditions obtaining in and around the harbour itself, monitoring tests for contaminants should be carried out according to a specific programme. Unless local sanitary standards are rigidly enforced, typical monitoring programmes should reflect local environmental conditions.

12.3.1 Boreholes

Potable water supplies based on borehole extraction are very susceptible to contamination by sewage, pesticides and salt water intrusion. Contamination may also arise from pollutants entering the water table some distance from the port or from sewage entering the borehole itself in the port area through cracked or corroded casings. In cases where overdrawing is evident (water is brackish), bacterial tests should be run very frequently, say once a week; otherwise, every month. Complete tests should be run every six months.

12.3.2 Municipal mains

It is not uncommon for municipal or mains water supply to be contaminated at source (through malfunctioning or inoperative chlorination equipment) or for the supply to pick up contaminants through corroded sections of a pipeline leading to the fishing harbour. Complete tests should be run every six months and the relevant authorities informed of the results.

12.3.3 Water towers and reservoirs

Both types of structure are susceptible to bacterial growth if the residual chlorine levels in them are low or non-existent. Testing may not be necessary if periodic scrubbing is carried out. If the water tower cannot be decommissioned for maintenance, then bacteria tests should be carried out every six months or so.

12.3.4 Harbour basin water

Typically, harbour basins should be tested once a year. However, in areas where monsoons are very active, it may be advisable to test at the peak of the dry season (when effluent point discharges tend to remain concentrated in the water course) and then again during the wet season (when agricultural runoff may find its way into the water course). Another critical period for harbours is the peak of the fishing season (when most of the fleet is up and running and fuel and oil are discharged from the bilges).

12.3.5 International water standards

The tables given in Appendix 1 and 2 to this chapter illustrate standard water quality parameters for both potable water (World Health Organization) and harbour basin waters (European Union Directives). If harbour basin water is being used for rinsing fish, then it too must satisfy drinking water standards for contaminants.

12.4 PERSONAL HYGIENE AND PORT SANITATION

The standard of personal hygiene of the workers employed inside a fishing harbour depends on both the sanitary infrastructure available and the harbour management in enforcing certain directives. The sanitary infrastructure is made up of:

- toilet facilities (with adequate showers);

- adequate supplies of soap and detergents; and

- appropriate signs and billboards displayed at strategic places.

In general, the sanitary infrastructure should be able to cater for the total number of potential workers within the harbour boundary; this is especially so for harbours with high seasonal landings, where for a period of one to three months in the year the increase in the number of workers may swamp the facilities meant for a low-season workforce.

12.4.1 Sanitary fittings

Toilets should be constructed to the highest standards possible to ensure the maximum lifetime. Poorly built facilities break down very quickly and generally lead to “toilets of opportunity” elsewhere around the port. Toilet facilities should always be properly maintained and full-time manning by attendants is desirable. Toilets should never open on to a work area where fish is being handled due to the risk of flooding from blocked drains. The standard of personal hygiene of the workers employed inside the fishing port depends on the quality of the facilities provided.

In many developing countries, the major reason for breakdown is not vandalism but incorrect design and specification of the fittings at the design stage, followed by a total lack of supervision during construction and poor operational management and maintenance. The three most common fittings likely to break down prematurely under current design practices are:

- water taps;

- toilet flush systems; and

- shower heads.

It is not uncommon to enter a public toilet facility inside a fishing port and notice that water taps are either inoperable or missing altogether. In all probability, the taps specified would have been the most economical variety of the common household tap. Figure 1 shows the most common types of water taps available on the market today, ranging from the very economical household variety to the more sophisticated sensor operated type. For the fitting to satisfy health hygiene regulations it may not be of the types shown in Figures 1A and 1B because reclosing the tap by hand may retransfer bacteria on to a clean hand. In addition to this, the household taps often specified are not designed for the wear and tear of a public facility. In most public places such as airports, train stations and restaurants, the water taps are of the self-closing type shown in Figures 1C, 1E and 1F. The forearm operated type shown in Figure 1D, typically seen at the doctor’s or dentist’s clinic, is also suitable and may be more economical than the other types. However, the industry standard is the foot-operated unit as illustrated in Figure 2.

Shower units (shower head and tap) are also problematic, especially if slightly saline or calcium-rich borehole water is in use. Most household shower heads corrode easily as do most wall-mounted valve or tap handles. To ensure a longer lasting unit, all pipes, heads and valves should be in PVC or HDPE plastic. Valves should be of the ball type with few moving parts. Pipework should not be embedded in the walls but fixed externally with appropriate anchor fixings. The internal cubicles of showers should be glazed. Mortar finishes are not suitable for a damp environment.

Many types of toilet flush systems are available on the market, but as with the other types of sanitary fittings household varieties are not suitable for repeated use in a public facility. Most household cisterns are very fragile and often break down for the most minor of things (Figure 3).

12.4.2 Buildings

The building should be simple in layout, airy, brightly coloured and with plenty of ventilation (Figure 4). All the floor drains inside the building should be bar drains placed centrally across the room with water draining away from the walls to prevent flooding (Figure 5). The drains should be in plastic and easily removed to clear blockages.

All toilet facilities should be equipped with lighting to enable use during night-time unloading and auctioning operations. Toilet facilities should be attended, especially in artisanal harbours where the facility may also serve the village residents.

Steel piping in sanitary facilities is gradually being replaced with PVC or HDPE (high-density polyethylene) piping. The obvious advantages over steel are resistance to corrosion and ease of installation and maintenance. However, when installing external pipework, care must be taken to employ a material that is ultraviolet stabilized. Ultraviolet rays from the sun attack certain plastics and the proper material should be specified for all external pipework.

Two methods of jointing plastic pipe are available: heat welding or glue. Heat welding involves heating the pipe ends by a small heater similar to a hairdryer and then applying force to weld the seams together. Gluing, however, is now the accepted industry standard because it involves little capital equipment, apart from the glue, Figure 6.

Similarly, repairing a leaking elbow joint or length of pipe is also very quick and needs no special tools, Figure 7.

The traditional bronze or brass gate valves are also being gradually replaced with ball valves, Figure 8. Ball valves are made from resistant plastic with a stainless steel ball valve. They have fewer moving parts and no corrodible fittings.

12.4.3 Signs and billboards

Port sanitation is to the port what personal hygiene is to the workers employed by the port. Appropriate signs and billboards listing food hygiene regulations should form part of the harbour’s sanitary awareness infrastructure. These signs should be displayed at all the strategic locations within the port boundary, for example:

- “NO SMOKING, NO SPITTING, NO EATING” signs should be posted wherever fish is being handled;

- “HAVE YOU WASHED YOUR HANDS?” signs should be posted at all toilet exits.

Adequate signs should also be posted in prominent locations indicating the direction to the toilets. Proper and frequent training of the port workers in personal hygiene should form part of the harbour master’s management brief.

Port sanitation is best explained by the following simple regulations:

- All water supplies inside the port boundary should comply with the World Health Organization drinking water standards or national drinking water standards where these are higher.

- All ice, including that brought in from outside suppliers, should also comply with the above drinking water standards.

- All chlorination equipment should be functional and adequate supplies of the chlorination agent should be held in stock.

- All sampling and testing carried out inside the port should be carried out by ISO certified laboratories only.

- Appropriate signs should be displayed within the port area covering, among other things, dumping, spillage, use of seawater from inside harbour basin, spitting, eating areas, prohibited access to domestic animals, etc.

- Appropriate billboards should be displayed at strategic locations listing fines for the contravention of port hygiene rules.

- All drainage systems (indoor and outdoor) should be kept in perfect working order.

- Port perimeter fences should be properly maintained to keep unauthorized people and domestic animals from entering the port area at any time.

- The entrance and exit to a fishing port area should be manned during business hours to prevent unauthorized people from gaining entry to the fish handling areas.

- Disinfection of required areas should be carried out on a regular basis.

- No excessive trash and wet wastes should be left to accumulate in work areas.

- No rodent harbourage should exist in and around the port area (tall weeds, junk piles and municipal rubbish).

- No birds should be nesting inside open-sided auction halls and fish handling sheds.

- Only employees and officially recognized fish traders should be allowed access to work areas during fish handling operations and auctions.

- Toilet and shower facilities should be kept scrupulously clean and in perfect working order.

- Only electrically powered machinery should be allowed inside the auction or handling sheds to prevent oil, petrol and diesel from leaking onto the floors which are sometimes used as auction surfaces for large fish.

- The entire fish handling area should be hosed down properly at the end of business and locked up to prevent unauthorized entry until the next auction.

12.5 SEWAGE TREATMENT

The sewage effluent or wastewater from a fisheries harbour typically consists of three major biologically degradable constituents:

- Type 1 – effluent from the toilets, faecal matter in water (typically low-volume discharge);

- Type 2 – effluent from the wash hand basins and showers, soapy water (detergents present, also low-volume discharge); and

- Type 3 – effluent from the fish cleaning operations, fish blood, scales and fish solids, high-volume discharge.

The combined effluent from a fishing harbour should ideally be connected to a municipal sewer to be taken away and treated with normal household sewage. If such a sewer is not available within a reasonably economic distance, then the effluent has to be treated before being discharged into a watercourse. Depending on the size of the fishing harbour, the effluent may be treated either via septic tanks and on-site natural treatment systems (artisanal harbours only) or via a proper sewage treatment plant (coastal, offshore and distant-water harbours). In both cases, adequate space should be provided for the purpose.

