TECHNICAL COOPERATION PROGRAMME
SUPPORT TO SMALL-SCALE RURAL AQUACULTURE IN WESTERN KENYA
KENYA
FI:TCP/KEN/4551 Technical Report
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS
Rome, 1997
Report prepared for
the Government of Kenya
by
the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
based on the work of
J.-P. Marquet Consultant
in collaboration with
Pamela Achieng, NPC and Shem Obuya, FO (LBDA Officers)
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS Rome, 1997
This technical report is one of a series of reports prepared during the course of the project identified on the cover page. The conclusions and recommendations given in the report are those considered appropriate at the time of its preparation. They may be modified in the light of further knowledge gained at subsequent stages of the project.
The designations employed and the presentation of material in this document do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the United Nations or the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal or constitutional status of any country, territory or sea, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
This electronic document has been scanned using optical character recognition (OCR) software and careful manual recorrection. Even if the quality of digitalisation is high, the FAO declines all responsibility for any discrepancies that may exist between the present document and its original printed version.
2.1.1 Literature review of project field reports and technical reports
2.1.2 Meeting with FAO's Environment and Natural Resources Service (SDRN)
2.1.3 Meeting the BSF approach - fish for food security
2.1.4 Preparing revised main guidelines for an adequate strategy
2.1.5 Investigation of fish transport methods for fish farmers2.2.1 Investigation of fish markets
2.2.2 Visits to and mapping all FPCs
2.2.3 Visits to a large sample of ponds and fish farmers
2.2.4 Use of GPS (Global Positioning System) and training staff to complete wider sampling
2.2.5 Testing portable aerator in the field
2.2.6 Local capabilities for innovation of a sustainable fingerling transportation system by bicycle
2.2.7 Investigation of local capabilities for making socio-economic assessments
2.2.8 Meeting with Assistant Director of DOF and Assistant Director of Agriculture, APM of Western Kenya on practical collaboration in fish culture extension responsibility
2.2.9 Reviewing the Project Document in full collaboration with technical staff
2.2.10 Meeting with UNDP as a potential international co-funding agency
4. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Appendix 1: FISH MARKET INVESTIGATIONS
Appendix 2: DATA ON FPCS AND MAIN FISH CULTURE CENTRES
Appendix 3: TECHNICAL PARAMETERS FROM RURAL PONDS VISITED
Appendix 4: LBDA REGION'S SHARE IN AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION OF KENYA
Appendix 5: BIBLIOGRAPHY
The Consultant records his sincere thanks for all the assistance and kind arrangements graciously accorded by the Belgian Survival Fund (BSF) Representatives in Brussels, Rome and Nairobi. The Consultant also expresses his profound appreciation to the Permanent Secretary. Ministry of Land Reclamation, Water and Regional Development, the LBDA Managing Director and the whole Lake Basin Development Authority (LBDA) staff for their beneficial discussions and cooperation, as well as to the personnel of the project in LBDA and Department of Fisheries (DOF), to staff in the FAO Representative and UNDP offices in Nairobi. Finally the Consultant acknowledges the Headquarters staff who provided enthusiastic and helpful collaboration and assistance during that in-depth revision of the draft Project Document.
Since the early eighties the Government of Kenya has put more emphasis on fish production from the natural waters of the country, in order to meet local demand for a fast growing population. This is of particular importance in the western part of the country where 40 percent of the population lives, although the area represents only 8.4 percent of the area of the country. For more than 15 years, the fish supply to the local population has decreased considerably due to changes in the fisheries of Lake Victoria, the traditional source of fish. The introduction of the exotic Nile Perch, overfishing, and pollution have led to a substantial decline in fish stocks. The Nile Perch fishery is export based, which further reduces the natural fish supply to the local population.
In 1979 the Government established the Lake Basin Development Authority (LBDA) with responsibility for the overall planning, coordination, and implementation of programmes aimed at accelerating rural development and improved food production in Nyanza and Western Provinces.
In 1982, a UNDP/FAO Preparatory Assistance Mission concluded that there was an immediate need for more rapid and intense assistance for the development of rural small-scale fish farming in the Lake Basin Area.
In the course of GOK/BSF/UNDP/FAO Projects for "Development of Small-scale Fish Farming in the Lake Basin Area" KEN/80/006 then KEN/86/027, executed from 1985 to 1994 by FAO and LBDA, fish culture had been introduced in the rural zones in order to supplement protein deficiency in the area.
During the implementation of these projects thousands of farmers constructed ponds which were supplied with fingerlings from seven Fry Production Centres (FPCs) and from several private fingerling producers in the area. First trials with formulated feed were promising. The projects also introduced Clarias (catfish) rearing as a more profitable activity. However, after ten years of assistance, fish farming seems to be only partially established in Western Kenya.
Before a decision could be taken on the financing of a third and last phase in order to ensure the viability and the sustainability of the action, a Technical Review Mission was mandated to evaluate the past activities and formulate if necessary a new document for a third phase project. This was carried out in 1995. Among its conclusions was that most of the fish farmers appear to be dependent on external assistance, particularly from the project/LBDA. However, a few fish farmers were not only growing fish as a source of protein, but were beginning to show interest in profits and increased income.