12.5.1 Type 1 effluent – artisanal harbours

Artisanal harbours are more often than not situated in areas where basic municipal infrastructure is very primitive or even totally absent; introduction of sophisticated mechanical wastewater effluent treatment systems may also not be a viable option due to the costs involved. Natural treatment systems, on the other hand, may be designed to take advantage of the physical, chemical and biological processes that occur when water, soil, plants, micro-organisms and the atmosphere interact. The processes involved in natural systems include many of those used in sophisticated mechanical treatment systems, such as sedimentation, filtration, gas transfer, adsorption, ion exchange, chemical precipitation, chemical oxidation, and biological conversion and degradation – plus others unique to natural systems such as photosynthesis, photo-oxidation and plant uptake. In natural systems, the treatment process occurs at natural rates and tends to occur simultaneously in a single ecosystem reactor. In a mechanical system, the processes occur sequentially in separate tanks at accelerated rates as a result of energy input. Figure 9 provides a typical solution for artisanal fishing harbours.

The first stage of a natural treatment system is the septic tank, Figure 10, generally located in or around the harbour and into which all the effluent should be directed. A three-stage septic tank is a rectangular underground chamber divided internally into three compartments. After coarse screening through a basket sump, the effluent is retained inside the compartments for a minimum period of three days; during this period, the solids in suspension settle to the bottom of the first compartment where they are attacked and digested by bacteria. As a result, the volume of sludge is greatly reduced and the effluent clarified to some extent. Appropriate manholes should be provided over each compartment to enable sludge to be removed (pumped out) during maintenance.

The dimensions of the chamber should be such that peak total daily effluent flows are retained for a minimum period of three days inside the tank. Obviously, the larger the volume to be treated, the larger the tank should be. Various methods are available to reduce the volume of water to be treated, such as high-pressure jet cleaners for hosing down operations (largest consumer of water), automatic or spring-loaded taps over wash-hand basins and dual-flush action toilet flushing equipment.

The following guidelines may be used when calculating a harbour’s total daily effluent flow rate.

Auction hall flow rate

- 1 litre per kilogram of fish landed every day;

- 10 litres per square metre of covered area (reduced to 2.5 litres if a high pressure jet cleaner is used); and

- 10 litres per fish box handled (reduced to 2.5 litres if a high pressure jet cleaner is used).

Toilet and shower facilities flow rate

- 100 litres per person per day (full-time employees + part-time handlers and sellers + crew in port).

Canteen services (hot food cooked on premises) flow rate

- 15 litres per serving per day.

The total volume should be adjusted for peak summer landing conditions when fish handling and visiting crews are at their peak numbers.

The effluent from the septic tank should then be piped for further treatment to one of several types of natural treatment systems and only discharged into a waterway or into the sea as a last resort. Natural treatment systems may consist of one of the following:

- Slow rate treatment (effluent is sprayed or channelled over vegetated land to provide treatment), Figure 11.

- Constructed wetlands – emergent plants (effluent is fed into inundated areas that support growth of emergent plants such as cattail, bulrush, reeds or sedges), Figure 12.

- Constructed wetlands – floating aquatic plants (effluent is fed into inundated areas that support plants of the floating species such as water hyacinth and duckweed), Figure 13.

- Rapid infiltration (effluent is applied intermittently to shallow spreading basins and lost into the ground), Figure 14.

Slow rate treatment, the predominant natural treatment process in use today, involves the application of effluent or wastewater to vegetated land to provide treatment and to meet the growth needs of the vegetation, Figure 11. The applied water is either consumed through evapotranspiration or percolates vertically and horizontally through the soil profile. Any runoff is usually collected and reapplied to the system. This system needs moderately slow soil permeability and in areas of high precipitation needs effluent storage. The effluent may be applied via sprinklers or furrows. Typical area requirements for this system are 15 to 45 acres per million litres of effluent per day.

Two types of constructed wetland systems have been developed for wastewater treatment: free water surface flow systems and subsurface flow systems, Figure 12.

The water depth in this system is typically very shallow, ranging from 0.10 to 0.60 metres. Subsurface flow systems are designed with an objective of secondary or advanced levels of treatment. These systems have also been called root zone or rock reed filters and consist of channels or trenches with relatively impermeable bottoms filled with sand or rock media to support emergent vegetation.

This system is generally classified as a constructed wetland where the effluent may be collected after treatment and reutilized in agriculture. Lack of a free water surface in the subsurface flow system also makes it ideal for areas prone to mosquito infestation. Effluent storage is needed in areas of high precipitation and, typically, 4 to 14 acres per million litres of effluent treated daily are required.

Constructed wetlands offer all of the treatment capabilities of natural wetlands but without the constraints associated with discharging to a natural ecosystem. Floating aquatic plant systems are similar in concept to free water surface systems except that the plants are floating species such as water hyacinth and duckweed. Water depths are typically deeper, ranging from 0.50 to 1.80 metres, Figure 13.

Supplementary aeration has been used with floating plant systems to increase treatment capacity and to maintain aerobic conditions necessary for the biological control of mosquitoes. For this reason, the ponds should be stocked with mosquito fish. Area requirements are similar to other wetland systems.

In rapid infiltration systems, wastewater effluent is applied on an intermittent schedule usually to shallow infiltration trenches or spreading basins. Vegetation is not usually provided. The evaporative losses in this system are only a small fraction of the applied water and, hence, most of the applied effluent percolates through the soil profile where treatment occurs. The treatment potential of rapid infiltration systems is somewhat less than that for slow rate systems because of the lower retention capacity of the soil and relatively higher inflow of water. In coastal areas, where the groundwater level is high or the underlying strata not permeable enough, pressure-dosed field trenches have been successfully used, Figure 14. Pressure distribution, which serves to distribute the effluent evenly over the sand in the trench, is a key factor contributing to the success of this type of disposal.

The mound system, Figure 15, is essentially an intermittent sand filter that is placed above the natural surface of the ground. The effluent in this system is pumped from the septic tank through a piped pressure distribution system placed at the apex of the gravel layer. Mound systems have been used in areas where the soils are permeable and the water table very high or the soils not permeable at all. The system works well only if the water accumulated under the mound can be pumped away. This system requires mechanical pumping at all stages of the treatment and may not be suitable in areas which lack a steady power supply.

Which system is the most suitable?

This question cannot be answered until the site has been evaluated. The principal considerations in the design of a natural wastewater treatment system are:

- a preliminary site assessment;

- detailed site evaluation; and

- assessment of the hydraulic assimilation capacity of the terrain.

The preliminary site assessment should consider the geomorphological features of the area, such as surface slopes, existing marshes or wetlands, flooding potential, groundwater extraction, water-table levels and landscaping.

The detailed site evaluation should include identification of the soil characteristics, percolation coefficients and hydrogeological characterization of the area.

From these investigations it should be possible to determine the hydraulic assimilation capacity of the area, i.e. the suitability of the area to receive septic tank effluent without jeopardizing the environment and public health.

Freshwater should be utilized in the toilet flushing system when septic tanks are used for treating wastewater. The presence of seawater (up to 30 percent) in the raw effluent decreases the efficiency of the bacterial decomposition of the sludge. Beyond 50 percent of seawater, bacterial decomposition is seriously compromised.

12.5.2 Type 1 effluent – other ports

Other harbour installations situated away from municipal centres should install proper sewage treatment plants which can handle a larger volume of water and produce an effluent which may be discharged directly into a watercourse. Depending on the required degree of purity of the effluent, a sewage treatment plant (Figure 16) may consist of:

- screening and disintegration (removal of major solids);

- sedimentation (to settle out organic solids into sludge);

- biological filtration (over a pebble bed inside circular tanks); and

- tertiary treatment such as micro-straining, aeration and upward flow rapid gravity sand filters.

In small plants, screening for large solid matter which may interfere with pipe flow is generally carried out with manually racked bar screens at 60° to the flow.

The rest of the organic solids are then macerated by means of a special pump and the fluid pumped into long sedimentation tanks; there, the drop in velocity allows some of the suspended matter to settle as sludge which is then removed periodically, dried and disposed of (buried, burned or dumped offshore). The biological treatment is achieved by spraying the liquid from the sedimentation tanks over a pebble bed by slow-moving rotating arms. Here, biological oxidation takes place (aerobic digestion) by microorganisms in the slime covering the stone pebbles. If further treatment is necessary, the fluid is then pumped into a tertiary treatment section; otherwise, the liquid is pumped to an outfall which should be located a distance away from the harbour.

12.5.3 Type 2 effluent – wash-hand basins

In artisanal ports, where the sewage is treated through a septic tank, the effluent containing detergents from the wash-hand basins and the shower units may be discharged into a soakaway away from the septic tank or to a constructed wetland (Figure 17).

Although soakaways have the potential to drastically reduce the volume of sewage to be treated, they are only suitable for sandy terrain and their location must be such that it does not contaminate drinking water borewells.

12.5.4 Type 3 effluent – market floor runoff

Market, auction and processing floors are generally hosed down using copious amounts of water; the water may contain both solids (fish scales, discards, entrails, etc.) and liquids (blood and fish oils). This runoff is not a health hazard in itself but rather a nuisance; it may indirectly attract pests to the food handling area, such as flies. Before entering the drainage system, this runoff should be channelled to a basket drain to separate all the solids which may otherwise cause blockages in the drainage system. The basket drain should be in stainless steel or plastic and easily accessible for cleaning. Moreover, due to the large volume of water involved, this runoff should preferably never be mixed with the toilets effluent as this will appreciably increase the flow rate through the septic tank. This runoff water is best diverted to a soakaway, and if clean seawater is used for this purpose, then an adequate outfall should be installed to channel it directly back into the sea.

In larger installations it may still be uneconomical to channel this large volume of runoff to the treatment plant as this will increase the basic cost of treatment for all effluent. If environmental conditions permit (absence of sharks, outfall placed outside the harbour basin, strong currents present near shore, etc.), this runoff may also be channelled directly into the sea via a long underwater outfall.

An alternative solution to the dilemma of the increased volume of water is to reduce drastically the volume of runoff at source, i.e. at the handling halls and this may be achieved by the use of high-pressure cleaning equipment.

Small compact high-pressure cleaners manage to clean a surface using about one fifth to one fourth of the volume of water normally used by a common 20 mm diameter hose. The potential savings in water consumption may outweigh the cost of the electric power (3 to 5 Kw) required to operate the cleaners, Figures 18 and 19. Most cleaners come equipped with a small container to inject disinfectant (bleach) into the water jet, a useful requirement for washing and sterilizing fish boxes simultaneously.

12.6 PORT WASTES[2]

Apart from sewage, a port’s waste stream consists of five different types of wastes which may be broadly classified as toxic and non-toxic. The toxic wastes are:

- batteries;

- spent engine oil and bilge water oil; and

- contaminated spares and consumables.

The non-toxic wastes are:

- plastic consumables and dunnage, including nets; and

- wet fish wastes.

Figure 20 indicates the layout and colour coding used in most countries to distinguish between the different waste streams.

12.6.1 Batteries

Rechargeable lead-acid batteries contain plates of lead immersed in sulphuric acid inside a plastic case. Lead-acid batteries are recyclable and most suppliers take spent batteries back for industrial reprocessing. Sunlight may decompose the plastic casing, so proper on-site storage of spent batteries is required to prevent the highly toxic contents from spilling out (Figure 21).

12.6.2 Spent oil

Oily wastes discharged to reception facilities are usually mixtures of oil, water and, in some cases, solids. The composition ratio of these solids can differ considerably, depending on the type of wastes. Waste oil and fuel residues consist mainly of oil contaminated with water, whereas bilge water consists mainly of water contaminated with oil. Waste oil may be 100 percent recycled and in many countries it is now mandatory to collect used oil from different sources for recycling. Reception facilities for used engine oil inside harbours, Figures 22 and 23, are intended as a temporary storage only, whereas the reception facilities for bilge water need to separate the oil from the considerably larger volume of water. This oil can then be transferred to the used oil storage facilities for collection at a later date and the treated water returned back to the sea.

12.6.3 Bilge water separation

Oily bilge water is normally found on inboard motorized fishing vessels and consists of engine oil (leaked out from the engine) mixed with seawater (leaked into the vessel from various sources including around the propeller shaft of many vessels), and if left standing still long enough, the oil fraction separates from the seawater and coalesces on the surface. Bilge water should not be dumped overboard but collected at the port for separation and eventual recycling of the oil fraction. The separated seawater may be returned to the sea. Both artisanal and commercial separators are available, Figure 24. Many of the larger fishing vessels are equipped with oily water separators; the oil being returned to a holding tank and the water pumped overboard. If the oil (often a mixture of lubricating oil and fuel oil) cannot be clarified and purified on board (for further use) it has to be discharged ashore when in port for treatment. Figure 25 shows a modern vertical oil coalescer.

12.6.4 Solid waste bins

Non-toxic solid waste comprises all kinds of bulky items such as old tyre fenders, pieces of rope and netting, broken fish boxes, etc. The equipment for handling this waste should facilitate the reception, segregation and temporary storage. Part of this waste may be recycled. However, the actual processing should not take place inside the port. Disposal of this waste may be handled by municipal waste services.

Toxic solid waste comprises normal batteries, oil filters, engine spares, oil and paint cans, solvents, oily rags, etc. None of this waste is normally recycled and this waste is not normally handled by municipal services. This waste must not be sent to a municipal landfill but must be disposed of in a hazardous waste landfill.

The receptacle capacity should match the demand, both in terms of size and number of receptacles that are required and space availability. Small receptacles such as barrels or oil drums are not suitable for bulky items. Household garbage from neighbourhood communities should not be dumped inside the port facilities. In practice, it may be found that both open top and closed containers are needed, especially in areas where wind is very strong and where common garbage is generated inside the port and cannot be stored in open top skips due to the presence of pests (cats and dogs) (see Figure 26).

12.6.5 Wet waste bins

In theory, fish should be cleaned and gutted on board the fishing vessels on their journey back to port and dumped out at sea where it provides food for other fish. In practice, however, much cleaning and gutting still goes on inside harbours and it is well worth installing reception facilities for the collection and eventual disposal of wet wastes. Irrespective of the size of the harbour, the best receptacle to use is an airtight PVC drum (Figure 27).

These airtight containers should be placed at vantage points all round the fish handling areas. They should be placed in cool sheltered spots away from direct sunlight to avoid rapid decomposition of the fish. The disposal methods for wet wastes are various and all appear to produce the desired result, i.e. removal of wastes which may attract pests or vermin. The following methods are practiced in various countries:

- burial of limited quantities to produce fertilizer;

- reloading on designated vessels for offshore dumping (a minor fee is levied on the landings to pay for this service); and

- privatizing the service via a concessionary agreement with an animal feed cottage industry.

12.6.6 Flotsam collection and disposal

Whether a fishing port is located inside a river mouth or on an open coastline, flotsam inevitably finds its way into the harbour area. This floating debris may consist of:

- natural flotsam such as branches, logs, seaweed, etc.; and

- rubbish caused by humans including fishing netting, wet fish wastes, carcasses of domestic animals, household plastic litter and spilt oil.

Besides being a hazard to navigation, some of this material may also be a hazard to public health (raw harbour water may be in use for rinsing fish) and should be removed. Depending on the particular site conditions, the flotsam should be gathered and disposed of in the proper manner. Figure 28 illustrates a vessel designed to scoop up flotsam.

Figure 29 illustrates how two fishing vessels trawling in tandem (pair trawling) can scoop flotsam over a wide area. The net, suitably buoyed with plastic floats, is towed across by two fishing vessels proceeding at a low steady speed. The flotsam in the net may then be brought ashore for sorting and disposal.

12.6.7 Fuel and oil spill response

Diesel fuel may leak into the harbour basin through careless handling during the refuelling operations and engine oil may be pumped out during the emptying of the bilges. All fishing ports should be equipped with a standard oil spill response package consisting of disposable oil spill booms and absorbent pads, disposal bags, latex gloves and plastic barrels for the sealed disposal of the oil-soaked disposable items (Figure 30). The port management staff should be instructed in the proper handling of fuel and trained in emergency oil-spill management.

12.7 PEST CONTROL

In many developing countries it is not uncommon to see domestic animals wandering about the fishing port or landing site. Some animals, such as goats and poultry, are sometimes purposely kept whereas dogs and cats move in to mop up scraps of food left lying around. It is also very common for rodents and houseflies to invade such places, especially when fish is part-processed (dried) inside the port area. Birds also find shelter and ideal roosting places among the roof trusses of the old-fashioned type sheds. Table 2 presents the best practice options for pest control.

TABLE 2

Best practice options for pest control

Type of nuisance

Type of issue

Best practice option

Rodents

Infrastructure-Management

Provide receptacles for wet wastes and enforce housekeeping

Flies

Infrastructure-Management

Provide net-covered hangars and enforce use

Birds nesting inside fish-handling shed

Infrastructure

Install netting or false ceilings under trussed roofs. New roofs should be of a flat slab design or trussless

Cows, dogs, goats and cats

Infrastructure

Install fence and controlled access

12.7.1 Rodents

The best method to keep rodents at bay is strict housekeeping. Wet-waste bins, as illustrated in Figure 27, should be made available all round the port area and all fish wastes disposed of properly. Strict housekeeping rules must be enacted and enforced. All unwanted fish carcasses (Figure 31) must be removed immediately and haphazard use of the port area for slaughtering large fish should be forbidden.

12.7.2 Flies

Fish drying in the open air invites flies to lay eggs in the exposed flesh rendering the finished product unhygienic. Fish drying should take place under a netted steel or aluminium structure as illustrated in Figure 32. These structures are commonly used in fish farming.

12.7.3 Birds

All port structures with open trussed roofs offer birds ample opportunities for roosting and building nests. Bird droppings on the working surfaces below present a hygiene hazard, especially if the fish is exposed during sorting or icing. All such structures should be made bird proof by installing wire or plastic netting on all the undersides and ensuring that all the roofing panels are intact (Figure 33).

12.7.4 Domestic animals

Domestic animals should not knowingly be kept inside port and fish landing areas and fresh meat markets should not be allowed within the port or landing area. The major requirements for controlling domestic animals around a port are illustrated in detail in Chapter 11 and consist of:

- controlled main entry gate;

- cattle grid; and

- perimeter boundary wall.

The boundary wall should not take the form of a fence as this is easily breached to create shortcuts. The first metre of wall off the ground should be solid masonry and this may be topped by a steel or wire fence as illustrated in Figure 53 in Chapter 11.

12.8 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING

International Labour Organization. 2005. ILO Code of practice on safety and health in ports. (English version available at: http://www.ilo.org/public/english/dialogue/sector/techmeet/messhp03/messhp-cp-b.pdf)

International Maritime Organization. 1995. Comprehensive Manual on Port Reception Facilities. London, International Maritime Organization.

International Maritime Organization. 1986. Guidelines on the Provision of Adequate Reception Facilities in Ports. Part II, Residues and Mixtures Containing Noxious Liquid Substances. London, International Maritime Organization.

Metcalf & Eddy. 1991. Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and Reuse. New York, McGraw-Hill.

Sciortino, J.A. & Ravikumar, R. 1999. Fishery Harbour Manual on the Prevention of Pollution. Bay of Bengal Programme, Madras, India.

World Health Organization. 1991. Guidelines for Drinking Water – Water Quality. Volumes 1, 2 and 3. Delhi, India, CBS Publishers.

[1]The human intestinal tract contains countless rod-shaped bacteria known as coliform organisms and each person discharges from 100 billion to 400 billion coliform organisms per day in addition to other kinds of bacteria.

[2]The port planner should keep abreast of debates at the IMO Committee on Flag State Implementation with regard to facilities to be provided by port States.