The Belgian Survival Fund (BSF) considered the project as not yet sustainable enough and therefore a last final intervention should be made in order to attain its objectives. Fish culture has to be successfully introduced as a rural economic activity, with a critical mass of well-trained advanced (commercial) fish farmers, who could provide a reservoir of skills and services to fellow grassroots small-scale fish farmers (the project's real target) so that sustainability may be ensured even without major continual institutional/governmental assistance and inputs.
After the completion of project KEN/86/027, the Government of Kenya requested assistance from FAO's Technical Cooperation Programme and the project TCP/KEN/4551 "Support to Small-scale Rural Aquaculture in Western Kenya" was approved by FAO in February 1995 to further support the initiatives made and to reinforce progress towards sustainability of rural fish culture production whilst the third phase was being formulated. This TCP assistance was initiated in April 1995 for a period of nine months, subsequently extended to 12 months (July 1996), with yet another extension recommended by the Consultant.
2.1.1 Literature review of project field reports and technical reports
2.1.2 Meeting with FAO's Environment and Natural Resources Service (SDRN)
2.1.3 Meeting the BSF approach - fish for food security
2.1.4 Preparing revised main guidelines for an adequate strategy
2.1.5 Investigation of fish transport methods for fish farmers
All of the documentation on the project available on file and in the Fisheries Library were read, with special attention to the field documents, terminal and evaluation reports and all the technical reports from the previous projects, with a view to understand the background and identify bottlenecks as reported from the field.
One of these bottlenecks was certainly the lack of data available for evaluating pond numbers. In 1995, the Technical Review Mission was mandated to evaluate the past activities and formulate if necessary a new document for a third phase as proposed during the Third Kenya/Belgium Joint Commission "Development of a Sustainable Fish Farming Industry in Western Kenya". According to the data base established (but not updated between 1986 and 1992, due to a computer breakdown) the actual number of ponds were 3 800. However, information obtained from the registration of fish farmers during training field days in more recent years indicated that ponds could number more than 7 500.
In order to continue the activities of project KEN/86/027 with a view to ensure its viability and sustainability, it would be important to be informed of its real impact. A socio-economic evaluation on a significant sample could be made for qualitative impact, but a reliable method should be applied to obtain a quantitative impact. At this time, only a transect-method evaluation could be used, but on an area of 47 700 km2, it would be a cumbersome and high-cost activity.
The Consultant requested SDRN to devise and implement a pilot study for a fish-pond inventory based on remote sensing technology. The results of this study could be checked for accuracy using a satellite evaluation and then could be further verified for accuracy by field visits to the sampled area during the Consultant's field visits in Kenya.
The main objective was therefore to double check the accuracy and reliance of the method applied on ponds of various sizes, with a view to eventually extending the technique to the whole area as a complementary management and evaluation tool.
Earth Resources Satellite-Synthetic Aperture Radar (ERS-SAR) data were made available covering the area at different periods. They have been geometrically corrected and have a ground resolution of 12.5 m. In view of the inherent characteristics of the ponds (water impounded by earth dykes), the radar data was considered the most appropriate for an inventory of fish ponds. A methodology was quickly developed and practical and financial agreement was reached in few days to execute a pilot study to test this kind of evaluation.
The pilot study, which will cover two ERS-SAR scenes, totalling 20 000 km2, would develop the most appropriate methodology for fish pond inventory and assess the lower limit of accuracy of ERS-SAR data for this purpose. Satellite data acquired over the area in 1995-96 would be used. Results would be geo-referenced, so that the fish pond inventory based on satellite data, and field checking by Global Positioning System (GPS) during the consultancy period, would be compatible.
An alternative system which could provide very accurate results was the interpretation of low flight aerial photos. However costs and time associated with this were considered prohibitive.
Based on the Technical Review Mission's findings and recommendations, there is confidence that sustainable small-scale fish farming enterprises (or associations) could be established in the near future. A first project proposal was submitted to the Belgian Government in December 1995. The appraisal work group approved the technical validity of the proposed programme but insisted that it should reflect the funding criteria of the BSF which is to develop sustainable small-scale fish farming enterprises beneficial to grassroots fish farmers.
BSF contributions to sector development must be focused on concrete assistance to marginalized people and to poverty alleviation in the Lake Basin Area, including setting up of an institutional framework that would permit a sustainable and more efficient responsability-sharing between the ministries concerned with fish culture and food production. Commercially viable fish farming enterprises could certainly be developed on a sustainable basis in the area, but major inputs from BSF must be provided to the target group (grassroots fish farmers).
More specifically, this last BSF intervention in support of rural fish culture would concern:
- the development of a core of fish farming associations able to produce fingerlings themselves, provide transport and marketing of fingerlings plus produce fish feed from their own resources, and able to provide a private service (training and transportation) for all small-scale fish farmers with a view to increasing the size of their markets and the regional availability of fish;- the expansion of extensive fish culture in parallel with the above, together with a progressive intensification, through repetitive and intensive farmers training provided by extension services and fish farming associations themselves;
- the promotion of small-scale fish farming as a means for reducing poverty and increasing the number of farmers involved in fish culture with a view to ensuring adequate protein intake (food security) in the whole Lake Basin area (where 1 500 additional fish farmers could be involved during the next three years);
- the training of agriculture extension agents in pond management and the effective and appropriate responsibility-sharing between LBDA, DOF, agriculture extensionists and advanced fish farmers with regard to fish farming development at the grassroots level in the Lake Basin Area.