APPENDIX 1

WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE LIMITS FOR DRINKING WATER STANDARDS

PARAMETER

UNIT

LIMIT

Aluminium

mg Al/l

0.2

Arsenic

mg As/l

0.05

Barium

mg Ba/l

0.05

Berylium

ug Be/l

0.2

Cadmium

ug Cd/l

5.0

Calcium

mg Ca/l

200.0

Chromium

mg Cr/l

0.05

Copper

mg Cu/l

1.0

Iron total

mg Fe/l

0.3

Lead

mg Pb/l

0.01

Magnesium

mg Mg/l

150.0

Manganese

mg Mn/l

0.1

Mercury

ug Hg/l

1.0

Selenium

mg Se/l

0.01

Sodium

mg Na/l

200.0

Zinc

mg Zn/l

5.0

Chlorides

mg Cl/l

250.0

Cyanide

mg Cn/l

0.1

Fluorides

mg F/l

1.5

Nitrates

mg NO3/l

10.0

Nitrites

mg NO2/l

-

Sulphates

mg SO4/l

400.0

Suphides

mg H_2S/l

0

TOTAL “drins”

ug/l

0.03

TOTAL “ddt”

ug/l

1.0

Hydrocarbons

mg/l

0.1

Anionic detergents

mg/l

0

pH

6.5 - 8.5

Total dissolved solids

mg/l

500

Total hardness

mg/l

500

Alkalinity

mg/l

500

MICROBIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS

Total bacteria

Count/ml

100

Coliform

Count/100 ml

0

E. Coli

Count/100 ml

0

Salmonella

Count/100 ml

0

ug = microgram

mg = milligram

APPENDIX 2

EUROPEAN UNION DIRECTIVES
SUGGESTED ALLOWABLE LIMITS FOR
ESTUARY AND HARBOUR BASIN WATERS

PARAMETER

UNIT

LIMIT

Mercury

ug Hg/I

0.50 (D)

Cadmium

ug Cd/I

5.00 (D)

Arsenic

mg As/I

0.50 (G)

Chromium

mg Cr/I

0.50 (G)

Copper

mg Cu/I

0.50 (G)

Iron

mg Fe/I

3.00 (G)

Lead

mg Pb/I

0.50 (G)

Nickel

mg Ni/I

0.50 (G)

Zinc

mg Zn/I

50.00 (G)

Tributyltin

ug /I

0.002

Triphenyltin

ug /I

0.008

Aldrin

ug /I

0.01

Dieldrin

ug /I

0.01

Endrin

ug /I

0.005

Isodrin

ug /I

0.005

TOTAL “drins”

ug /I

0.03

TOTAL “ddt” all 4 isomers

ug /I

0.025

para-ddt

ug /I

0.01

Hexaclorocyclohexane

ug /I

0.02

Carbon tetrachloride

ug /I

12.0

Pentachlorophenol

ug /I

2.0

Hexachlorobenzene

ug /I

0.03

Hexachlorobutadiene

ug /I

0.10

Chloroform

ug /I

12.0

Ethylenedichloride

ug /I

10.0

Perchloroethylene

ug /I

10.0

Trichlorobenzene

ug /I

0.40

Trichloroethylene

ug /I

10.0

Hydrocarbons

ug /I

300.0 (G)

Phenols

ug /I

50.0

Surfactants

ug /I

300.0 (G)

Dissolved oxygen

% Saturation

80-120 (G)

pH

6 - 9

Sulphide

mg /I

0.04 (S)

MICROBIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS

Faecal coliforms

per 100 ml

2 000

Total coliforms

per 100 ml

10 000

Salmonella

0

Entero viruses

0

ug = microgram

mg = milligram

D - Dissolved

G-Guideline

S-Suggested

Annex 1

FAO Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries – Fishing Operations – 1 (Annex VI)

Annex VI. Procedures for the Development and Management of Harbours and Landing Places for Fishing Vessels

A. INTRODUCTION

1. The increasing problems associated with the construction of new harbours and landing places for fishing vessels and, in particular, their operation and maintenance, reached critical levels in some parts of the world. In many instances, the adverse effects of harbour pollution from the activities of fishing vessels as well as those of vendors and processors was exacerbated by the almost total lack of reception facilities. Matters became more serious in the late 1980s with an ever-increasing demand for assistance from developing countries to solve specific problems with existing harbours as well as for help in designing new installations.

2. In the Bay of Bengal subregion, the matter gave great cause for concern and, with the cooperation of the International Maritime Organization (within its cleaner seas programme), the Bay of Bengal Programme (BOBP) commissioned a series of important studies. At the same time, FAO also embarked on the preparation of a manual in relation to harbours and landing places to give guidance on design, construction and maintenance of harbours and landing places. An important component of this manual dealt with the reduction of pollution.

3. In connection with the activities of the BOBP, the Government of Malaysia hosted a subregional workshop at Penang, 9-11 December 1991, at which the results of the studies carried out by the BOBP project were presented. The FAO secretariat reported on its activities in other regions and IMO highlighted developments with regard to MARPOL.[1]

4. At the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), June 1992, in relation to the protection of the marine environment, the need for a precautionary and anticipatory approach rather than a reactive approach was seen to be necessary to prevent degradation of the marine environment. UNCED recommended, inter alia, the adoption of environmental impact assessment procedures.

5. In recent years, environmental auditing has become an accepted norm for development within coastal areas. It ensures that a State, in consultation with the promoter of a project proposal, can jointly make an assessment of a project and the effect of the planned activities with regard to any significant adverse impact upon the environment. The auditing mechanism also provides for a preliminary assessment or partial audit, on the basis of which a government can decide whether or not to go ahead with a proposal. It also provides the basis for a decision with regard to a full environmental audit. In addition, taking into consideration the size and cost of the project, as well as the practicality of the exercise, it can provide the terms of reference for the full audit.

6. Although it was apparent from the studies undertaken by the BOBP and FAO, that impact assessments with respect to coastal development seemed to be a matter of common sense, the reality of the matter indicated otherwise. Similarly, the level of cooperation between users of the coastal area often fell far short of what was needed.

7. Therefore, in the preparation of this Annex, account has been taken of the requirement for better systems of management identified by the BOBP workshop in Penang, recent developments in the implementation of MARPOL with regard to cleaner harbours (port reception facilities), Agenda 21 of UNCED and Articles 8 and 10 of the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries (the Code).

B. STANDARD PROCEDURES

1. General Provisions

1.1Within the concepts of responsible fishing operations and the integration of fisheries into coastal area management, this Annex provides a technical framework for the implementation of procedures as an aid to the management and development of harbours and landing places for fishing vessels.

1.2Provisions are made for the formulation and implementation of environmental audits for future fisheries related infrastructure projects.

1.3Although forming a part of the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries, that is voluntary, some provisions of this Annex may be or have already been given binding effect by means of legal instruments, such as UNCLOS 82[2], the Montreal protocol[3] and MARPOL 73/78.

2. Scope And Objectives

2.1The proposed procedures are global in scope, and directed towards all persons, whether in government or the private sector, involved in the planning, design, construction, maintenance and management of harbours, harbour infrastructure and landing places for fishing vessels.

2.2The objective is to enhance the capacity of States to ensure the adoption of environmentally sound development, management and conservation practices through:

a)

better standards of management in harbours and landing places for existing and future facilities;

b)

the establishment of environmental auditing procedures and design criteria related to future fisheries infrastructure projects; and,

c)

appropriate training and education in environmental awareness.

3. Management

3.1States should ensure that an appropriate legal and institutional framework is adopted to manage coastal zone development.

3.2The fisheries sector should be an integral part of the coastal zone management arrangements in order to ensure that:

a)

due account is taken of the rights of coastal fishing communities and their customary practices to the extent compatible with sustainable development; and,

b)

that the fisheries sector, together with fishing communities are consulted in the decision making process regarding fisheries related projects as well as providing for their inputs in non-fisheries activities related to coastal area management.

3.3States should take measures to establish effective management bodies at the fish landing or harbour levels to ensure:

a)

compliance with the laws, regulations and other legal rules governing the duties of a port State in relation to a fishing harbour or a fish landing facility;

b)

compliance with environmental conservation and monitoring measures adopted by the competent authorities at the national level as well as measures adopted on a regional or subregional basis;[4]

c)

integration with other users (as in the case of a non-exclusive facility for fishing vessels); and,

d)

transparency in the decision making process.

3.4In establishing a management body, the competent authorities should ensure that such bodies:

a)

are adequately funded to function as intended;

b)

represent the whole spectrum of users of the facility;

c)

allow for consultation between the various users;

d)

are commensurate with the size of the facility and the duties of the body and the responsibilities assigned to it.

3.5At the village level, the management could be entrusted to a Community Fishery Centre (CFC) or similar organization of fisherfolk. Although the facilities and services within a particular village or area may be quite modest, there is still a need for an organized form of management.[5]

3.6At the industrial level, the management should be implemented by a well defined body (Private, Autonomous, Municipal or State), with the members drawn from the various constituent users of the port as well as the community at large. An exception to the rule would be where the facilities are owned by a single company. Nevertheless, the company would remain accountable, within the overall management structure, for its operations.

4. Environmental Auditing Procedures

4.1States should ensure that development proposals are formulated in a precautionary rather than a reactive manner to minimize unwarranted degradation of the aquatic environment.

4.2States should also establish procedures for the inclusion of future development proposals for harbours and landing places for fishing vessels into national development plans, and where applicable, fisheries or coastal zone management plans. These procedures should be sufficiently flexible to accommodate requests for proposals within a programming period which may arise, for instance, as a consequence of unforeseen changes in the fisheries sector, including natural disasters.

4.3States should also ensure that all such proposals are supported by clearly defined justifications.