With a view to introducing for LBDA the main guidelines of this strategy which had the concurrence of the donors (BSF), the Consultant prepared a new draft Project Document (based on his reading of the documentation in Rome, his experience and discussions with the FAO Headquarters personnel and with the donors).
The main guidelines as proposed, discussed in the above-mentioned meeting and discussed with donor representatives (BSF) were as follows:
1. It is still necessary to stabilize and institutionalize the achievements of the previous project, but with a more focused objective of developing self-sustaining fish farm enterprises through (50) cooperatives or fish farmers associations, and enlarging the number of grassroots small-scale fish farmers with a progressively increasing control of the programme by the Kenyan people and Government. However, some major socio-economic factors which were not examined during the earlier second phase assistance, and some unforeseen bottlenecks could hamper the development of sustainable fish farming enterprises.2. Furthermore, there was a lack of relevant data on the agricultural systems in the region in relation to fish farming. In addition some topics of critical importance have to be analysed in detail such as: marketing, optimum size of enterprises, fish feed formulation and distribution. More specifically, the lack of knowledge about the motivations and aspirations of the farmers (as well as social and cultural factors that would be affected by fish culture and commercial earnings), could hamper the sustainability of the actions of the project by proposing to them a technically inadequate or economically non-viable development strategy (e.g., acquisition of formulated fish feed for marginalized fish farmers when it is possible to use freely available manure, or making them indebted through credit schemes which they do not understand).
3. For these reasons, it is necessary, before implementing the third phase, to investigate and analyse the socio-economic environment and cultural influences of the target group and to define its feasibility. This was partially carried out in Migori District (Nyanza Province) in 1993-1994 (ref. KEN/86/027 Field Doc. 3): preliminary results obtained by 16 trained farmers for 15 months "were encouraging, in spite of the fact that none of the farmers actively managed their ponds for fingerlings production",... "no farmers (at that time) adopted the methods taught in the training course", and "no farmers (at that time) raised fingerlings as an end to itself". "The farmers do not empty their ponds due to a lack of fingerlings, yet the regular supply will not develop if there is no regular demand".
4. The one-sided promotion of high-cost technology with formulated feeds, credit and frequent harvests, which had a negative response from potential beneficiaries (as in Migori District at that time), is a product of a lack of knowledge about or a narrow perception offish farmers' needs. In response to failures, the grassroots small-scale fish farmers turned their back on training recommendations and adopted their own methods to meet their real needs and solutions that they could implement by themselves. It is absolutely indispensable to collect information from fish farmers before deciding the best strategy for them.
5. Technical problems of fingerling transportation at low-cost (without use of motor vehicles) by fish farmers themselves are not completely solved: there are real problems if any distance is to be covered. Appropriate technology must be investigated to solve this specific bottleneck.
6. Fish culture at high altitude (1 500-2 000 m) needs specific training for concerned fish farmers together with appropriate advice on specific pond requirements (dike slope, e.g., for producing fingerlings).
7. More emphasis must be placed on developing economically viable low-cost integrated fish farming technologies that are also culturally and socially well adapted to the target beneficiaries; appropriate extension work on cooking must be done (e.g., fried fish using small- and medium-size fish) through women's associations and illustrated booklets.
8. Appropriate polyculture technology in ponds could be most promising but should be carried out step by step and with care, to avoid the destruction of the availability of Tilapia fingerlings in the whole area (even when suspected marketing problems are not solved). More investigations for increasing the Clarias fingerling survival rate must be carried out at the level of advanced fish farmers.
9. The Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock should be involved in extension work for grassroots farmers and in gathering information on the cost-effective use of farmers' natural resources in order to reduce wastage and increase production.
10. Agriculture extensionists should be trained in fish culture management by LBDA trainers with a view to popularizing sustainable integrated fish-farming activities. Such trained agriculture extensionists could take on the responsibility of training farmers in pond management thus freeing the experienced LBDA cadres to spend more time on more important activities such as: training trainers and advanced farmers; prospecting for new sites; and supervising new pond construction. LBDA would conduct complementary training for DOF on management and artificial propagation of Clarias.
11. Finally, although the credit scheme operated through extension agents has been reoriented in the right direction and has begun to give some positive results in terms of yield and increase in number of ponds, its low repayment rates and consequent fall-off in availability of funds (for other clients) is a limiting factor for the sustainable development of fish culture activities. It is self-evident that confidence and friendly relationships between farmers and extensionists is essential in any extension programme and therefore credit-agent activities by the extensionists could jeopardize these relations. It would be better to identify other methods of credit management (e.g., specialized credit agency, fish farmers associations, etc.) thus disengaging extensionists from this supplementary duty and permitting them more time for training and extension activities to benefit a larger number of debt-free beneficiaries.
According to field documents the technical problems of long distance fingerling transport without the use of motor vehicles could become a bottleneck for fish farmers. So the Consultant brought with him three small aerators (powered by torch batteries) for live bait transportation to be tested in the field with Tilapia fingerlings.
In addition, with the possibility of using the mechanical power of a bicycle to provide water agitation during transport, the Consultant requested advice from AGSE (FAO Engineering Service) who provided a possible arrangement for a mechanical aerator driven by a pulley applied to the rear wheel.
2.2.1 Investigation of fish markets
2.2.2 Visits to and mapping all FPCs
2.2.3 Visits to a large sample of ponds and fish farmers
2.2.4 Use of GPS (Global Positioning System) and training staff to complete wider sampling
2.2.5 Testing portable aerator in the field
2.2.6 Local capabilities for innovation of a sustainable fingerling transportation system by bicycle
2.2.7 Investigation of local capabilities for making socio-economic assessments
2.2.8 Meeting with Assistant Director of DOF and Assistant Director of Agriculture, APM of Western Kenya on practical collaboration in fish culture extension responsibility
2.2.9 Reviewing the Project Document in full collaboration with technical staff
2.2.10 Meeting with UNDP as a potential international co-funding agency
On his arrival in Kenya on 28 June, the Consultant met the FAO Representative's staff. In Kisumu, he was welcomed by LBDA fisheries staff and started on field visits in the whole project area for two weeks with the Fisheries Officer/National Project Coordinator (NPC). The Fisheries Specialist/NPC, who had been away for four months training in Belgium, joined the Consultant's mission on 15 July 1996, that is after field visits.
The main activities described were implemented systematically in every location, in Western, Northern and Southern parts of the LBDA area. They are presented not in chronological order but in rational sequence to provide a comprehensive and recapitulative reading. A set of technical equipment (pH meter, GPS compass, thermometer, altimeter, hand-level and double meter) was carried by the Consultant so as to be able to evaluate the ponds against objective criteria.
During field visits, several investigations were made on the fish markets, with a view to determine the optimum size for producing Tilapia. Seven fish markets were investigated; samples of various sizes of fresh Tilapia from the lake were measured (total length and standard length) and weighed, then compared to other fishes (when available) and other products (fried fishes, skeleton of Nile Perch from Kisumu factory, Omena, smoked fish). Complete results are listed in Appendix 1.
In all fish markets investigated the highest price for fresh Tilapia was "table-size" fish (200-250 g) KSh 80-200/kg, depending on the market location and various factors to be identified.
Everywhere, big size Tilapia (more than 2 kg each) were sold at half the price (per kg) of "table-size" fish, and small Tilapia (less than 100 g) were not sold (except as fried fish) or exceptionally by some fish farmers in a 2-kg tin (containing various small mixed sizes of fish).
The seven FPCs were visited and their ponds evaluated in detail, measuring pH, temperature, Secchi disk transparency, depth, altitude and area. The results are listed in Appendix 2.
The ponds were located accurately, using Global Positioning System (GPS), for further general pond investigations and were mapped by the LBDA topography team for comparison with satellite records.
Discussions with fish farmers in charge of management were focused on: fish feed availability; market opportunities; respective prices of inputs and outputs; and book-keeping records.
One hundred and twenty-five fish farmer ponds within 31 sites covering 35.8 ha (underwater) were investigated in the whole area with the same objective and methods as for FPCs. The results are listed in Appendix 3. In addition, specific investigations were made concerning: the site quality; pond management; market opportunities; fish feed availability; self-help assistance from fish farmer to fish farmer: book-keeping record practice: and frequency of technical support from DOF and LBDA.
Some interviews lasted several hours, others were shorter, depending on the fish farmers interest and enthusiasm for fish culture activities, and depending on their acquired technical and social level.
In several sites, the Consultant proposed to fish farmers appropriate improvements for increasing water depth through dike improvement or suggesting some change for inlet water, after spotting deviation canals from available rivers (instead of uncontrolled springs or ground water). The accompanying technical officers were introduced to various extension methods with appropriate extension field material.
In the highlands (1 500-2 000 m) special attention was given to fish farmers' problems in producing fingerlings because the project had never addressed it previously. (Slope of dikes must be 5 : 1 rather 2 : 1, to provide more space for nest building in patches of warm water.)
The Consultant used GPS to locate all ponds visited (various size, shape, colour, depth, etc.) and orientate them by compass.
The ponds were generally rectangular or square in shape while the waterbodies were often circular or egg-shaped (expected excavation for road construction, parallel to roads). With a view to checking them against satellite records, the Consultant located some of the waterbodies and noted all specific information related to located ponds and waterbodies which might modify the radar interpretation (floating plants, chicken houses on ponds, cribs, etc.).
In addition, in order to complete a wider sample available for interpretation, the Consultant trained one of the LBDA staff extensionists to continue recording with the same method outside of his field visits. He recorded 40 additional ponds located in 12 sites covering 9.55 ha underwater area.
Waterbodies are present in the whole area and their use is a major problem for the authorities: they constitute many uncontrolled reservoirs for mosquito breeding and for aquatic snails which are intermediate hosts for the bilharzia causing pathogen; they are never harvested.