4.4States should adopt environmental audits in support of all applications for construction or improvement of harbours or landing places for fishing vessels, whether in coastal zones or inland waters.[6]

4.5The auditing procedures required for carrying out a full environmental audit in compliance with commonly accepted standards, should:

a)

assess the existing environment, including the land-use characteristics and socio-cultural activities at the proposed site;

b)

list the planned changes to be made to the environment by the proposed project;

c)

estimate the anticipated impact of the planned project on the existing environment[7];

d)

propose mitigation measures to prevent (or mitigate) the anticipated impact on the existing environment; and,

e)

establish a system of environmental monitoring in the vicinity of the project site.

4.6In order to commence an auditing process, States should ensure that all applications submitted in respect of new constructions are accompanied by a detailed outline design of the proposal.

4.7A detailed outline design of the proposal should be a stand-alone document. It should consist of a detailed description and layout of the project proposal in relation to its surroundings, the anticipated demand on the resources of the area both during construction and operation, together with mitigation and environmental monitoring proposals. The detail in the detailed outline design should be commensurate with the size of the proposed project; the larger the project the more detail required. This document should form part of the environmental audit up and until full planning or building permission has been issued by the competent authorities.

5. Environmental Assessments

5.1The existing environment around a project site should be assessed through:

a)

onshore topographic and offshore bathymetric maps (down to the 20 metre contour) of the site, covering at least 1 km in each direction along the coast;

b)

aerial imagery of the above-mentioned area with a resolution not smaller than 1:2000 together with any satellite imagery available[8];

c)

details of existing or planned coastal structures within 5 km of the proposed site;

d)

a morphological description of the coastal zone of the site, backed up by a geological description of important local features such as cliffs, sand dunes, beaches, reefs, terraces, rivers, dams on nearby rivers, river mouths;

e)

wave, tide or lake level statistical characteristics including probability tables for extreme conditions;

f)

seasonal variations in rainfall, river flows, water density, water temperature, nutrients concentration and microbial pollution levels;

g)

geological, petrographic and sedimentological characteristics of the coastline and seabed, including source, volume and seasonal changes in littoral transport;

h)

maps of onshore and offshore habitats in and around the project site (coral reefs, lagoon systems, mangroves, estuaries, etc.);

i)

maps of types of habitat in and around the project site (areas of refuge, feeding grounds, nursery and spawning);

j)

lists of the species to be harvested, lists of protected or rare species and biological indicators as well as the methods of fishing;

k)

layouts, size and capacity of resource networks, such as for water supplies, power supply and distribution, road and other communications and sewerage networks, etc.; and,

l)

location maps of any type of activity discharging directly or indirectly effluent into the aquatic environment, including distant but connected watercourses, such as sewer outfalls, onshore fish farms, slaughterhouses, logging/saw mill concessions, wood pulp factories, mines and ore reduction plants and other industries.

6. Planned Changes

6.1Assessments should address the planned changes to the environment and should include:

a)

a general description of the entire project, including location, type, size and typical cross-sections of the various components that together make up the project together with a description of the proposed stages of construction;

b)

the additional demands which would be placed on the locally available resources, both during construction and operation of the project;

c)

details of all the effluents and emissions arising from the project; and,

d)

the changes in the landscape, including land use characteristics and socio-cultural activities envisaged in the project.

7. Anticipated Impact

7.1The estimation of the anticipated impact of the planned project on the existing environment should include:

a)

topographic, bathymetric and oceanographic changes, including dredging and reclamation, during and after construction until stable conditions are resumed, together with their effect on habitats, flora, fauna and land use;

b)

changes in water quality (temperature, salinity, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, nutrients concentration and microbial pollution levels) during and after construction and their effect on habitats, flora, fauna and land use;

c)

sources of pollution discharging effluent, emissions or solid wastes during and after construction until stable conditions are resumed and their effect on habitats, flora, fauna and land use; and,

d)

the visual impact on the seascape and the landscape and general quality of life around the proposed project site.

7.2In the valuation of the coastal resources, the competent authorities should take into account all elements of value, not just those elements for which markets happen to exist. The fact that a resource is not traded in a market does not mean it is of no value (consider for instance the social benefits of a clean beach, the tourist potential of a coral reef, or the health implications of clean air).

8. Mitigating Measures

8.1The detailed outline design should list the proposed measures to prevent or reduce (mitigate) the negative effects upon the environment. The mitigation measures should be:

a)

technical, i.e oil reception facilities, waste recycling schemes, sewage treatment systems, CFC-free refrigeration equipment and by-pass dredging where applicable;

b)

managerial, i.e. a clearly defined harbour board, commensurate with the size of the proposed project and the responsibilities expected of it; and,

c)

legal and administrative, i.e. frameworks formulated in conformity with national laws to provide for sanctions in respect of violations.

8.2The detailed outline design should also list the proposed monitoring measures to identify environmental degradation as early as possible.

8.3In the first instance, such proposals should identify the appropriate indicators and secondly the institutional bodies with the capacity to carry out the monitoring process. These indicators could be:

a)

physical parameters (i.e. changes in coastal morphology such as erosion or siltation);

b)

biological parameters (i.e. edibility of certain shellfish);

c)

chemical parameters (water quality); and,

d)

socio-economic parameters (such as population density and income levels).

9. Design Criteria

9.1In general, States should adopt acceptable design criteria for the design and construction of harbours and landing places for fishing vessels to ensure against unwarranted degradation of the aquatic environment. Design criteria for both the detailed outline design and the final design should ensure, inter alia:

a)

compliance with basic engineering principles regarding the morphological degradation of the coastal zone in respect of erosion and siltation (UNCED 92)[9];

b)

compliance with all relevant conventions concerning pollution of the aquatic environment (MARPOL 73/78); and,

c)

the provision of adequate monitoring of the effects of operations on the environment (UNCED 92).

9.2The detailed outline design should enable the competent authorities to make a preliminary assessment of the project and the effect of the planned activities with regard to any significant adverse impact upon the existing environment.

9.3The detailed outline design of a project proposal should be based on the following minimum technical requirements:

a)

detailed current topographic and bathymetric maps, resolution not smaller than 1:1000;

b)

wave, tide or lake level statistical hindcast studies, including probability tables for extreme conditions;

c)

geological, petrographic and sedimentological characteristics of the coastline and seabed; and,

d)

mathematical and/or physical hydraulic modelling of the anticipated changes in the shoreline (including erosion, and siltation) and conditions at sea (including wave reflections and circulation).

9.4The competent authorities should ensure that:

a)

the resolution and accuracy of the maps are adequate and verifiable;

b)

the wave statistical and hindcast studies are reliable;

c)

the geological studies are adequate in extent and detail; and,

d)

the hydraulic models are adequate in extent and calibration and the results reliable.

9.5Final design should only be submitted after the environmental audit has been approved by the competent authorities.

9.6States should ensure that final design adheres strictly to the detailed outline design (and approved modifications) as approved by the competent authorities in the final version of the environmental audit.

9.7The final design should comply with the relevant provisions of International Conventions to which the State is a party, such as:

a)

UNCLOS 1982 – which establishes rules concerning environmental standards as well as enforcement provisions dealing with pollution of the marine environment;

b)

MONTREAL PROTOCOL 1987 – which protects the ozone layer by taking measures to control equitably total global emissions of substances that deplete it;

c)

MARPOL 73/78 – which protects the marine environment by eliminating completely pollution due to oil and other harmful substances; and,

d)

LONDON CONVENTION 1972 – which controls pollution of the sea by dumping.

10. Education and Training

10.1States should promote awareness of environmental issues related to fishing harbours and landing places. The target audience should include:

a)

direct users;

b)

other user groups;

c)

those responsible for the management and operation of such facilities; and,

d)

the general public.

10.2States should ensure that the provisions of the Code in relation to harbour and landing places are brought to the attention of those responsible for the training and certification of fishermen. Awareness programmes should ensure that these provisions are brought to the attention of all those employed directly in the fisheries industry, and their families.

10.3Such training and awareness programmes should incorporate guidelines on personal hygiene, public health (sanitation) and on how to maintain harbours and landing places in a clean condition.

10.4Other user groups may be served through community based arrangements supported by government extension services, such as:

a)

Community Fishing Centres (CFCs)[10]

b)

Fishery Development Units[11] (FDUs); and,

c)

Vocational training programmes, which could include the general public.

10.5States should ensure that their awareness programmes are supported by requiring those responsible for the management and operation of fishing harbours and landing places, to prominently display by-laws and regulations (billboards, posters and newspapers) for the benefit of all users.

10.6The general public, and as appropriate, those still at school, could also be targeted by community wide awareness programmes or association of these issues with environmental studies.

11. References

Fishery Harbour Planning – FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 123, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome 1973.

Community Fishery Centres: Guidelines for Establishment and Operation – FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 264. Ben-Yami M, Anderson A.M., Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome 1985.

Construction and Maintenance of Artisanal Fishing Harbours and Village Landings – FAO Training Series No. 25. Sciortino J.A., Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome 1995.

Linking Government Agents and Local Users: Participatory Urban Appraisal for Artisanal Port Development – Reusen R., Johnson J. International Institute for Environment and Development, Issue No. 21. Nov. 1994.

Guidelines for Cleaner Fishery Harbours, BOBP (Madras 1993).

[1]International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships 1973, as modified by the Protocol of 1978 relating thereto (MARPOL 73/78).

[2]United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982.

[3]Montreal Protocol to the Vienna Convention.

[4]The provisions or regional or subregional agreements to which the coastal State is a party would normally be incorporated in national legislation.

[5]See FAO guidelines for the establishment and operation of Community Fishery Centres.

[6]Institutional bodies or private sector organizations with the capacity to carry out such audits should be identified.

[7]See FAO paper on fishery harbour planning, reference 1.

[8]Satellite images are available for many parts of the world. The FAO remote sensing unit and its network of regional stations could provide appropriate reference points.

[9]The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, 1992.