The radar study should provide useful information for locating such waterbodies which could be used for extensive fish culture by marginalized people, using cow manure and organic materials in cribs. Tilapia and Clarias are mosquito larvae eaters, and Clarias can eat snails. Thus with a view to decreasing the number of these disease causing vectors, and to provide available fish protein for people of the area (by appropriate fishing methods such as traps, hooks, etc.) some complementary trials should be made. Some ten big permanent waterbodies should be partially harvested with gillnets during the next phase in order to investigate the existing fish populations. Fingerlings from FPCs could be purchased by the project to be stocked in these waterbodies; 6-8 months later, a second investigation with gillnets should be carried out and compared with the first one and (depending on the results) the method could be expanded to a larger number of waterbodies, allowing the number of beneficiaries applying extensive fish culture practice to be increased.
The three portable aerators purchased in Rome were given for testing to FPC (Kibos and Lugari) and to the AFFG (Koibarak Fish Farmers Association: 50 members including four women).
A first trial was made in July transporting from Kibos to Kitale two identical containers with plenty of water (25 l) and 750 Tilapia fingerlings each. The total transport duration was two hours for a distance (in direct line) of 125 km.
The results were as follows:
|
Without aerator |
With aerator |
|
Mortality 115 fingerlings |
Mortality 8 fingerlings |
|
(15.3%) |
(1%) |
That first result was very good but must be confirmed with complementary trials. The same model of portable aerator (battery operated - air pump) was identified in Nairobi for KSh 1 125. The cost of two batteries is only KSh 38: considering the value of Tilapia fingerlings at KSh 1 each, this cost is less than the KSh 108 fingerling loss noted in the trial without using an aerator.
A local NGO named Kisumu Innovation - Kenya is specialized in bicycle transformation and can provide the requested adaptation for fingerling transport by bicycle.
According to the consultant socio-economist's report, the socio-economic factors influencing fish farming and relevant intervention strategies, need to be assessed using appropriate methodologies for effective generation of adequate information, and to stimulate farmers' participation in the planning process. The study programme, proposed by the socio-economist, contains three elements:
- a formal questionnaire survey;
- participatory rural appraisal;
- specific topic investigations.
A general methodology was proposed by the Consultant to be applied at local level for which local expertise is available in Western Kenya which would be able to carry out the study.
A number of agencies and individuals were then contacted by the present mission, and they expressed interest to be involved. Some basic information about the agencies and individuals and their interest in the study is given below (source: personal contacts and African Medical and Research Foundation's (AMREF) investigations).
African Medical and Research Foundation (AMREF)
AMREF is an international Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) with its Headquarters in Nairobi, Kenya. There are country offices established in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. AMREF's overall goal is to identify critical health needs and develop, implement and evaluate activities/programmes to meet such needs through operations research, service delivery and capacity building. The foundation has expertise in social sciences, clinical medicine and computer operations which are relevant to the proposed study. Currently, AMREF has a number of projects in Nyamira, Kisii, Homa Bay, Migori, Kisumu and Kakamega districts all in Western Kenya.
AMREF's interest in the study is to coordinate participating agencies' inputs in planning and implementation. The foundation has the capacity and willingness to provide the Principal Investigator: a sociologist with background in economics and experience in quantitative, qualitative and participatory research methods. AMREF would charge a professional fee of $US 180/person day worked. The fee would cover the input of the Principal Investigator and technical backstopping from its headquarters. AMREF can work at any level and not necessarily at the coordination level, depending on the project's needs.
CARE Kenya
The agency has three offices in Siaya, Homa Bay and Kisumu districts in Western Kenya. It is involved in the implementation of Primary Health Care (PHC) programmes in the fields of: Water and Sanitation; Child Survival; Agro-forestry; AIDS; Population Activities; and Women and Development. The proposed study is of interest to the Agro-forestry Programme.
CARE would be interested in supporting the PRA component of the study. CARE would be useful in the training of PRA field assistants. A major limitation would be that the agency is not willing to participate in areas beyond the current CARE operation areas, i.e., Homa Bay, Siaya and Kisumu. The charge per person day would be $US 100 for PRA trainers.
OSIENALA
OSIENALA is an acronym in the local language for friends of Lake Victoria. The agency was established in 1994. Its objective is to mobilize communities to effectively restore Lake Victoria to its original status and exploit its resources in a sustainable manner. The agency has participated in fisheries management and the control of water hyacinth. Another area of interest is capacity building, so that communities can be able to organize themselves to become custodians of their environment, maximize resource utilization and fulfil their socio-economic aspirations within a sustainable framework. The role of OSIENALA is to stimulate and facilitate this process. As much as possible it seeks partnership with others and believes in collaboration with existing organizations and networks. The agency has a technical committee that provides guidance and support to scientific studies. OSIENALA has expressed interest in the economic analysis of aquaculture. The charge per person day would be $US 150.
Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI)
CDC/KEMRI has a project in Rarieda Division of Kisumu district. The project objective is to test the effectiveness of mosquito-nets in reducing child mortality. The agency has adopted the use of both social and clinical parameters. Nutrition status is one of the clinical parameters which is measured by weight, height, arm circumference, skin fold and birth weight. CDC has expressed interest to provide support on the clinical aspects of the proposed study. The agency is willing to make available an epidemiologist to support the study team. The charge per person day would be $US 150. A major limitation is that CDC is not willing to be directly involved in data collection beyond its present study area.
Akke Schuurmans (Consultant)
Akke Schuurmans is an applied anthropologist who has research experience of over seven years in integrated water supply and sanitation projects in India, Pakistan, the Philippines and Kenya. The main areas of expertise are: Gender and Development (GAD); Community Mobilization (PRA); Health Education and Institutional Development. She would be interested to participate in the study formulation, including preparation of study instruments and training of research assistants. She could support the gender and institutional component of the study. Her professional fee is $US 150/person day.
Others
Other impressive candidates on socio-economic matters are available in the area, and local people could probably penetrate the local socio-economic aspects on fish culture, nutrition and health, better than external consultants.
In addition, Chambers 1994 (see Bibliography, Appendix 5) indicates that PRA, was partly developed in Kenya with the some local NGOs trained for that purpose.
Some of these local consultants or NGOs could easily organize and supervise the selection of adequate local expertise to set up the study through special service contracts within 4 to 6 months.
Additional and complementary information can be provided progressively through technical work of fisheries staff for the collection of data to be set up for each pond and each fish farmer.
The Assistant Directors welcomed and agreed with the Consultant's proposal on the need to collaborate and share responsibilities for front-line extension staff. They proposed a formal agreement of cooperation at regional rather than national level because their jurisdiction and the project area was limited to Western Kenya and specifically to the LBDA area. They proposed that a Consultative Steering Committee, comprising all concerned parties be set up. This Committee would meet periodically, preferably quarterly with the objective, amongst others, to promote and facilitate cooperation in attaining project targets and the sharing of responsibilities between the three institutions at farmers level.
It was also agreed that LBDA will train all agriculture and fisheries extension staff who are involved in fish farming development.
After the field visits, a meeting was held at the LBDA Fisheries Office in Kisumu on 18 July 1996 on the new draft Project Document and the Consultant's findings.
All senior technical officers participated with the NPC, Fisheries Officers and Consultant in discussions regarding:
- the main findings of Consultant;- the intervention strategies for the future project;
- the outputs and activities for implementation during the preparatory phase;
- the activities for completion of the remaining/ongoing outputs, and activities to be followed up in the next phase of the project.
After obtaining a general agreement on the strategy and main activities involved, the Consultant fine-tuned the draft Project Document in consultation with the NPC and Fisheries Officers.
The NPC, Fisheries Officer and the Consultant presented the findings of the mission, the intervention strategies requested by BSF, and the implementation strategy, with justification for a first-year preparatory period (to prove to the donors the economic viability of fish farming and to reorient activities for the implementation phase taking into consideration the fish farmers' real needs).
The representatives from UNDP agreed with the proposal but could not consent to parallel funding, only to cost-sharing. The Assistant Resident Representative therefore requested that FAO indicate to UNDP in writing that they would agree to UNDP and BSF funding the next phase on a cost-sharing basis, with a draft document incorporating UNDP's input.
A meeting was held on the last day of the Consultant's mission (6/8/96) in the FAO Representative's office with all the concerned parties (GOK, BSF, UNDP, FAO) to discuss in detail the Project Document's content. A general agreement was established about the project being funded on a cost-sharing basis applicable to both the preparatory and implementation phases.
The Consultant made the following observations from his field visits:
1. It is obvious that a lot of work has been done in the last ten years, however different levels of production/management by fish farmers was noted, ranging from groups with good production capabilities and bank accounts, to very basic subsistence/hand-to-mouth production.2. The major problem seen in the field is lack of proper book-keeping records at farmers ponds, and even FPC's which record general LBDA book-keeping data which are not appropriate for fish culture evaluation and records.
3. The project has never addressed fry production at high altitude areas which was evident from meetings with several fish farmers who did not understand why they cannot produce enough Tilapia fingerlings.
4. Farmers complained of the lack of proper fingerling transport techniques/equipment, and this too had not been properly addressed.
5. The project has some good equipment of high standard, but did not have simple but appropriate field equipment for the farmers and extensionists to use for water analysis, site prospection and pond construction.
6. The farmers are very dependent on the extension services but some farmers were identified who could give advice to the others. This knowledgeable group should be increased and equipped for this job.
7. Clarias is obviously very acceptable in this area. A few farmers were seen who can produce Clarias fry but the survival rate was poor and proper information on Clarias fry requirements was not available. Feeding and husbandry/handling should be improved with the introduction of Omena/shrimps as feed, with protected ponds and efficient siltation systems.
8. All fish farmers produce Tilapia fingerlings but some of these were of poor quality and this should be checked. The farmers have been making a backward selection for Tilapia by keeping the smallest and selling the biggest. This is a big mistake: it is necessary to change this trend and educate the farmers properly.
9. Some advanced fish farmers groups have identified good fish-feed ingredients at low cost to be used for their fish which could be sold to other farmers.