[10]FAO/IMO Guidelines Ref. 3 and 5.

[11]Fisheries Technical Paper No. 264 on Guidelines for the establishment and operation on FDUs.

Annex 2

Port hygiene checklist

INTRODUCTION

The standard of personal hygiene of the workers employed inside a fishing harbour depends on both the sanitary infrastructure available and the harbour management in enforcing certain directives. The following principles are based on actual cases.

TOILETS

Toilets should be constructed to the highest standards possible to ensure the maximum lifetime. Poorly built facilities break down very quickly and in hot climates they give rise to “toilets of opportunity” elsewhere. Toilet facilities should always be properly maintained and full-time manning by attendants is desirable. Toilets should never open on to a work area where fish is being handled due to the risk of flooding from blocked drains.

WASH-HAND BASINS

An adequate number of wash-hand basins should be provided within each toilet block. These should be equipped with arm or foot-operated faucets and soap should be available at all times. Household-type fittings should not be specified as these do not withstand the rigours of constant use. Water saving spring loaded faucets should be provided in areas where water is scarce.

SHOWERS

The importance of showers in hot climates should not be underestimated; fishermen returning from long journeys always welcome a shower with proper running water. As with toilets, showers should be built to the highest standard possible and manned by attendants. When the harbour is not offloading fish, showers should be cleaned and locked up.

SIGNS AND BILLBOARDS

Appropriate signs and billboards listing food hygiene regulations should form part of the harbour’s sanitary awareness infrastructure. These signs should be displayed at all the strategic locations within the port boundary, for example:

- “NO SMOKING, NO SPITTING, NO EATING” signs should be posted wherever fish is being handled; and

- “HAVE YOU WASHED YOUR HANDS ?” signs should be posted at all toilet exits.

Adequate signs should also be posted in prominent locations indicating the direction to the toilets. Proper and frequent training of the port workers in personal hygiene should form part of the harbour master’s management brief. Port sanitation is to the port what personal hygiene is to the workers employed by the port.

Port sanitation is best explained by the following simple regulations:

1.All water supplies inside the port should comply with the national drinking water standards;

2.All ice, including that brought in from outside suppliers, should also comply with the above drinking water standards;

3.All chlorination equipment should be functional and adequate supplies of the chlorination agent should be held in stock;

4.All sampling and testing carried out inside the port should be carried out by International Organization for Standardization (ISO) certified laboratories only;

5.Appropriate signs should be displayed within the port area covering the prohibition of dumping, spillage, use of seawater from inside harbour basin, spitting, eating areas, access for domestic animals, etc.;

6.Appropriate billboards should be displayed at strategic locations listing fines for the contravention of port hygiene rules;

7.All drainage systems (indoor and outdoor) should be kept in perfect working order;

8.Port perimeter fences should be properly maintained to keep unauthorized people and domestic animals from entering the port area at any time;

9.The entrance and exit to a fishing port area should be manned during business hours to prevent unauthorized people from gaining entry to the fish handling areas;

10.Disinfection of required areas should be carried out on a regular basis;

11.No excessive trash and wet wastes should be left to accumulate in work areas;

12.No rodent harbourage should exist in and around the port area (tall weeds, junk piles and municipal rubbish);

13.No birds should be nesting inside open-sided auction halls and fish handling sheds;

14.Only employees and officially recognized fish traders should be allowed access to work areas during fish handling operations and auctions;

15.Toilet and shower facilities should be kept scrupulously clean and in perfect working order;

16.Only electrically powered machinery should be allowed inside the auction or handling sheds to prevent oil, petrol and diesel from leaking onto the floors which are sometimes used as auction surfaces for large fish;

17.All equipment inside the fish handling areas, from block ice crushers to platform trolleys, should be in stainless steel; and

18.The entire fish handling area should be hosed down properly at the end of business and locked up to prevent unauthorized entry until the next auction.

Annex 3

Port hygiene deficiencies checklist

INTRODUCTION

The sanitary infrastructure inside many fishing harbours always gives cause for concern, especially when health or food hygiene inspectors are expected for an official visit. The following infrastructure deficiencies are among the most common infractions which the inspectors look for and are based on actual cases:

A. WC Facilities

1.Toilets are sometimes totally absent from the harbour infrastructure;

2.Toilets open out onto work areas where sewage can flood directly into the processing/handling area;

3.Toilet drains are often uncovered and full of rubbish like plastic bags, fruit, etc., causing blockages;

4.Toilets do not have an adequate water supply to flush;

5.Toilet and wash-hand basin fittings are often out of order, broken or missing;

6.Toilet wash-hand basins are often left without soap or wipe towels/blowers;

7.No “HAVE YOU WASHED YOUR HANDS” signs posted inside toilets;

8.Doors are often unserviceable and removed off the hinges because the timber from which they are manufactured absorbs too much moisture and renders them inoperable ;

9.Toilets are often flooded from leaking pipes or roofs; and

10.Sewage disposal or treatment is either absent or totally inadequate.

B. Auction Hall

1.No fish sorting tables in sorting hall and fish is handled on the floor;

2.No sanitary water is available inside the harbour to rinse fish; and

3.No sanitary water is available inside the harbour to wash floors.

Annex 4

Training Manual on Seafood Handling

TRAINING MANUAL

on
Seafood handling

Francisco Blaha

Fishery Industry Officer

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

Clean Ports Initiative

Capacity building in support of cleaner fishing harbours

Index

Section 1: Problems

1. Spoilage

2. Contamination

3. Sickness

Section 2: Solutions

4. Personal hygiene

5. Cleaning and sanitizing

6. Managing food safety

7. HACCP

Prepared by:

Francisco Blaha

Fishery Industry Officer

Fish Marketing and Utilization Service

Fish Products and Industry Division

Fisheries and Aquaculture Department

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

Viale delle Terme di Caracalla

001 53 Rome, Italy

E-mail: Francisco.Blaha@fao.org

Illustrations reprinted from training resources by the

New Zealand Seafood Industry Training Organization (www.sito.co.nz)

1. Spoilage

After a fish dies, its flesh begins to break down [rot).

This is called spoilage; this process cannot be avoided. It can be slowed, but not stopped. After some time, the fish gets softer, smellier, loses its bright colours, and begins to produce harmful substances that can make people sick.

Seafood spoils quickly; when it does:

- it goes to waste;

- it is not healthy because there are fewer nutrients;

- it can make you, your family or other people sick; and

- those selling lose money as people do not want to buy it.

Agents of spoilage

Fish go bad, or spoil, when agents of spoilage attack the flesh after the fish is dead.

The two main agents of spoilage are:

• bacteria

• enzymes

Bacteria and enzymes are the enemies in the battle to preserve food products.

Bacteria are simple - and very tiny - organisms.

They live almost everywhere, including:

in the air

on land

in the sea (and on the ocean floor)

on plants and animals

on the skin, gills and guts of fish.

One place bacteria do NOT normally grow is in the flesh of a live, healthy fish. Bacteria are found only on exposed surfaces such as the skin (and body slime), gills and gut.

Which parts of the fish have the most bacteria?

Bacteria on the skin, the guts and the gills cause no harm to a living fish. However, when the fish dies, these bacteria grow quickly in number, especially in warm conditions. If there is a tear or a hole in the skin, the bacteria can enter the flesh - an ideal place for bacteria to grow - and make the flesh smell and taste bad, look awful and possibly make those eating it sick.

When are there more bacteria?

Bacteria are greater in number if the seafood:
is washed with polluted waters (harbour waters);
touches dirty hands, boats, boxes, etc;
is handled or gutted without care;
is stored at high temperatures; or
has fed just before capture (more bacteria in the gut).

When does fish go bad?

Fish goes bad when bacteria numbers grow.

In tropical countries, fish can go bad within 12 to 20 hours, depending on the species and method of capture.

Some types of fish go bad more quickly than others. For example, white reef fish meat keeps longer in ice than red tuna meat. This is because tuna have a higher body temperature compared to reef fish, making it easier for bacteria to grow. Their thicker body shape also makes them slower to chill.

If fish are dead a long time before being taken out of the water, bacteria may start to attack the flesh.

Enzymes

Enzymes are proteins that are present in the muscles, organs and gut of fish (and all animals). Metabolic enzymes are the “workers” in the body and help to speed up processes such as digestion. Digestive enzymes break down food until the gut can absorb the nutrients in the food. The body can then use the nutrients for growth and energy.

When a fish dies, enzymes keep working in the body, causing changes in the flesh. The digestive enzymes continue to break down the food in the fish‘s gut. If the fish is not gutted, the enzymes begin to eat holes through the gut lining, allowing bacteria to enter the flesh and break it down.

Sometimes the gut cavity swells up with gas and eventually bursts, making it even easier for bacteria to enter the flesh. This is known as ‘belly burst’.

‘Belly burst’ is more likely to occur:
in well-fed fish
(because there are more digestive enzymes in their guts); or
if the fish is warm
(because enzymes work better in warmer temperatures).

Enzymes cause changes in the flesh and can assist the spread of bacteria from the gut.

The enzymes cause:

loss of flavour or an increase in bad flavour;

loss of texture; and

loss of colour.

How long before fish qoes bad?

The fresh fish test

If a fish is kept in conditions allowing bacteria or enzymes to attack the flesh, it will quickly lose its freshness and quality. However, a person who buys or eats fish would like it to be fresh.

A fresh fish:
has bright colours;
has clear, bright eyes;
has bright red gills;
smells likes fresh seaweed;
feels firm and springy;
does not have overly slimy skin or gills;
tastes good.

A fresh fish is more nutritious and is less likely to make you sick.

Stiff fish and spoilage

Just after a fish is caught, it quickly dies. A dead fish goes through three stages, known as the stages of rigor.

Stage 1

The fish is soft immediately after it dies.