10. The shallow depth of the majority of ponds in the area should be corrected (even in FPCs where a maximum depth of 1 m is rarely observed). Also most are supplied by springs (71%, see Appendix 3) which are more cold and less oxygenated than rivers, and have uncontrolled flow into the ponds.
11. A high percentage of the visited ponds are located in valley-bottoms. This is a failure of proper training on the part of the farmers because there is risk of overflooding.
12. An impromptu market study provided important information on size availability-preference and the pricing structure of fish culture products. The sale of different sizes of fish mixed together in a 2 kg tin at KSh 150, was a good innovation but was not observed anywhere else. This shows that exchange of information between farmers is very limited and should be encouraged.
13. It was observed that fish of 250 g was better priced per kilogramme whilst the fish above 1 kg each were significantly lower in price. Therefore it is not profitable to produce fish bigger than 250 g. That is why polyculture with Clarias is probably the most practical technique to be promoted, both to produce the preferred "table-size" Tilapia and to encourage fish farmers to practice regular complete harvesting.
14. A lot of farmers require more training on various fish farming aspects. Others have also requested to be trained again despite attending previous courses.
15. Several fish farmers associations officially recognized as fish farmer "groups" at district level, including women fish farmer groups and youth groups, were very enthusiastic for fish culture activities. Some of them had started self-help arrangements for fingerling exchange, feed, and credit facilities. These must be encouraged with appropriate extension methods and training facilities within the groups.
Fish culture is well established in Western Kenya, and the fertilization levels controlled in ponds (see Appendixes 2 and 3) are good indicators for pond management evaluation. However, the lack of adequate book-keeping records permitting yield calculation and cost-benefit analysis is a major failure for socio-economic evaluation and benefit calculation. It must be improved in both the project's FPCs and fish farmers' records, by providing fish farmers adequate training and facilities.
Several technical topics should be improved regarding site selection and pond construction matters:
- Too many sites are provided with water from uncontrolled springs or ground water, when it is possible to do better by river diversion.- Depths in ponds are generally insufficient (10-80 cm instead of 50-150 cm as recommended) because the same area of water contains only half the volume of a normal pond.
- The slope of the dikes is often too steep to permit Tilapia nest-building at high altitude; elsewhere such steep dikes are quickly eroded.
Clarias propagation is very interesting in the context of Western Kenya fish culture (for polyculture and for bait production) and must be investigated to provide for fish farmers a commercially tested, technologically appropriate package for increasing the fingerlings survival rate. An efficient fish feed formulation has been identified at the end of the mission - a powdered mixture of Omena-shrimps (80%) and rice bran (20%) at low cost (KSh 65/2 kg) to be tested on Clarias larvae for fast growth in protected ponds (plastic fences around them).
Several advanced fish farmer groups are becoming well organized and this must be encouraged by complementary training on technical matters, book-keeping records, and credit facilities, with a view to developing self-help assistance between fish farmers themselves.
Experienced LBDA extensionists must be employed exclusively in training, site selection and major technical duties, whilst other extensionists (DOF and Agriculture) can provide normal pond management training and by-product facilities.
Some specific topics such as fish culture at high altitude, adequate selection of broodstock, adequate fish feed systems, must be provided to appropriate beneficiaries through specific training.
Waterbodies certainly represent a big potential for extensive fish culture by grassroots fish farmers. This potential must be investigated in a few (i.e., 5-10) of such waterbodies during the preparatory phase (through gillnet harvesting, stocking with fish, and low cost fertilization), and then extended as appropriate during the implementation phase.
Local capacities on socio-economic matters and technically innovative systems should be involved in the third phase of the project so as to provide adequate and locally available facilities to ensure the sustainability of fish culture in Western Kenya.
Emphasis must be concentrated on efficient methods for fish culture extension and development, including the use of portable and adequate technical equipment (hand-levels, Secchi disks, pH meters, aerators, etc.) and the collection of up-dated information on fish farmers production and ponds. (GPS location units could be especially useful, and it is recommended that some of them be purchased for complementary project use.)
Adequate material and inputs must be provided during the preparatory phase in order to obtain all the necessary information and to develop suitable technological packages that would be needed for improving productivity, which in turn would be required to plan the activities for the implementation phase.
It is also recommended that a complete cut-off of support should not be made during the next six months, but that low cost follow-up of activities should be provided by the extension of TCP/KEN/4551 to maintain good contacts with advanced fish farmer groups (since they are to be more involved in the future fish culture development during the third phase).
Appendix 1: FISH MARKET INVESTIGATIONS
Appendix 2: DATA ON FPCS AND MAIN FISH CULTURE CENTRES
Appendix 3: TECHNICAL PARAMETERS FROM RURAL PONDS VISITED
Appendix 4: LBDA REGION'S SHARE IN AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION OF KENYA
Appendix 5: BIBLIOGRAPHY
Appendix 1: FISH MARKET INVESTIGATIONS (Prices of Tilapia in KSh)
Appendix 2: DATA ON FPCS AND MAIN FISH CULTURE CENTRES
Appendix 3: TECHNICAL PARAMETERS FROM RURAL PONDS VISITED
CategoryIFF = Individual Fish Farmer
AFFG = Advanced Fish Farmer Group
(W) = Women
(Y) = YouthWater Inlet
S = Spring
R = River
G = Ground waterOther Items
SD = Transparency with Secchi Disk (in cm)
CQ = Quality of information collected from Global Positional System from 0 (bad) to 9 (very good)
Appendix 4: LBDA REGION'S SHARE IN AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION OF KENYA
|
CROP |
KENYA |
LBDA |
|
|
(1 000 t) |
(1 000 t) |
SHARE |
|
|
Maize |
2 084 |
1 504 |
72% |
|
Sorghum/Millet |
265 |
54 |
20% |
|
Beans |
244 |
77 |
32% |
|
Rice (Dry Paddy) |
40 |
8 |
20% |
|
Root Crops |
887 |
693 |
78%, |
|
Sugar cane |
3 542 |
3 488 |
98% |
|
Seed Cotton |
25 |
15 |
60% |
|
Coffee |
90 |
5 |
6% |
|
Tea |
190 |
125 |
66% |
|
Wheat |
204 |
156 |
76% |
Notes: Figures for Kenya derived from FAO Production Year Book 1979-85, and those for LBDA estimated by JICA Study Team.
Achieng, P. 1994, Technical Paper No. 8. A New Approach to Training Fish Farmers.
Achieng, P. 1995, The Problems Encountered and Recommendations on the Operation of a Credit Revolving Fund for Small-scale Fish Farmers. Field Document No. 2.
Campbell, D. 1995, The Impact of the Field Day Extension Approach in the Development of Fish Farming in Selected Areas of Western Kenya TCP/KEN/4551. Field Document No. 1, Kisumu, Kenya.
Campbell, D., Obuya, S. and Spoo, M. 1995, A Simple Method for Small-scale Propagation of Clarias gariepinus in Western Kenya TCP/KEN/4551. Field Document No. 2, Kisumu, Kenya.
Chambers, R. 1994, The Origins and Practice of Participatory Rural Appraisal World Development Vol. 22, No. 7. pp 953-969 - Elservier Science Ltd.
Chambers, R. 1994, Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA): Analysis of Experience World Development Vol. 22, No. 9. pp 1253 - 1268 - Elservier Science Ltd.
Chambers, R. 1994, Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA): Challenges, Potentials and Paradigm World Development Vol. 22, No. 10. pp 1437 - 1454 - Elservier Sciences Ltd.
De Graaf, G.J. 1994, Artificial Reproduction and the Farming of the African Catfish, Clarias gariepinus in the Lake Basin Area.
De Graaf, G.J. 1994, The Artificial Reproduction and Pond Rearing of the African Catfish, Clarias gariepinus.
Edward, P. et al. 1996, Sustainable Aquaculture for Small-scale Farmers: Need for a Balanced Model Agriculture Vol. 25, No. 1, 19-26.
Humpreys and Assoc. Ltd. 1993, Report on the Study - FAO/UNDP Credit (1993): Revolving Scheme Project.
Humpreys and Assoc. Ltd. 1994, Report on the Study - FAO/UNDP Credit (1994): Revolving Credit Scheme.
Hurrison, E. 1993, Fish Farming in the Lake Basin of Kenya (ODA Consultant Report).
Japan International Cooperation Agency. 1987, The Study of Integrated Regional Development Master Plan for the Lake Basin Development Area. Final Report Vol. 1 Executive Summary Report.
L'Heureux, R. 1992, Cost-benefit Analysis of Individual Fish Farms and Fry Production Centres.
Leendertse, K. 1996, Meeting Small-scale Fish Farmers' Needs Factoring Socio-Economic Aspects into the Third Phase of the Small-scale Fish Farming in the Lake Basin. TCP/KEN/4551 - Technical Report. FAO Rome.
Obuya, S.K. 1994, Tilapia Spawning at Project Fingerling Production Centres. Technical Paper No. 1.
Obuya, S.K. 1994, Rice-cum-flsh Culture in the Lake Basin Area. Technical Paper No. 2.
Obuya, S.K., Ochieng, J.I. and Campbell, D. 1995, Integration of Chicken Raising and Rearing Larval Clarias gariepinus in Large Ponds. Field Document No. 1.
Onyango, D.A. and Obuya, S.K. 1994, Clarias Propagation Guidelines. Technical Paper No. 3.
Onyango, D.A. and Obuya, S.K. 1994, Clarias Propagation Results. Technical Paper No. 4.
Ongadi, C. 1994, Clarias/Tilapia Polyculture, Field Results. Technical Paper No. 5.
Otieno, Z. 1994, Results of Tilapia Fingerling Production by Private Farmers. Technical Paper No. 6.
Otieno, Z. and Campbell, D. 1995, Preliminary Results in the Establishment of Private Tilapia Fingerling Producers in Western Kenya, with some Considerations for the Future.
Ochieng, J.I. 1994, Integrated Farming, Results in the Field. Technical Paper No. 7.
Vireen, W.S.R., Richlen, C.J.J., Van Ont P.G.W.J., Janssen, 5.A.L and Huisman, E.A., 1985, Practical Manual for the Culture of the African Catfish (Clarias gariepinus) Section Research and Technology - Netherland Minister for Development Cooperation.