Stage 2

The fish becomes stiff within several minutes to several hours after death, depending on the temperature it is kept at - the quicker it is chilled the longer it will take to reach this stage. The fish will also be stiff longer if it is bigger and is kept cool.

Stage 3

The fish becomes soft again after sometime. If you push your finger into the side of the fish, it is not as springy as it was in the first stage.

Bacteria and enzymes are more active in Stage 3 and fish will then go bad very quickly. Fishers should try to keep fish in Stage 1 and Stage 2 for as long as possible.

The cooler a fish, the longer it will take to reach Stage 3.

Cover it, and/or even better, put the fish on ice.

2. Contamination

Contamination can be classed as anything on or in fish that is not supposed to be there.

Contamination can originate from different sources.

For example, in the case of poor personal hygiene, contamination can be any pathogenic organisms transferred to the fish from people handling it or through unhygienic work practices.

In the case of poor cleaning and sanitation, contamination can be any matter (biological, chemical or physical) which is transferred to the fish as it is handled and stored on the vessel, at the port or the factory.

Sometimes contamination can come from pollution of the environment, for example, bacteria from sewerage, heavy metals from industry, pesticides from agriculture, etc.

Examples of types of contamination

Source Personnel

Contamination Pathogens

Transfer to fish/product

From handling product without proper hand washing. Coughing. Sneezing over product. Eating over product. Incorrect clothing.

Unloading area and equipment

Physical contaminants

Pathogens

Chemicals

Jewellery. Sticking plasters (could contain pathogens). Hair.

From unclean surfaces, droppings of animals, dead insects.

Cleaning chemicals not rinsed, machine oils/grease.

Storage areas

Physical contaminants

Pathogens

Chemicals

Metal, paint flakes, glass, vermin, etc.

From condensation drip, use of hose (splash), area not cleaned.

Excessive use of chemical cleaners and sanitisers. Not rinsing. Machine oils/grease.

Product containers and contact surfaces

Physical contaminants

Pathogens

Chemicals

Metal, paint flakes, glass, vermin, etc.

From unclean surfaces, build up of bacteria in conveyors and other difficult to clean equipment.

Cleaning chemicals not rinsed, machine oils/grease.

Water and ice

Physical contaminants

Pathogens

Metal, plastic, vermin, etc.

From contaminated or non potable sources, or stored and transported in a non hygienic way.

Chemicals

Excessive use of chemicals (i.e. chlorine), or enviromental contaminants.

3. Sickness

Introduction

Seafood is normally a healthy food choice. Unfortunately, food from the sea sometimes contains germs or toxins that make people sick. You probably know somebody who has been sick after eating seafood. You may have even been sick yourself.

People get sick from eating fish that is not safe. Too many of some bacteria on fish can create substances on fish that are bad for people. This fish can be contaminated. Contamination means that there is something on the fish that is not supposed to be there, for example, bacteria from faeces or flies or petrol or chemicals.

Bacteria that cause sickness are called pathogenic bacteria.

People can get sick from seafood:

if the fish was contaminated

if too many pathogenic bacteria have grown on the fish

if the fish has been kept for too long

if the fish has been kept at a temperature that allows bacteria to grow

When someone gets sick, they not only feel bad, but they need costly medicine, cannot go to work, cannot cook, cannot look after the baby. If people get sick, they don’t buy seafood from the same place again.

This means that local people will not eat as much fresh seafood and may buy more tinned foods, which are more expensive and not as healthy as fresh unspoiled seafood.

Overseas customers do not want to buy seafood that may make them sick.

If an area becomes known for its disease causing seafood, then overseas customers will refuse to buy from that area, or they will want the seafood tested to see if it is safe. Tests cost money and the exporter may have to pay fishers less for their fish in order to stay in business.

This is not to scare you from eating seafood but to help you understand what things can cause sickness and ways to avoid it.

How to avoid fish going bad and people getting sick

The most important ways to fight spoilage of fish and to prevent people getting sick from eating seafood are:

keeping the fish and everything the fish touches clean

avoiding cross contamination

keeping the temperature of the fish down (cool)

treating the fish as gently as possible to minimise tears

gutting the fish if possible

In the next section we will talk about the ways we have to manage the problems of spoilage and sickness.

One of the most important things when you’re handling fish is the practice of cleaning and sanitising the place where fish is being handled and the personal hygiene of the people doing this work.

4. Personal Hygiene

Introduction

The main objective of personal hygiene and hygienic work practices is to minimise cross contamination.

Cross contamination includes any pathogenic or food poisoning organisms which may be transferred to product from people (or their equipment) during their handling of the fish or fish product.

Many people harbour pathogenic organisms that could lead to food poisoning if they are able to contaminate seafood products. They are not always a problem for the person carrying the organism, but can be transferred to product if good personal hygiene and hygienic work practices are not followed.

Common pathogenic organisms you may know:

• Staphylococcus aureus (or staph)

• Salmonella

• Shigella

• Eschericia Coli (or E coli)

Personal Hygiene includes:

• The wearing of clean protective clothing

• The washing of hands

Hygienic Work Practices include:

• Personal conduct (eg not eating, drinking, sneezing, coughing, etc. over the product)

• Keeping your work areas clean

• Handling dropped product and contaminated product appropriately

• Using equipment, tools, protective clothing, etc. in a sanitary manner

Good personal hygiene and hygienic work practices prevent you from contaminating the product with pathogenic organisms, which cause food poisoning, illness or infection.

Good personal hygiene and hygienic work practices, minimise the risk of contamination.

Cuts and Sores

Infected cuts and sores must be treated, for the benefit of both the worker and product safety.

Once treated, cuts must be well covered with waterproof dressings and gloves for hands, before the worker is allowed to handle product.

Illness

For people who are ill or feeling ill, a judgement is required as to whether work can be carried out in areas away from direct product handling, or whether the person should be sent home.

Those who are suffering from vomiting or diarrhoea should be sent home. Personnel may often come to work when they are not feeling well or if they have infected cuts. This can be a significant risk for product safety if it is not managed.

Summary

The main objective of personal hygiene and hygienic work practices is to minimise cross contamination.

The reasons for good personal hygiene and hygienic work practices are to produce safe food and meet legislative requirements.

Cuts and sores must be treated and completely covered with a waterproof dressing.

People who are ill or feeling ill should not be at work, if there is a risk of contamination to the product.

Correct Handwashing Procedure

1. Roll up sleeves to the elbow

2. Rinse up to the elbow

3. Apply soap carefully

4. Brush hands and nails

5. Rinse to eliminate soap

6. Rinse with clean water

7. Dry hands with a clean personal towel or, better still, with a paper towel.

5. Cleaning and Sanitising

After completing this section you will be able to:

• Describe the difference between cleaning and sanitising.

• Describe why cleaning and sanitation are important.

• Describe what happens if we don’t clean and sanitise.

Cleaning and sanitising are activities that occur quite regularly in seafood processing premises. The main purpose of cleaning and sanitising is to minimise the risk of cross contamination. Contamination can lead to spoilage of the product or cause someone to become ill when they eat the product.

The types of activities used as part of cleaning and sanitising will vary, depending on the product being processed, what is being ‘cleaned or sanitised’, and the time available. Each processing plant is likely to have something different in their cleaning and sanitation procedures.

Cleaning

Cleaning is the process of removing the visible ‘dirt’. Cleaning is helped with the use of detergents, which soften the “dirt” and allow water to get in. Cleaning is also helped by the use of friction and elbow grease - in other words, scrubbing. Even foam cleaners, which can create their own friction as the millions of tiny bubbles burst, need the additional application of the scrubbing brush in difficult areas.

Sanitising

Sanitising is the process of killing the bacteria. This relies on the action of a chemical which will only work once cleaning has been completed. Sanitising chemicals won’t work if there is still a lot of dirt present.

Importance of Cleaning and Sanitation

There are a number of reasons why good cleaning and sanitation procedures are important for ports seafood processing premises. The main reason, as discussed above, is to produce a product that is safe to eat and one that is good quality (not spoiled). The other reasons include helping to maintain the plant and equipment in good condition and to help prevent the ‘fishy’ smell that is caused by the breakdown of seafood flesh, gut and slime, by bacteria. The presence of a ‘fishy’ smell indicates that both seafood matter and bacteria are still present at the end of the cleaning and sanitation process.

The reasons why cleaning and sanitizing is important are:

To ensure the food we produce is safe to eat

To ensure the food we produce is good quality

To help provide a pleasant place to work

To meet legislative requirements

The Consequences of Not Cleaning and Sanitising

If cleaning and sanitizing is not carried our correctly then the chances of meeting any of the above things are not very high.

The product may be contaminated and unsafe to eat

The product may not be good quality

The plant and equipment will not last

The place you work in won’t be very pleasant at all

Meeting legislative requirements will be very hard

First clean then sanitise

Good cleaning will remove over 90% of the bacteria as the dirt is washed away.

Sanitisers act once cleaning has been completed. They won’t work if there is still a lot of dirt present.

Different sanitisers act in different ways to kill bacteria.

For example, Chorine acts by invading the bacterial cell and interfering with its life functions. Another common sanitiser, Quat, (or QAC - quaternary ammonium compound) acts more quickly, by breaking down the bacterial cell wall. Whichever type is used, the correct amount of time in contact with the equipment surface must be allowed for the sanitiser to complete the job.

Current practice of chemical companies has been to combine both detergents and sanitisers into one material. This means that the cleaning and sanitation process can be carried out much more quickly and easily.

General routine for cleaning and sanitising

In all premises the general routine for the main clean down of processing areas is as follows:

1. Tidy the area.

2. Hose all surfaces with cold water to remove most of the fish waste.

3. Dismantle equipment if required.

4. Apply detergent or detergent/sanitiser that has been made up to the correct concentration.

5. Scrub surfaces to loosen dried on dirt - fish, scales and slime. For combined detergent/sanitisers, ensure that the chemical is left in contact with surfaces for the required time (for sanitiser to work).

6. Rinse off using low pressure water.

7. Apply sanitiser at the correct concentration and temperature. Leave for the required time (this may be overnight).

Note: Sanitiser may be applied after a combined detergent/sanitiser in problem areas or for additional assurance of sanitising effect.

6. Managing Food Safety

Food safety aspects of fish products are considered to be part of the overall quality of those products.

In the modern world, however, food safety has become one of the most important factors in food quality. In fact, the concern about food poisoning and food contamination by consumers the world over, means that food safety is now non-negotiable.

Food must first be safe to eat. Then, it can be good to eat.

The implications of any producer releasing unsafe food onto the market are wide ranging and in recent years there have been many examples of this occurring throughout the world.

These implications include:

harm, illness or even death of consumers

widespread media involvement

loss of customer

loss of market for the companies involved

companies out of business

reduced market access for the industry as a whole

Seafood, as a product category, contributes on a regular basis to incidences of food poisoning. Closer examination of the data, however, will show that some seafood products are more likely to be involved in these incidences than others are.

Why are some seafood product more likely to be “unsafe” than another?

This has to do with the causes of unsafe food, or the food safety “hazards”, which may be associated with a food. Foods which have a high number of food safety hazards associated with them will have a high risk of causing food poisoning, or harm to consumers, if those hazards are not controlled.

Hazards are categorised in the following way:

Biological hazards include, most commonly, bacteria and other microorganisms which cause food poisoning, illness or infection. They are called food pathogens or pathogenic micro-organisms. They may occur on the food naturally or through contamination, but due to some lack of control, they grow to high numbers on the food product. It is either the organisms themselves, or toxins produced by them, which make people ill.

Chemical hazards include any form of chemical compound which may contaminate food products and which result in illness or harm to consumers. These may include fuel or oil from the catching vessel, cleaning chemicals, contamination from industrial activities (heavy metals, poisons, etc.).

Physical hazards can include a wide variety of contaminants such as glass, metal, bone, shell, etc, which may cause harm to the consumer while they are eating the food product. In many cases, objects that are called physical hazards are in fact the source of biological hazards. These would include sticking plasters, insects, rodent droppings, etc., which are themselves contaminated with pathogenic organisms.

In order to manage food safety, producers must have a good knowledge of how to control the food safety hazards that may be expected on their products. They then need a system in place that ensures that the specific controls are carried out when required.

7. HACCP

The system used internationally today is called HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point).

This is a system that identifies the hazards that may occur with the processing of each product, and then establishes a set of controls that are based on preventing the hazard from developing into a food safety problem. The controls may completely remove the hazard or they may only reduce it or prevent it from reaching significant levels.

HACCP is a system that is designed for each product and process. It takes account of the severity of the hazards associated with each product (that is, the seriousness of the hazards), the risk of the hazard (the likelihood that the hazard will occur) and also the expected way in which the product will be consumed. All of these factors will combine to determine the level of control required.

The HACCP system consists of the following seven principles:

1. Conduct a hazard analysis.

2. Determine the Critical Control Points (CCPs).

3. Establish Critical Limits

4. Establish a system to monitor control of the CCP.

5. Establish the corrective action to be taken when monitoring indicates that a particular CCP is not under control.

6. Establish procedures for verification to confirm that the HACCP system is working effectively.

7. Establish documentation concerning all procedures and records appropriate to these principles and their application.

It is outside the scope of this book to fully detail the HACCP system, its design and implementation. Further information is available from many other documents.

However this publication can introduce the concept of prerequisite programmes in relation to HACCP.

Prerequisite programmes

Prerequisite programmes may also be referred to as Good Hygienic Practices, Good Manufacturing Practices, Standard Operating Procedures, umbrella programmes or satellite programmes.

They relate to HACCP by providing the foundation of food safety controls from which HACCP systems can be developed.

In a food handling environment, there are many other things which can influence the safety of products that are not directly part of the process.

These include:

quality (potability) of the water and ice supply

quality (safety) of the incoming fish

construction of buildings and equipment

cleaning and maintenance of the buildings and equipment

behaviour and hygiene standards of the staff (level of training)

correct storage of product

transport of product prior to reception and after dispatch

presence of vermin waste disposal

Within fishing port, the management of these activities is carried out through documented systems as required by legislation.

As part of the management of food safety management, all these activities are still expected to be controlled in some way.

Like a HACCP plan, these programmes themselves are controlling food safety hazards and it is very important that they are effectively managed. Without this effective management, the HACCP plan has no foundation of food safety control from which to work.

Problems with, or lack of control of, the prerequisites will result in the failure of the HACCP plan.

Annex 5

Prevention of pollution

INTRODUCTION

The following is a series of cartoons taken from the Cleaner Harbours publication in the FAO Training Series. They may be adapted to make them compatible with the different regions of the world.

Who should use them?

The drawings are for use by extension workers in the field, fisheries training colleges, fisheries enforcement officers and harbour-masters. The drawings may also be used as part of an elementary public awareness programme within a larger educational framework. Some of the drawings are also suitable as posters.

Drawing No. 1 outlines the four major sources of pollution in a typical fisheries harbour; operations; handling; servicing; and refuelling.

Drawing No. 2 shows how split fuel oil attacks the caulking on timber vessels. Metal cans on the sea-bed attack metal hulls and fittings, such as the propeller and the shaft.

Drawing No. 3 shows the discarded waste that is typical when vessels are serviced carelessly.

Drawing No. 4 emphasizes the health hazard of gutting fish inside the harbour – pests are invariably drawn to the area.

Drawing No. 5 shows how dangerous chemicals find their way into the food-chain.

Drawing No. 6 asks the important question without laying blame on any one particular sector of the fisheries industry.

Drawing No. 7 shows the typical mistakes made by people who are not aware of the consequences of spilling fuel. Case history slides should be inserted in-between slides of drawings No. 8 onwards.

Drawing No. 8 shows the correct way to store and dispense fuel at the quayside.

Drawing No. 9 shows a careless boat owner servicing his boat with little attention to the mess around him.

Drawing No. 10 explains in very simple terms the various chemicals that make up paint and their toxicity to humans.

Drawing No.11 stresses the point that any material abandoned near the water’s edge invariably ends up in the water. For example, wind blows some empty cans and children kick the rest in.

Drawing No.12 shows the correct method of can disposal. The container shown should look like the one intended for use at the particular landing.

Drawing No.13 explains the importance of greasing moving parts rather than oiling them.

Drawing No.14 shows the correct method of oil disposal. The container shown should look like the one intended for use.

Drawing No.15 shows the effect that oil has on a vessel’s caulking.

Drawing No.16 emphasizes the need to maintain engines properly (oil seals) and avoid oil spillage. If outboards are very popular in a specific country, an outboard engine should be added to this drawing.

Drawing No.17 shows collection and treatment of slops at both the artisanal and industrial levels.

Drawing No.18 suggests more environment-friendly methods of storing fish. Foam and timber boxes accumulate bacteria and are not suitable for continuous use. However, timber boxes are made locally and can be used as fuel when they break.

Drawing No.19 shows how to keep the problems associated with offal to a minimum.

Drawing No. 20 explains the importance of using clean fresh water to rinse fish. Note also that the runoff containing blood is drained into a soakaway and not into the harbour.

Drawing No. 21 shows bad fish-cleaning techniques. The fishmonger is using dirty water from the harbor, where raw sewage might be present, and dumping scraps of fish which attract pests and disease. Note the absence of soakaway.

Drawing No. 22 illustrates the sources of highly toxic heavy metal pollution.

Drawing No. 23 shows which toxins the items shown in Drawing No. 22 contain. Although the manganese powder filling of the torch battery is not considered toxic, it always contains traces of mercury which is highly toxic.

Drawing No. 24 illustrates how batteries break up and release toxic lead into the environment.

Drawing No. 25 illustrates a recommended collection method. The size and shape of containers illustrated should match local market conditions.

Drawing No. 26 Illustrates items which are sometimes “lost” over the side of boats.

Drawing No. 27 illustrates two cases where such items cause inconvenience to other vessels.

Drawing No. 28 illustrates another such inconvenience.

Drawing No. 29 focuses on the cost of removing this sort of rubbish.

Drawing No. 30 illustrates the correct method of rubbish disposal. The container should resemble the one intended for use.

Drawing No. 31 can be used to illustrate the commentator’s summing-up remarks.

PRACTICAL POSTERS

Based on FAO POSTER TRAINING SERIES

Drawing for a poster to be affixed in fishing harbours to remind fishermen to replace leaking oil seals and to exercise care when replacing engine oil.

Leaking oil seals and oil spillage contribute to create oily bilge water which must then be treated before being returned to the sea. Although it is an offence under MARPOL to dump oily bilge water at sea, very few fishermen seem to understand the process. Invariably, most bilge water ends up in the sea.

A poster to be affixed inside the port area where fish hawkers congregate to sell fish.

Although fish gutting and cleaning should be forbidden inside the harbour area, sometimes this practize cannot be helped. In order to avoid the spread of diseases which accompanies the presence of household pests, hawkers should be instructed on the proper disposal of unwanted wastes. Wet waste bins should be provided in ample quantities and placed in strategic locations. They should be shaded from sunlight to prevent higher rates of decomposition and foul smells.

The figure shows a drawing for a poster instructing harbour users to utilise the harbour waste receptacles for their bulky inorganic wastes.

Posters indicating the different types of wastes catered for and the respective bins to use should be placed at the entrance to the harbour as well as in strategic locations around the port. The bins for the different wastes (non-toxic, toxic and wet wastes) should be colour coded and suitable for the kind of waste.

Fines levied by the management for non-observance of the port regulations should be listed and placed in a prominent location inside the port boundary.